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The Afterglows of Gamma-Ray Bursts

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The Afterglows of Gamma-Ray Bursts The Afterglows of Gamma-Ray Bursts S. R. Kulkarni*, E. Berger*, J. S. Bloom*, F. Chaffee1, A. Diercks*, S. G. Djorgovski*, D. A. Frail*, T. J. Galama*, R. W. Goodrich1, F. A. Harrison*, R. Sari*, and S. A. Yost* * California Institute Technology,of Pasadena, 91125,CA USA ^National Radio Astronomy Observatory, Socorro, NM 87801, USA * W. M. Keck Observatory, Kamuela, HI 96743, USA Abstract. Gamma-ray burst astronomy has undergone a revolution in the last three years, spurre discovere th y db fadinf yo g long-wavelength counterparts know no w e W . that at least the long duration GRBs lie at cosmological distances with estimated electromagnetic energy release of 1051 - 1053 erg, making these the brightest explosions e Universeinth thin I . s articl reviee w e e currenwth t observational state, beginning with the statistics of X-ray, optical, and radio afterglow detections. We then discuss the insights these observations have progenitogivee th o nt r population energetice th , e th f o s physice eventsB aftergloe th th d GR f so an , w emission focue W . s particular attention on the evidence linking GRBs to the explosion of massive stars. Throughout, we identify remaining puzzle uncertaintiesd san emphasizd an , e promising observational tool r addressinfo s g theme imminenTh . t launc e f increasinglHETE-2o hth d an y sophisticated and coordinated ground-based and space-based observations have primed this fiel fantastir dfo c growth. I INTRODUCTION GRBs have mystified and fascinated astronomers since their discovery. Their brilliance and their short time variability clearly suggest a compact object (black hole or neutron star) origin. Three decades of high-energy observations, culmi- natine definitivth n gi e measurement f CGRO/BATSEso , determine e spatiadth l distributio isotropie b o nt t inhomogeneouscye , suggestiv extragalactin a f eo c pop- ulation (see reviea [14 situatioe r ]th fo f wo n launce prioBeppoSAe th th o rt f h o X mission). Further progress had to await the availability of GRB positions adequate for identificatio counterpartf no t othesa r wavelengths. e cosmologicaInth l scenario, GRBs would have energy releases comparablo et that of supernovae (SNe). Based on this analogy, Paczyrisk & Rhoads [65] and Katz [44] predicted that the gamma-ray burst would be followed by long-lived but fading emission. These papers motivated systematic searche r radisfo o afterglow, CP522, Cosmic Explosions: Tenth Astrophysical Conference, edite Stephey db . Hol WillianS d an t . ZhanmW g 200© 0 American Institut Physicf eo s l-56396-943-2/00/$17.00 191 Downloaded 26 Feb 2006 to 131.215.240.9. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright, see http://proceedings.aip.org/proceedings/cpcr.jsp e [15]broad-banA includinTh .VL e r efforth gou t d a t natur f thieo s "afterglow" and its detectability was underscored in later work [59,78]. Ultimately, the detection of the predicted afterglow had to await localizations provide Italian-Dutce th y db h satellite, BeppoSAX BeppoSAe [6]Th . X Wide Field Camera (WFC) observe skye sth , f aboutriggerino % low-energe 3 t th 0 n g3 o - 2 y( keV) portion of the GRB spectrum, localizing events to ~ 5 - 10 arcminutes. X-ray afterglo firss wwa t discovere BeppoSAy db 970228B GR Xn i , afte satellite th r s ewa re-oriented (within abou hours8 t studo t ) e errodetectioC yth r WF circl a f neo wit 2-1e hX-rath V 0ke y concentrators detectioe Th . fadinf no g X-ray emission, combined wit e highth h sensitivit e abilite concentratorth th f d yo yan refino t s e the position to the arcminute level, led to the subsequent discovery of long lived emission at lower frequencies [10,77,16]. Optical spectroscopy of the afterglow of GRB 970508 led to the definitive demon- stration of the extragalactic nature of this GRB [60]. The precise positions provided by radio and/or optical afterglow observations have allowee identificatioth r dfo n of host galaxies, foun almosn i d t every caset onls thiNo yha .s provided further redshift determinations, but it has been useful in tying GRBs to star formation through measurement hose th tf o ssta r formation rate (e.g. [46,11]) witT s hit HS . exquisite resolution has been critical in localizing GRBs within their host galaxies d thereban y shed ligh thein o t r progenitors (e.g. [29,41,4]). Observatione th f o s radio afterglow have directly establishe relativistie dth exploB cGR natur-e th f eo sions [16] and provided evidence linking GRBs to dusty star-forming regions. Radio observation excellene ar s t probee circumbursth f o s t mediue currenth - d mev tan idence suggests thaprogenitore th t massive ar s e stars with copious stellar winds. e latesTh t twisapparenn a s i t t connectio f GRBno s wit[5]e . hSN Separatelyn a , important development is the possible association of a GRB with a nearby (40 Mpc) peculia [30,47]N S r . thin I s pape reviee rw primare wth y advances resulting from afterglow studies1 §1 . discusses the statistics of detections to-date, including possible causes for the lack of radi opticad oan l afterglows from some GRBs §11n I reviee . 1w w constrainte th n so nature of the progenitor population(s), in particular evidence linking some classes of GRB SNeo describest V §I . statue sth currenf so t understandin physice th f go s of the afterglow emission. Here we compare observations to predictions of the basic spherically-symmetric model, and describe complications arising from deviations from spherical symmetr non-uniford yan m distributio circumburse th f no t medium. conclude W e with speculation nea e long-terd th f ran so m advance thin si s field (§V). We point out that this review has two biases. First, given the concentration of previous review articles on optical and X-ray observations, we emphasize the unique contributions of radio afterglow measurements. Second, this article is intended to also provide a summary of the efforts of the Caltech-NRAO-CARA GRB collab- oration thereford an , e detail r wor ou sparticularn ki . This revie responsn i s wi e revieo t w talk s e 199giveth 9t na Marylan d October meetinh 5t ge (SRKth d an ) Huntsville GRB meeting (DAF and SRK). 192 Downloaded 26 Feb 2006 to 131.215.240.9. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright, see http://proceedings.aip.org/proceedings/cpcr.jsp 1400 GRB 970508 at 8.46 GHz " 1200 !> looo ; BOO -200 „ -100 200 0 100 Days After Burst Days After Burst FIGUR . e EradioLeft:1 Th light B 980703. curveGR f o Thistypicala s i afterglow,a rise to a peak followed by a power law decay. The longer lifetime of the radio afterglow afterglowthe fallof the both risesee allows the and emission.to us contrast,In opticalat and X-ray emission, most of the times we see only the decaying portion of the light curve. Right: radioThe light curve GRB970508of [21].wildThe fluctuations lightthe of curve firstthe in three weeks chromatic.are laterAt times, fluctuationsthe become broad-band and subdued. These fluctuations are a result of multi-path propagation of the radio waves Galacticthe in interstellar medium. sourcethe As expands superluminal(at speeds)the scintillation changes from diffractive refractiveto scintillation. This analogousis why to stars twinkle planetsbut not.do II STATISTICS OF AFTERGLOW DETECTIONS Afterglow emission was first detected from GRB 970228, both at X-ray [10] and optical frequencies [77], but not at radio wavelengths [17]. The first radio afterglow detection came following the localization of GRB 970508 [16]. Figure 1 shows two examples of radio lightcurves. The radio afterglow of GRB 970508 is famous for several reasons: it was the first radio detection, it gave the first direct demonstration of relativistic expansion, and it remains the longest-lived afterglow [21]. Afterglow emissio routinelw no s ni y detected acros e electromagnetith s c spec- trum. BeppoSA bees Xha n joine studyinn di X-rae gy th Sk y l afterglowAl e th y b s Monitor (ASM) aboard the X-ray Timing Explorer (XTE), the Japanese ASCA mission, and recently the Chandra X-ray observatory (CXO). A veritable armada of optical facilities (ranging from 1-m class telescopes to the 10-m Keck telescopes) routinely discove studd an r y optica s beelha afterglowsn T primarilHS e Th .y used mako t e exquisite image hose th tf so galaxie s (se neae eth abovern i futur t e bu ) ew expect other uses such as UV spectroscopy and identification of underlying SNe. e detectioth d le radion s ni ha . A HoweverVL e Th , other centimeter-wavelength 193 Downloaded 26 Feb 2006 to 131.215.240.9. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright, see http://proceedings.aip.org/proceedings/cpcr.jsp facilities (the Australia Telescope National Facility, Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope Ryle th , e Telescope millimeted an ) r wavelengths (James Clerk Maxwell Telescope, the Owens Valley Millimeter Array, IRAM and the Plateau de Bure Interferometer) are now regularly contributing to afterglow studies. Figure 2 summarizes the statistics of afterglow detections. In almost all cases, X-ray emission has been detected, establishing the critical importance of prompt X-ray observations. Optical afterglow appear detectee b l o al st f aboun o di 3 2/ t well-localized event sufficientlf si y deep optical image takee sar n rapidly (i.e. within a day or so of the burst). Radio afterglows are detected in 40% of the cases - far more often than usually assumed refea e .
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