Mid-Holocene Palaeoflood Events Recorded at the Zhongqiao Neolithic

Quaternary Science Reviews 173 (2017) 145e160

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Quaternary Science Reviews

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Mid-Holocene palaeoflood events recorded at the Zhongqiao Neolithic cultural site in the Jianghan Plain, middle Yangtze River Valley, China

* ** Li Wu a, b, , Cheng Zhu c, , Chunmei Ma c, Feng Li d, Huaping Meng e, Hui Liu e, Linying Li a, Xiaocui Wang d, Wei Sun c, Yougui Song b a College of Territorial Resources and Tourism, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241002, PR China b State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, CAS, Xi'an 710054, PR China c School of Geographic and Oceanographic Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, PR China d State Key Laboratory of Lake Science and Environment, Nanjing Institute of Geography & Limnology, CAS, Nanjing 210008, PR China e Hubei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Wuhan 430077, PR China article info abstract

Article history: Palaeo-hydrological and archaeological investigations were carried out in the Jianghan Plain in the Received 2 December 2016 middle reaches of the Yangtze River. Based on a comparative analysis of modern flood sediments and Received in revised form multidisciplinary approaches such as AMS14C and archaeological dating, zircon micromorphology, grain 5 July 2017 size, magnetic susceptibility, and geochemistry, we identified palaeoflood sediments preserved at the Accepted 13 August 2017 Zhongqiao archaeological site. The results indicate that three palaeoflood events (i.e. 4800e4597, 4479 Available online 31 August 2017 e4367, and 4168-3850 cal. yr BP) occurred at the Zhongqiao Site. Comparisons of palaeoflood deposit layers at a number of Neolithic cultural sites show that two extraordinary palaeoflood events occurred in Keywords: e Palaeoflood the Jianghan Plain during approximately 4900 4600 cal. yr BP (i.e.mid-late Qujialing cultural period) Neolithic Site and 4100-3800 cal. yr BP (i.e. from late Shijiahe cultural period to the Xia Dynasty). Further analysis of Climatic event the environmental context suggests that these flooding events might have been connected with great Jianghan Plain climate variability during approximately 5000e4500 cal. yr BP and at ca. 4000 cal. yr BP. These two Yangtze River palaeoflood events were closely related to the expansion of the Jianghan lakes driven by the climatic Mid-Holocene change, which in turn influenced the rise and fall of the Neolithic cultures in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River. Other evidence also suggests that the intensified discrepancy between social development and environmental change processes (especially the hydrological process) during the late Shijiahe cul- tural period might be the key factor causing the collapse of the Shijiahe Culture. The extraordinary floods related to the climatic anomaly at ca. 4000 cal. yr BP and political conflicts from internal or other cultural areas all accelerated the collapse of the Shijiahe Culture. © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction et al., 2012a,b, 2014; Innes et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2015; Lillios et al., 2016). Palaeofloods and their temporal scale have become With the progress into the research on Past Global Changes an extremely important research component of the PAGES program (PAGES) (Yang et al., 2011; Zhu et al., 2012; IPCC, 2013; Lowe and (Baker, 2002, 2006, 2008; Yu et al., 2003, 2010; Huang et al., 2010, Walker, 2013; Roberts, 2014; Govin et al., 2015; Zolitschka et al., 2011a, 2012; Xia, 2012; Greenbaum et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2015; Wu 2015; Chen et al., 2016; Rao et al., 2016; Zhou et al., 2016), et al., 2016). Long-term flood records can be obtained through studies on the impact of catastrophic environmental events on studying palaeoflood sediments (Luo et al., 2013; Yin, 2015; Sharma human civilization during the Holocene have received more and et al., 2017). Palaeoflood deposits preserved in the stratigraphical more attention (Turney and Brown, 2007; Zong et al., 2007; Wu context of archaeological sites provide several new ideas: first, natural alluvium without any cultural relics has been found in some archaeological sites, most of which have the characteristics of al- * Corresponding author. College of Territorial Resources and Tourism, Anhui luvial flooding; second, in terms of the chronology of palaeoflood Normal University, Wuhu 241002, PR China. sediments, AMS14C and other archaeological dating of the ** Corresponding author. unearthed objects often corroborate each other, offsetting the E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L. Wu), [email protected] (C. Zhu). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.08.018 0277-3791/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 146 L. Wu et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 173 (2017) 145e160 difficulties in dating of some palaeoflood sediments due to the 2. Geographical settings and stratigraphy absence of organic matters therein. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, the Jian- The Zhongqiao Neolithic site is situated on the first terrace of the ghan Plain is not only an important “land of milk and honey” in north bank of Lake Changhu, along the border with Jingzhou City China, but also one of the areas suffering from the most serious (Fig. 1). This site, with an area of 21,000 m2, is located 60 km south flood events (Zhou and Tang, 2008). Flood disasters were frequent of Shayang County. The central geographical coordinate of the site after the Holocene (Zhou, 1986, 1992; Yu et al., 2009), exerting a is 303101400N, 1122700000E, and the elevation of its surface is profound impact on social development, settlement changes, and 27e29 m above sea level (a.s.l.). The Zhongqiao Site extends NE-SW human livelihood in this region, and these now provide fertile along the border zone of the loess terrace and downhill between materials for studies of prehistoric flood events, the development the northwestern edge of Jianghan Plain and the Jingshan Moun- of human civilization, and changes in the relationship between tains. According to the microrelief, approximately two major step man and land through archaeological stratigraphy. Although in platforms can be found at the site. The second step platform, past studies (Zhou, 1986, 1992; Zhu et al., 1997; Liu, 2000; Xie extending from the northeast to the centre of the site with an area et al., 2007), some progresses have been made, two problems of 4000 m2,is1e2 m higher than the first step platform and con- still exist in the study of prehistoric floods in the Jianghan Plain. tains the main burial areas; the first step platform, extending from First, previous studies of prehistoric floods in the Jianghan Plain the southwest to the centre of site, with an area of 16,000 m2, have failed to make full use of the stratigraphic information from contains the main living areas and dips to the lake shore from west numerous archaeological sites in the region. A total of 1362 to east. archaeological sites from the Paleolithic Age to the Warring States The Zhongqiao Site contains the most complete Neolithic cul- time have been found in and around the Jianghan Plain (Wang, tural information discovered in the Jianghan Plain since the 2007; Li et al., 2011b). A large number of charcoals or plant res- archaeological rescue excavations of the Yangtze-to-Hanjiang River idues in the strata of these sites can be used for dating (Zhou, Water Diversion Project. It contains Daxi, Qujialing, and Shijiahe 1986; Zhu et al., 1997, 2005, 2014). Thus, the age of cultural cultural layers from the middle reaches of the Yangtze River in the layers of these sites can be determined by the method that Neolithic Age, and there are many charcoal deposits in each cultural combines AMS14C dating and excavated artifacts (Zhu et al., 2005, layer. The archaeological team designated by the Hubei Provincial 2008; Huang et al., 2011a,b, 2017). Then the exact time of Cultural Relics Department excavated the Zhongqiao Neolithic site palaeoflood deposits, silt, and other intermittent layers between between October 2009 and January 2010, clarifying the cultural the cultural layers can be derived (Zhu et al., 2005; Wu et al., connotations and the distribution of the site and unearthing nearly 2012a,b). However, up to now there were only some progresses 20 Neolithic housing remains and urn burials as well as over 100 on the historical floods based on the research of natural fluvio- tools, utensils, and other cultural relics, and large number of lacustrine strata in the Jianghan Plain (Xie et al., 2007; Li et al., Neolithic pottery fragments. There are a total of 49 excavation units 2009; Zheng et al., 2015). Second, the Shijiahe Culture, which belonging two districts (i.e. I and II) in this Neolithic site. These was the last well-developed culture close to the threshold of units are numbered as follows: I) T0101~T0103, T0201~T0205, civilization in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, dis- T0301~T0306, T0401~T0407, T0415, T0505~T0509, T0515, T0516, appeared around 4000 yr BP (Wu and Liu, 2004; Liu and Feng, T0605~T0610, T0613, T0614, T0711~T0713, T0813, T0913, T1013, 2012; Li et al., 2013), but there has been no definite conclusion T1113; II) T0101~T0103, T0201, T0202 (Cultural Heritage Bureau of on the exact age and environmental causes of its demise. Some Hubei Province and Hubei Provincial Management Bureau of Japanese and Chinese archaeologists believe that the widespread South-to-North Water Transfer, 2014). All of the unit profiles are weakened summer monsoon and arid climatic events in Eurasia in the same stratigraphic sequence. There is only a difference in the around 4000 cal. yr BP may have led to the decline of the Shijiahe excavation depth of the unit profile. It is noteworthy that the Culture in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River during the late Zhongqiao Site has natural alluvium layers from both the early- Neolithic Period (Yasuda et al., 2004; Hunan Provincial Institute of middle and late periods of the Shijiahe culture. Based on field ob- Archaeology and Cultural Relics and International Center of servations of the macroscopic morphological features, combined Japanese Culture, 2007). Other archaeologists and historians with sedimentary, soil, and archaeological stratigraphic features, a believe that the disappearance of the Shijiahe Culture is related to detailed T0405 profile is available for the typical description of the formation of an extremely complex social-economic union layers at the site (Fig. 1 and Table 1). because the invasion of external forces led to the rapid collapse of Since the Zhongqiao Site is only 30 km away from the Yangtze a highly centralized social and economic system (Guo, 2010). River, flood deposits form readily under the dual impact of back- However, recent studies suggest that, although the Shijiahe cul- waters and summer peaks of the Yangtze River. Well-preserved tural period may have been influenced by drought, drops in modern flood deposits formed in 1998 have been found in both temperature and other climatic events and wars, natural alluvium the Wencunjia and Ershengzhou shoals along the Yangtze River to (such as silt stratification) can often be found in the strata of other the south of the site, with clear horizontal bedding and cyclothems archaeological sites with suspected palaeoflood layers dated to with alternate fine and coarse sediments (Fig. 1). the Shijiahe cultural period in the Jianghan Plain (Wu et al., 2012a,b; Zhang et al., 2013a; Li et al., 2014a; Li et al., 2014b; 3. Material and methods Zhu et al., 2014, 2016). Therefore, selecting typical archaeolog- ical sites for the study of the interactions between prehistoric After careful field investigations, a chronological framework was flood events and man-land relationship in this region will provide initially established for the investigation of the profile (T0405) more reliable stratigraphy-based explanation for the history of based on comparison between the stratigraphic relationships and human civilization and other regional issues that is difficult to cultural relics. The strata of the profile were cut and removed by explain in the past, and it is of scientific importance to investigate means of 4 overlapping 1 m long stainless steel boxes using the the response of regional changes in climate and hydrological packaged core sampling method (Jones, 2002). A total of 225 environment to global changes as well as the impact of prehis- samples were collected continuously at 2 cm intervals in the toric flood events on the origin and early development of Chinese Institute of Regional Environmental Evolution, Nanjing University. civilization. These samples were classified and selected for experiments based L. Wu et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 173 (2017) 145e160 147

Fig. 1. Geographic location, stratigraphic profile, and sampling of the Zhongqiao Site. a: The location of Zhongqiao Site in the Jianghan Plain. b: Archaeological excavation site and unit distribution. c: Stratigraphic profile of unit T0405 in the Zhongqiao Site. d: The packaged core sampling process by means of four overlapping 1 m long stainless steel boxes; the pictures on the left side are the palaeoflood deposit layers, while on the right lower are the modern flood deposit photographs from the Wencunjia and Ershengzhou sampling sites. on research needs and stratigraphic importance, and a total of 106 and Ershengzhou were collected (each sample was formed by grain-size samples, 225 magnetic susceptibility samples, 12 zircon evenly mixing several samples from the same layer) for compara- micro-shape samples, and 113 elemental analysis samples were tive analysis. After the sedimentary samples were dried at room selected. Meanwhile, 6 samples from different layers of modern temperature, grain-size characteristics were measured with a flood deposits of the Yangtze River formed in 1998 in Wencunjia Malvern Mastersizer 2000 laser analyzer, and magnetic 148 L. Wu et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 173 (2017) 145e160

Table 1 Description of palaeoflood deposits and cultural layers along unit T0405 at the Zhongqiao Site.

No. Stratigraphy Depth (m) Archaeological age Stratigraphical description

1 Cultivation soil 0.30 Modern Taupe-brown sandy clay containing large amounts of plant roots, plant ash, and charcoals, mixed properties 2a Cultural layer 0.40 Ming and Qing Dynasties Lark-brown clay containing large amounts of plant roots, Qinghua ceramic shards and grey black pottery shards as well as mottled clay 2b Cultural layer 0.51 Ming and Qing Dynasties Turbid yellow-brown silty clay containing plant roots, ceramic shards, and red pottery shards, as well as rusty spots 3 Cultural layer 0.80 Tang and Song Dynasties Lark-brown silty clay containing plant roots and rusty spot as well as unearthed ceramic shards of the Song Dynasty and grey-brown pottery shards 4 Cultural layer 1.19 Late Shijiahe Culture Taupe clayey silt containing plant roots, red pottery shards and white spots, existing crumb structure and disturbance ripple 5 Palaeoflood deposits 1.53 Late Shijiahe Culture Lark-brown silty clay containing plant seeds, nodular rusty spots and wormholes, existing obvious disturbance ripple 6 Cultural layer 2.05 Mid-late Shijiahe Culture Fuscous silty layer containing large amounts of red or reddish brown pottery shards and plant remains as well as wormholes and rusty spots 7 Palaeoflood deposits 2.49 Middle Shijiahe Culture Lark-brown clayey silt containing many rusty spots and nodules as well as some plant remains and organic matter, existing disturbance ripple 8 Cultural layer 2.87 Early-mid Shijiahe Culture Brown clay containing many plant remains and red or reddish brown pottery shards as well as wormholes, rusty spots, and a few nodules 9 Cultural layer 3.30 Early Shijiahe Culture Fuscous clayey silt containing large amounts of red or reddish brown pottery shards and plant remains, as well as wormholes, rusty spots, and nodules 10 Palaeoflood deposits 3.55 Late Qujialing Culture Lark-brown silt clay containing plant remains, rusty spots and nodules, as well as many organic matters, washiness, existing disturbance ripple

susceptibility was measured with an AGICO KLY-3 magnetic sus- 4. Results ceptibility meter (875 HZ, 300 A/m) at the Laboratory of Environ- mental Magnetism, Nanjing University. Detrital zircon grains were 4.1. Chronology extracted following the application of conventional mineral sepa- ration techniques (Zou, 1997; Zhao, 2004; Zhang et al., 2013b, The AMS14C calibration results (Table 2) from the cultural layer 2016). Heavy and nonmagnetic minerals were first extracted profiles at the Zhongqiao Site show that the 5th palaeoflood layer following standard water and magnetic separation. For each sam- must have been deposited after 4168 cal. yr BP, the 7th layer be- ple, more than 300 zircon grains were randomly picked, using a tween 4479 cal. yr BP and 4367 cal. yr BP, and the 10th layer before KEYENCE VHX-1000E digital microscope at the Institute of Regional 4597 cal. yr BP. Combined with the ages of objects unearthed from Environmental Evolution, Nanjing University, from heavy and the strata at the Zhongqiao Site, the calibrated age of the 4th layer nonmagnetic minerals in order to provide a statistically significant from the late Shijiahe cultural period is 3410 ± 40 cal. yr BP. sample (Andersen, 2005; Zhang et al., 2016). They were then placed However, according to the highly credible systematic calibration on the round copper target and zircon micro-shapes were identi- curves of the Shijiahe Culture 14C data collection (Guo, 2010), fied and photographed under the above microscope. Elemental currently archaeological wisdom is that the Shijiahe Culture ended analysis samples were prepared using a powder compressing 1900 BC (i.e., 3850 cal. yr BP). At the same time, considering that the method and then tested with an ARL-9800 X-Ray Fluorescence 4th cultural layer of the T0201 profile is close to the earth's surface spectrometer (XRF) at the Center of Modern Analysis, Nanjing and 14C dating may appear younger due to the impact of modern University. In terms of chronology, six charcoal samples were plant roots, the deposition of the 5th palaeoflood layer is finally collected from the 6th, 8th, and 9th cultural layers of the T0405 estimated between 4168 cal. yr BP and 3850 cal. yr BP. The 11th profile, the 4th cultural layer of the T0201 profile, and the 12th layer layer (below the 10th) from the early Qujialing cultural period is of the T0204 profile (datable organic materials were not found in dated between 5100 cal. yr BP and 4800 cal. yr BP based on the the 4th, 11th, and 12th cultural layers of the T0405 profile). The parallelism between objects unearthed. The calibrated age of the AMS14C dating was conducted in the Laboratory of AMS14C Sample 12th cultural layer is 6236 ± 49 cal. yr BP, consistent with the Preparation, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Acad- conclusion that it was deposited in the Daxi cultural period (i.e., emy of Sciences, and the State Key Laboratory of Nuclear Physics 6500-5100 cal. yr BP) based on the parallelism between objects and Technology, Beijing University (Table 2). All radiocarbon ages unearthed from the cultural layer, which also indirectly supports were calibrated using the CALIB 6.0.1 computer software in the estimation of the age of the 11th layer. Therefore, the age of the conjunction with the INTCAL09 tree-ring datasets (Reimer et al., 10th palaeoflood deposit layer is inferred to be between 4800 cal. yr 2009). BP and 4597 cal. yr BP.

Table 2 AMS14C ages of charcoals collected from cultural layers at the Zhongqiao Site in the Jianghan Plain.

Stratigraphy Depth (cm) Laboratory No. 14C age (yr BP) 2s calibrated age (BC) 2s calendar age (cal. yr BP)

T0201-4 130 GZ3854 3189 ± 23 1500 (100%) 1420 3410 ± 40 T0405-6 154 GZ3855 3791 ± 28 2299 (99.46%) 2137 4168 ± 81 T0405-6 205 GZ3856 3937 ± 24 2491 (96.01%) 2342 4367 ± 75 T0405-8 250 GZ4102 4030 ± 20 2581 (97.82%) 2477 4479 ± 52 T0405-9 288 GZ3858 4119 ± 25 2714 (56.47%) 2579 4597 ± 68 T0204-12 e GZ3859 5409 ± 25 4334 (100%) 4237 6236 ± 49 L. Wu et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 173 (2017) 145e160 149

Fig. 2. Grain-size distribution of palaeoflood deposits in T0405 profile at the Zhongqiao Site in comparison with that of modern flood deposits of the Jianghan Plain in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River.

4.2. Features of the palaeoflood deposits sediments (Fig. 3). There are only suspension and saltation pop- ulations, with the traction population absent (Visher, 1969; Luo It was found that the most prominent feature of the T0405 et al., 2013). The percentage of suspension in the range of 4e12Ф profile and other 48 profiles (e.g., T0201, T0404, and T0303, etc.) at is greater than 90%, this feature is coincide with some previous the Zhongqiao Site is that there are three natural deposit layers studies of palaeoflood deposits in the upper and middle reaches of without any cultural remains below and between the Shijiahe the Yangtze River (Zhan and Xie, 2001; Zhu et al., 2005, 2008; Li cultural layers (Fig. 1). This is similar to the natural deposit layers et al., 2011a). This can be another evidence that these silt layers without any artifacts and traces of human activities at the Zhongba are palaeoflood sediments. Site in Chongqing (Zhu et al., 2005). From the perspective of The magnetic susceptibility of modern flood deposits in the macroscopic sedimentology, these three natural deposit layers middle reaches of the Yangtze River at Wencunjia and Ershengzhou consist essentially of grayish yellow clayey silt or silty loam, which in 1998 ranges between 67.41 SI and 133.71 SI. It can be seen from is 20e45 cm thick. The sediment color, structure, composition, Fig. 4 that the magnetic susceptibility values of deposits in both grain size, etc. change along vertical direction and there is much palaeoflood deposit layers and modern flood deposit layers are very wavy or horizontal sedimentary bedding with iron rust, which low, ranging mostly between 58.67 SI and 770.51 SI with most shows a perturbation or corrugation structure with alternating gray below 95.34 SI and generally lower than the values of cultural and yellow colors. It seems that there is a sedimentary hiatus be- layers (ranging between 48.50 SI and 2584.29 SI with most above tween the palaeoflood deposit layers and cultural layers. According 352.32 SI). The magnetic susceptibility values of cultural layers are to the results of palaeoflood sedimentology research on rivers generally higher than those of the adjacent palaeoflood deposit elsewhere as summarized by Huang et al. (2011b), combined with layers, while the magnetic susceptibility values of topsoil in the our previous study of palaeoflood in regions of the Yangtze River Valley (Zhu et al., 2005, 2008, 2014), it is preliminarily determined that the three natural deposit layers in the T0405 profile are clearly distinguishable from eolian loess-paleosol and cultural deposits and have most features of palaeoflood deposits (Fig. 1 and Table 1). Further analysis and comparison of physical and chemical in- dicators will reveal microcosmic differential features of palaeoflood deposits and cultural layers in the T0405 profile. In this way, the existence of palaeoflood events can be effectively determined. The frequency distribution curve of sedimentary grain sizes can help infer the sediment provenance, carrying power, and other key information about the sedimentary environment (Zhan and Xie, 2001; Zhu et al., 2005, 2008). The grain size frequency distribu- tion curves of the deposits in the 5th, 7th, and 10th palaeoflood deposit layers at the Zhongqiao Site are very similar to modern flood deposit layers in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, which is typical of suspended sediments in open channels (Fig. 2). The grain size frequency distribution curves are usually unimodal, with the main peak showing a significant tendency towards coarser grains. There is substantial fine and medium-sized silt component, among which silt with size between 10 mm and 40 mm accounts for a considerable fraction, showing that these palaeoflood deposit layers and the deposits carried by them have the same material sources as the flood deposits in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, and reaffirming that flood deposits usually feature large quantities of suspended silt. There is also an obviously similar Fig. 3. Cumulative probability for sediments from palaeoflood deposits in T0405 pattern of the grain-size distribution in the cumulative probability profile at the Zhongqiao Site in comparison with that of modern flood deposits of the curves between potential palaeofloods and modern floods Jianghan Plain in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River. 150 L. Wu et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 173 (2017) 145e160

Fig. 4. Stratigraphy, magnetic susceptibility, Rb/Sr, Cu content, and archaeological age of T0405 profile at the Zhongqiao Site. profile do not change significantly (ranging between 83.27 SI and spherical, tetragonal bipyramid, ditetragonal bipyramid, and 114.53 SI, possibly related to an even mixture of soil due to repeated tetragonal prism (Zhu et al., 2005, 2008). Due to their extreme tillage). It can be found by comparison with previous studies that hardness (7.5) and uniquely original tetragonal bipyramid shapes, the magnetic susceptibility distribution curve of the Zhongqiao Site few of them become rounded after being corroded during scouring hardly reflects the characteristics of regional climate change during and carrying (Table 3). The 5th, 7th, and 10th layers of the site, the period (Li et al., 2014b), suggesting that reasons contributing to where palaeoflood deposit layers are located, have the highest the above phenomenon may be related to the nature and prove- proportions of rounded columnar shapes, from 45.13% to 51.14%, nance features of the site. In other words, the contribution of which is similar to the proportions of rounded columnar shapes intense human activities and other factors significantly exceeds the from modern flood deposit layers in the middle reaches of the impact of climate change on the magnetic susceptibility of the Yangtze River in 1998, which range between 47.26% and 48.96%, but deposits. Similar results have also been found during the study of is slightly lower than that in modern flood deposit layers at the the palaeoflood deposit layers of the Zhongba and Yuxi Sites in the Zhongba Site in 1981 (55.36%) and the Yuxi Site in 2004 (60.92%) in upper reaches of the Yangtze River (Zhu et al., 2005, 2008), as well the upper reaches of the Yangtze River (Zhu et al., 2005, 2008). as the Ritterbush Basin in New England, USA (Brown et al., 2000). Correspondingly, the 2a, 2b, 3rd, 4th, 6th, and 8th layer of the site, Considering that there are no large mountains near the site, the where cultural layers are located, have the highest proportions of above phenomenon is probably due to the accumulation of ferro- zircon with the original tetragonal bipyramid shape (51.66%e magnetic minerals from shards of pottery etc. (which employ many 64.51%), whereas the proportion of rounded columnar zircon is ferromagnetic minerals) in cultural layers with human activity generally between 22.98% and 32.05%. It can also be seen from Fig. 5 (Kletetschka and Banerjee, 1995; Shi et al., 2007), while the quan- that the shapes of zircon in the three palaeoflood deposit layers at tity of ferromagnetic minerals is relatively small in flood deposits the investigation site and those of modern flood deposits in 1998 in consisting of suspended sediments. the middle reaches of the Yangtze River are very similar, mainly According to the rule of “uniformitarianism” in geology, palae- reflected by the following data: ① the shapes of zircon are usually oflood deposit layers at the site and modern flood deposits in the semi-rounded or rounded columnar and there are obvious signs of same region should have similar upstream material sources and rounding in edges and corners; ② the zircon crystals of the WCJ-1, carrying characteristics, so their heavy minerals should have ESZ-1, and ESZ-2 samples from modern flood deposit layers of 1998 similar shapes (Zhu et al., 2005, 2008, 2010a). Zircon is one of the in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River as well as from the No. common heavy minerals found in river deposits (Wang et al., 2014), 5e77, 5e84, 7e142, 7e158, and 10e218 palaeoflood deposit layer and observed under a microscope the zircon crystals in layers from samples from the T0405 profile at the Zhongqiao Site have been the Zhongqiao Site are in the form of mainly rounded columnar, ground from the original tetragonal bipyramid shape into L. Wu et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 173 (2017) 145e160 151

Table 3 Comparison of zircon morphology among palaeoflood deposits and cultural layers in T0405 profile at the Zhongqiao Site with modern flooding deposits of the Yangtze River.

No. Depth (m) Spherical column Sphere Tetragonal Ditetragonal Tetragonal prism Total Total (%) bipyramid bipyramid

Total Total (%) Total Total (%) Total Total (%) Total Total (%) Total Total (%)

1e9 0.18 103 28.85 14 3.92 213 59.66 5 1.40 22 6.16 357 99.99 2a-19 0.37 359 32.05 18 1.61 655 58.48 30 2.68 58 5.18 1120 100 2b-25 0.49 172 30.07 13 2.27 369 64.51 6 1.05 12 2.10 572 100 3e31 0.60 129 29.25 20 4.54 264 59.86 12 2.72 16 3.63 441 100 4e51 0.99 169 29.96 22 3.90 322 57.09 9 1.60 42 7.45 564 100 5e77 1.35 170 49.28 18 5.22 139 40.29 8 2.32 10 2.90 345 100.01 5e84 1.42 247 51.14 22 4.55 198 40.99 3 0.62 13 2.69 483 99.99 6e112 1.77 441 22.98 139 7.24 1011 52.68 150 7.82 178 9.28 1919 100 7e142 2.19 162 46.96 17 4.93 152 44.06 3 0.87 11 3.19 345 100.01 7e158 2.35 217 48.44 25 5.58 181 40.40 8 1.79 17 3.79 448 100 8e175 2.56 101 30.51 23 6.95 171 51.66 15 4.53 21 6.34 331 99.99 10e218 3.41 1011 45.13 123 5.49 911 40.67 86 3.84 109, 4.87 2240 100 WCJ-1 e 535 47.26 38 3.36 506 44.70 15 1.33 38 3.36 1132 100.01 ESZ-1 e 779 48.96 30 1.89 713 44.81 12 0.75 57 3.58 1591 99.99 ESZ-2 e 602 48.67 44 3.56 531 42.93 17 1.37 43 3.48 1237 100.01 ZB-81 0.30 191 55.36 4 1.16 134 38.84 7 2.03 9 2.61 345 100 YX-04 e 53 60.92 3 3.45 28 32.18 1 1.15 2 2.30 87 100

Note: ZB-81 and YX-04 are the 1981 flooding deposits at the Zhongba Site and the 2004 flooding deposits at the Yuxi Site in the Three Gorges reservoir region of the Yangtze River, respectively. approximately round grains, showing that all of them have been site are generally tetragonal bipyramid-shaped with sharp edges rounded to a certain degree after being carried by water for a long and corners, which is obviously different from the shapes of the distance; ③ the zircon in No. 2a-19, 2b-25, 3e31, 4e51, 6e112, and zircon in flood deposit layers. This may be because the cultural 8e175 non-flood cultural layer deposits in the T0405 profile at the layers in the site are deposits formed under complex interactions

Fig. 5. Comparison of zircon shapes from palaeoflood deposit layers and cultural layers in T0405 profile at the Zhongqiao Site with those of modern flood deposits of the Yangtze River. a: Sample No. 5e77 palaeoflood deposits. b: Sample No. 5e84 palaeoflood deposits. c: Sample No. 7e142 palaeoflood deposits. d: Sample No. 7e158 palaeoflood deposits. e: Sample No. 10e218 palaeoflood deposits. f: Sample No. WCJ-1 Wencunjia's modern flood deposits. g: Sample No. ESZ-1 Ershengzhou's modern flood deposits. h: Sample No. ESZ-2 Ershengzhou's modern flood deposits. i: Sample No. 1e9 cultivation soil. j: Sample No. 2b-25 Ming and Qing Dynasty's cultural layer. k: Sample No. 3e31 Tang and Song Dynasty's cultural layer. l: Sample No. 6e112 Shijiahe Neolithic cultural layer. 152 L. Wu et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 173 (2017) 145e160 between man and nature (Shi et al., 2010; Zhu et al., 2013). palaeofloods occurring between 4900 cal. yr BP and 4600 cal. yr BP Rb has relatively stable chemical properties, while Sr has a high and between 4100 cal. yr BP and 3800 cal. yr BP were quite common chemical activity. They are often fractionated in supergene in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River on the Jianghan Plain. geochemical processes (Chen et al., 1999), which are also applied Their wide range shows that they were large floods. within the temporal scale of Holocene climate change (Zhu et al., The two flood events mentioned above occurred during the 2005, 2008). It can be seen from Fig. 4 that, except for the topsoil legendary Yao and Xia periods in the final stages of the primitive and the Ming and Qing cultural layers, which were subsequently ancient Chinese society (Wu et al., 2016). There are many records of affected by human activities, the Rb/Sr ratios of palaeoflood deposit catastrophic floods during this period; for example, The Historian's layers at the Zhongqiao Site mainly range between 0.77 and 0.94 Records of Five Emperors states: “floods surged for sixty-one years with average of 0.86, higher than the range of 0.72e0.92 and the after the Emperor Yao came to the throne”; Mencius's T'eng Wen average value of 0.81 found in cultural layers. Meanwhile, the Rb/Sr Kung (Part One) states: “the country was still not in peace when Yao ratios of most cultural layers are lower or show decreasing trend was on the throne because floods flowed over the country…”; in- compared with adjacent palaeoflood deposit layers. This is due to scriptions in the Huangling Temple in the Three Gorges area state: the chemical weathering or rainwater eluviation of the deposits. “Yu achieved success in combating the floods within nine years by The ionic radius of Rb is greater than that of Sr. Rb is easily absorbed dredging, which is more true than false”; and Huayang's Chronicles and usually remains in its original place because through adsorp- of Ba state: “there was a deluge of floods when Yao was on the tion by clay minerals in the strata, while Sr with smaller ionic radius throne”. According to the inscriptions in Huangling Temple, there will be transported in a free state by surface or ground water (Chen were at least nine times of floods, and at those times, due to high et al., 1999; Zhu et al., 2005, 2008; Wang et al., 2011). Thus, as water levels, our ancestors could only “collect soil and firewood and chemical weathering is strengthened, the Rb/Sr values of deposits stay on the hills” to avoid floods. Based on the analysis of 105 14C remaining in their original place will gradually increase. In fact, Rb/ ages calibration results from cultural layers found at 34 archaeo- Sr values indicate precipitation intensity (Chen et al., 1999), which logical sites formed between 7000 cal. yr BP and 3000 cal. yr BP in is closely related to the occurrence of floods. High Rb/Sr values and around the Jianghan Plain (Table A1), it can be found that the indicate a flood-related environment with high precipitation, while period of the two aforementioned palaeoflood events was consis- low Rb/Sr values usually indicate an arid environment with low tent with the two periods appearing least in archaeological sites precipitation. Changes in the content of Cu are similar to the formed between 5000 cal. yr BP and 3500 cal. yr BP, which supports aforementioned magnetic susceptibility and Rb/Sr values. The Cu previous conclusions of palaeoflood dating analysis (Fig. 7). content of the palaeoflood deposit layers at the Zhongqiao Site However, since the Zhongqiao Site is currently located 30 km ranges between 7.00 mg/g and 53.60 mg/g, lower than the range of away from the Yangtze River, the palaeoflood deposit layers 12.30 mg/g to 75.30 mg/g of the cultural layers. Since the Chalcolithic recorded by its strata may not be the result of direct flooding from Age had started and bronze pieces have been found dating back to the Jingjiang section of the Yangtze River. In ancient time, there are the Shijiahe cultural period (Wang, 2007), relevant long-term hu- no lakes in the area of Changhu Lake between modern Jingzhou man activities caused increased Cu content in the cultural layers (Li City, Hubei Province and the southwest coast of the Han River in et al., 2008). However, due to water erosion and eluviation, the Cu Tianmen City (from Ying to Jingling in the Pre-Qin period); there content in palaeoflood deposit layers is low. In summary, the above are instead interstream lowlands, where the ancient Yangshui comparisons of field characteristics, grain size, magnetic suscepti- River, which no longer exists, ran through to connect the Yangtze bility, zircon micro-shapes, and geochemical indicators such as Rb/ River with the Hanjiang River in the Pre-Qin period (Yi, 2008). Due Sr and Cu, have fully demonstrated that palaeoflood deposit layers to wavy hillocks, the slope of the ground in this area is much greater from three periods exist in the strata of the Zhongqiao Site. than in the hinterland of the Jianghan Plain, so rivers converge quickly and disasters easily occur (Compilation Committee of Hubei 5. Discussions Chronicles of Water Conservancy, 2000). Therefore, based on the causation of land and lake formation, palaeoflood deposits at the 5.1. Age of palaeoflood events site may have resulted from an influx of backwater from the main stream of the Yangtze River into the course of the ancient Yangshui It is quite common to find palaeoflood deposits containing cul- River. There are records of flooding of the ancient Yangshui River in tural relics formed since the late Neolithic in deposit layers in and this area due to overflowing of the Yangtze River from the Qin, Han, around the Jianghan Plain. Zhu et al. (1997), Shi et al. (2009) and Wei, Jin, the Northern and Southern Dynasties to the Ming and Qing Zhang et al. (2009) have discussed the causes from the perspectives Dynasties before the formation of Changhu Lake, which provides of archaeological stratigraphy, sedimentology, and environmental supporting evidence (Compilation Committee of Hubei Chronicles magnetism respectively. In addition to the Zhongqiao Site, there are of Water Conservancy, 2000; Yi, 2008). From the Three Kingdoms still other representative sites in the Jianghan Plain with palaeoflood to the Ming Dynasty there were short periods of reclamation ac- deposit layers, such as Sanfangwan in Tianmen (Wu, 2013), Yuez- tivity only in the Tang and Song Dynasties; Changhu Lake was houhu in Mianyang (Yao, 1986), Guihuashu in Songzi (Jingzhou formed after an embankment was built during the Ming and Qing Museum, 1976), Taihugang in Jiangling (Zhu et al., 1997), Lijiatai in Dynasties, but otherwise there was little reclamation activity Shashi (Peng, 1995), Xiejiadun in Macheng (Yang, 1985); while (Compilation Committee of Hubei Chronicles of Water representative sites in the west part of the area include the Liulinxi Conservancy, 2000; Yi, 2008), which may also account for the Site in Zigui and Zhongbaodao in Yichang (Shi et al., 2009). From the much smaller sedimentary thickness (80 cm) of the profile since age comparisons of palaeoflood deposit layers at the Zhongqiao Site the historical period compared with the Neolithic stratigraphic with other typical sites in Fig. 6, it can be seen that palaeoflood thickness (280 cm). deposit layers were quite common in and around the Jianghan Plain during the mid-late Qujialing cultural period (i.e., between 5.2. Environmental background of palaeoflood events 4900 cal. yr BP and 4600 cal. yr BP) and from the late Shijiahe cul- tural period to the Xia Dynasty (i.e., between 4100 cal. yr BP and Periods of rapid or sudden climate change in China's monsoonal 3800 cal. yr BP), representing two major palaeoflood events since regions tend to be linked with more frequent and extreme flooding the late Neolithic and showing that events such as the two major (Xia, 2012). Research shows that China's mid-Holocene climatic L. Wu et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 173 (2017) 145e160 153

Fig. 6. Typical palaeoflood deposit layers of some late Neolithic sites in and around the Jianghan Plain area, middle reaches of the Yangtze River. optimum started to decline from 5000 cal. yr BP (Zhu et al., 2013). Shennongjia, Dongge Cave in Guizhou and other caves became The climate shifted from marine monsoon-dominated to conti- more significant after 5000 cal. yr BP (Wang et al., 2005, 2008), nental monsoon-dominated between 4500 and 3000 cal. yr BP, showing enhanced climate instability basically consistent with the becoming highly unstable with frequent aridity and cooling transition appearing in the late Holocene Megathermal period as accompanied by frequent floods (Wu and Liu, 2004; Wang, 2011; classified according to multi-indicators of Dajiuhu peat in Shen- Zhu et al., 2012, 2013). Based on records of environmental change nongjia (Zhu et al., 2010b; Li et al., 2016). The d13C records of Zoige in several nodes around the area under investigation (Fig. 8), the and Hongyuan peat (Hong et al., 2005), lake sediments of Erhai and fluctuations of d18O records of stalagmites in Shanbao Cave in Chaohu (Zhang et al., 1999; Wu et al., 2010, 2012b), stalagmites in Longpan Cave in Guangxi (Qin et al., 2000), etc., also indicate that climate fluctuations were greatest between 5000 and 3000 cal. yr BP, but the overall climate became arid. Climatic records of Holo- cene lacustrine sediments in the Jianghan Plain (Xie, 2004; Li et al., 2014b) show that major Holocene droughts and floods and cooling in this area occurred in this period, the climate was particularly unstable between 5000 and 4500 cal. yr BP and around 4000 cal. yr BP (Fig. 8), and the lakes in the Jianghan Plain were changing constantly (Shi et al., 2009). The d18O records of stalagmites in Heshang Cave, Qingjiang, Hubei also show that the climate was abnormally cold and moist between the end of the Shijiahe cultural period and the Xia Dynasty, with excessive rainfall causing floods (Gu et al., 2009). Enhanced precipitation and abnormal flood events also occurred at around 4000 cal. yr BP in the Central Plains (Zhang and Xia, 2011). All the evidence points to two palaeoflood events occurring in the mid-late Qujialing cultural period (i.e., between 4900 and 4600 cal. yr BP) and between the late Shijiahe cultural Fig. 7. Frequency distribution of exactly 14C dated archaeological sites between 7000 period and the Xia Dynasty (i.e., between 4100 and 3800 cal. yr BP), and 3000 cal. yr BP in and around the Jianghan Plain area, middle reaches of the and resulting in the expansion of lakes in the Jianghan Plain (Wu, Yangtze River. The blue histogram represents the 1s calibrated results, while the red s 2013). The period between 5000 and 3000 cal. yr BP also encoun- histogram represents the 2 calibrated results. The yellow band represents the range fl of periods of palaeoflood events. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this tered frequent, abnormal ood events in addition to the period figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) when the Holocene Optimum terminated and the world underwent 154 L. Wu et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 173 (2017) 145e160

Fig. 8. Comparison of climatic changes recorded by various types of sediments nearby the Jianghan Plain and culture transmutation in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River. 14C ages of this figure have been regulated by CALIB 6.0.1 (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993; Stuiver et al., 1998; Reimer et al., 2009). (A) Summer solar radiation changes since 10,000 cal. yr BP at 30N(Berger and Loutre, 1991). (B) d18O records of stalagmite D4 from Dongge Cave of Guizhou (Dykoski et al., 2005). (C) d18O records with mean distinguished rate of 5 years from stalagmite DA in Dongge Cave of Guizhou (Wang et al., 2005). (D) d18O records of stalagmite SB26 from Shanbao Cave in Shennongjia of Hubei (Wang et al., 2008). (E) d18O records of stalagmite SB10 from Shanbao Cave in Shennongjia of Hubei (Wang et al., 2008). (F) d13C records of Dajiuhu peat in Shennongjia of Hubei (Ma et al., 2008). (G) Fagus pollen percentage of Dajiuhu peat in Shennongjia of Hubei (Zhu et al., 2006, 2010a,b). (H) Rb/Sr values of the lacustrine outcrop (JZ-2010) located in the Jiangbei Farm of the Jingzhou District (Li et al., 2014b). (I) Clay (<4 mm) percentage of the lacustrine outcrop (JZ-2010) located in the Jiangbei Farm of the Jingzhou District (Li et al., 2014b). The dark-grey strip represent the Shijiahe cultural period (4600e3900 cal. yr BP), while the light-grey strip represent the Qujialing cultural period (5300e4600 cal. yr BP); between the dash lines (5000e3000 cal. yr BP) is the transitional stage from the Holocene Megathermal to the late Holocene.

large climatic fluctuations (Roberts, 2014), leaving records of abrupt 5.3. Palaeoflood events and cultural responses climate change and flood events in East Asia, West Asia, North Af- rica, Western Europe, Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley and other The Jianghan Plain is an area prone to floods in the middle places (Knox, 1985, 2000; Kale et al., 1994; Ely, 1997; Gasse, 2000; reaches of the Yangtze River. Fluctuations in the water level and Grossman, 2001; Staubwasser et al., 2003; Marchant and environmental changes to rivers and lakes have a tremendous Hooghiemstra, 2004; Zhu et al., 2005, 2008; Benito et al., 2008, impact on the development of human society. Even today, with the 2015; Wanner et al., 2008; Huang et al., 2010, 2011a, 2011b, 2012; protection of embankments, the area still undergoes frequent Wu et al., 2016). Climate change was very unstable in this period floods, which pose a great threat to human livelihood. Under and exacerbated climatic fluctuations often led to abnormal rainfall Neolithic conditions, it was much easier for floods to spread to low- events, triggering rainfall variability and devastating floods. lying areas in the Jianghan Plain. Before the Shijiahe Culture and in L. Wu et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 173 (2017) 145e160 155 the early Shijiahe cultural period, the density of settlements in the and other areas in the end of the Shijiahe cultural period, the Jianghan Plain was not great and the locations of the sites were discrepancy between social development and environmental mainly low hillocks slightly higher than the periphery of the plain change, especially hydrological processes, became particularly (Deng et al., 2009; Li et al., 2011b; Wu, 2013). Although floods prominent at the end of the Shijiahe cultural period, which was the caused by fluctuations in the water level of the Yangtze River and its main cause of the demise of the Shijiahe Culture. tributaries occurred periodically, their impact on human society However, one positive impact of these climatic events was to was very limited. For example, based on their temporal and spatial promote the formation of ancient Chinese civilization with the Xia distribution, both Wu (2013) and Da (2013) found that human Dynasty as a symbol. Wu and Ge (2005) believe that “Holocene settlements showed a clear trend to high-altitude areas in the late Event 3” led to distinct environmental pattern with floods in the Qujialing cultural period, whose purpose may have been to avoid south and drought in the north, and also greatly increased popu- flooding in this period, showing that disasters are incapable of lation pressure. Contradictions between increasing population reversing the development of human culture. Driven by an pressure and resource availability contributed to the prevalence of increasing population, technological advances, and other factors, wars and conflicts between social groups at the end of the Neolithic the Neolithic culture in the area developed sustainably and entered Age, thus opening the way for the birth of early civilization in the era of early civilization. ancient China. In summary, civilization appearing in the Jianghan However, during the middle Shijiahe cultural period, with the Plain after 4000 cal. yr BP was not a product of self-development by increasing scale of cultural development and settlement sites, hu- the local Shijiahe Culture; but rather it is a result of the spread of man activities gradually expanded to low-lying areas in plains civilization in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties. Against the (Deng et al., 2009; Wu, 2013), so people faced with growing threat background of climate anomalies and the decline of the Shijiahe from floods. In the late Shijiahe cultural period, the water level of Culture around 4000 cal. yr BP, the spread of civilization in the Xia, rivers and lakes in the area increased due to climate change, tec- Shang, and Zhou Dynasties to southern areas disrupted the devel- tonic subsidence, siltation, and other factors (Shi et al., 2010), floods opment sequence of the Jianghan Plain and its surrounding areas, brought greater disasters to human society and the trend of set- eventually depriving the area of the opportunity to become an in- tlement sites moving from low-lying plains to high-altitude regions dependent ancient civilization. The civilization in the Xia, Shang, became clear (Wu, 2013). In particular, both the extraordinary flood and Zhou Dynasties and the Shijiahe Culture consisted of hetero- events caused by climatic fluctuations around 4000 cal. yr BP and geneous social groups with different origins, so they cannot be the conflicts within the area or between the area and the Central linked to each other, which can be seen from the significant dif- Plains and other areas accelerated the collapse of the Shijiahe ferences in geographical distribution of sites belonging to the Xia, Culture (Wu and Liu, 2004; Yin, 2011; Xia, 2012). It can be proved by Shang, and Zhou Dynasties and the Qujialing-Shijiahe Culture the consistency in time between climate anomalies around (Deng et al., 2009; Wu, 2013). For example, the Panlongcheng Site 4000 cal. yr BP and the disappearance of the Shijiahe Culture from from the early period of the Shang Dynasty (Zhao and Du, 1998), the entire Yangtze River Valley. Evidence of increased social con- located in the northern suburbs of Hankou, is actually integral to flicts is reflected in the increasingly common phenomenon of the southward spread of civilization in the Shang Dynasty, even missing heads or incomplete skeletons in the archaeological re- though its pre-existing palaces were unconnected with the Shijiahe mains of the period, increases in the number of unearthed arrow- Culture. heads of various forms and other aspects (Guo, 2005). There are also records for saying “Sanmiao was in chaos”, “Yu conquered 6. Conclusions Sanmiao”, etc. in ancient documents (Meng, 1997). Only ten sites between the end of the Shijiahe cultural period and the Xia Dynasty Combined with the comparison of cultural layers at the site, remain in and around the entire Jianghan Plain, and all of them are based on AMS14C dating results, dating of archaeological artifacts, located at an altitude above 50 m, showing that significant flood and the analyzed properties of sediments, three palaeoflood events events really happened in that period and people were forced to (i.e., 4800-4597 cal. yr BP, 4479e4367 cal. yr BP and 4168- live in high-altitude areas (Wu, 2013). At the Zhangxiwan Site in 3850 cal. yr BP respectively) occurred at the Zhongqiao Site and Huangpi, dating from the end of the Shijiahe cultural period, palaeoflood layers were deposited accordingly. Comparisons be- archaeological teams also found city walls over 30 m thick that tween typical palaeoflood deposit layers from the Zhongqiao Site were used to prevent flood disasters (Gu et al., 2009). The Neolithic and numerous cultural sites in and around the Jianghan Plain also culture at the Zhongqiao Site also declined significantly after the indicate that two extraordinary Holocene palaeoflood events flood events between 4168 and 3850 cal. yr BP, and evidence of occurred over the Jianghan Plain area between approximately cultural relics decreased. 4900e4600 cal. yr BP (i.e., the mid-late Qujialing cultural period) Evidence of catastrophic climate anomalies around 4000 cal. yr and between 4100e3800 cal. yr BP (i.e., from the late Shijiahe BP was also found around the world in records such as high- cultural period to the Xia Dynasty). Further analysis of the envi- resolution cave, ice core, lacustrine, and deep-sea deposits ronmental background of these palaeoflood occurrences suggests (Wanner et al., 2008; Roberts, 2014; Lillios et al., 2016); and the that there was great climatic variability between 5000 and collapses of the Akkadian Kingdom in Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, 4500 cal. yr BP and around 4000 cal. yr BP, when lakes in the and the Harappan Civilization in the Indus Valley were related to Jianghan Plain area were also unstable or changing continuously. this climatic event (Cullen et al., 2000; Stanley et al., 2003; Corresponding to the above-mentioned two palaeoflood events, Staubwasser et al., 2003). Therefore, in the early and middle Shi- the occurrence of severe flood events between 5000 and jiahe cultural period, population growth and rice agriculture 3000 cal. yr BP in the Jianghan Plain is consistent with the gradual development stimulated human activities continuously to expand deterioration of climate in the late Holocene Megathermal period, into the hinterland of the Jianghan Plain, after which the fluctua- showing that there is a certain link between these two palaeoflood tions in the water level of rivers and lakes exacerbated flood di- events and the expansion of lakes in the Jianghan Plain driven by sasters and increased the threat to humans of flooding at the end of climate change. the Shijiahe cultural period. Coupled with the extraordinary flood In the early and middle Shijiahe cultural period, population events caused by climate anomalies around 4000 cal. yr BP and the growth and rice cultivation development stimulated human ac- conflicts within the area or between the area and the Central Plains tivities continuously to expand to the hinterland of the low-lying 156 L. Wu et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 173 (2017) 145e160

Jianghan Plain. Subsequently, fluctuations in the water level of Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, CAS (No. SKLLQG1422), rivers and lakes precipitated flood disasters and increased the and the Scientific Research Cultivating Foundation of Anhui Normal threat from floods at the end of the Shijiahe cultural period. The University (No. 2014glkypy05). discrepancy between social development and environmental change processes, especially hydrological processes, became particularly prominent at the end of the Shijiahe cultural period, Appendix A which became the main cause of the demise of this culture. The severe extraordinary floods caused by climate anomalies around To verify the occurring period of palaeoflood events and its re- 4000 cal. yr BP, which were of global significance, and the conflicts lations to human activities, a total of 105 radiocarbon dates from within the area or between inhabitants of the area and those of the the cultural layers of 34 archaeological sites in and around the Central Plains and other areas at the end of the Shijiahe cultural Jianghan Plain area were collected and listed as follows (Table A1). period accelerated the collapse of the Shijiahe Culture. All the radiocarbon dates were calibrated using the computer software CALIB 6.0.1 (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993; Stuiver et al., 1998; Acknowledgements Reimer et al., 2009). The sources of collected radiocarbon dates can refer to the following references (Institute of Archaeology, Chinese We thank Prof. Fengqin Zhou, Dr. Jie Ouyang, and Curator Liming Academy of Social Sciences, 1974, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981,1982, 1983, Xu for their help with the field investigations. We also thank Prof. 1985, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2000; Chen et al., Fubao Wang, Prof. Chunchang Huang, Prof. Danielle Schreve, Dr. 1979, 1984; Institute of Science and Technology for Preservation Shiyong Yu and anonymous reviewers for their helpful suggestions, of Cultural Relics, 1982; Yuan et al., 1982, 1987, 1994; Department and Research Fellow Chengde Shen, Senior Engineer Di Liu and of Archaeology, Peking University, 1989; Qujialing Archaeological Prof. Ye Chen for the laboratory guidance. This study was jointly Team, 1992; Li et al., 2009; Guo, 2010; Fu et al., 2010; Wu, 2013). supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. Some other sites only have rough archaeological ages determined 41401216), the State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary by excavated relics. These sites are not listed here.

Table A1 Radiocarbon ages of archaeological sites between 7000 and 3000 cal. yr BP in the Jianghan Plain area, middle reaches of the Yangtze River.

Sampling No. Material Laboratory 14C age 1s calibrated 2s calibrated 1s calendar 2s calendar dated No. (yr BP) age (BC) age (BC) age (cal. yr BP) age (cal. yr BP)

ZhongqT0201-4 Charcoal *GZ3854 3189 ± 23 1462 (60.30%) 1435 1500 (100%) 1420 3399 ± 14 3410 ± 40 ZhongqT0405-6-U Charcoal *GZ3855 3791 ± 28 2283 (42.95%) 2248 2299 (99.46%) 2137 4216 ± 18 4168 ± 81 ZhongqT0405-6-L Charcoal *GZ3856 3937 ± 24 2477 (49.05%) 2450 2491 (96.01%) 2342 4414 ± 14 4367 ± 75 ZhongqT0405-8-U Charcoal *GZ4102 4030 ± 20 2534 (75.67%) 2493 2581 (97.82%) 2477 4464 ± 21 4479 ± 52 ZhongqT0405-9 Charcoal *GZ3858 4119 ± 25 2697 (57.07%) 2624 2714 (56.47%) 2579 4611 ± 37 4597 ± 68 ZhongqT0204-12 Charcoal *GZ3859 5409 ± 25 4327 (76.72%) 4282 4334 (100%) 4237 6255 ± 23 6236 ± 49 DaH2 Clamshell ZK4261 4505 ± 90 3358 (99.14%) 3090 3377 (96.28%) 2918 5174 ± 134 5098 ± 230 Qu89M2-L Charcoal ZK2397 4975 ± 140 3825 (65.00%) 3649 4051 (97.17%) 3497 5687 ± 88 5724 ± 277 Qu T5-5 Charcoal ZK2398 5100 ± 160 4051 (99.83%) 3695 4268 (97.83%) 3633 5823 ± 178 5901 ± 318 Qu L-C-1 Charcoal ZK124 4145 ± 100 2877 (100%) 2620 2920 (100%) 2468 4699 ± 129 4644 ± 226 Qu L-C-2 Charcoal ZK125 4195 ± 160 2935 (90.41%) 2565 3134 (94.09%) 2345 4700 ± 185 4690 ± 395 Qu TQJL-W-6 Charcoal BA071539 4475 ± 40 3332 (65.22%) 3214 3347 (89.52%) 3079 5223 ± 59 5163 ± 134 Qu TQJL-W-4 Charcoal BA071540 4290 ± 60 2945 (65.46%) 2876 3092 (85.41%) 2851 4861 ± 35 4922 ± 121 DiaoT2205-F1 Charcoal ZK2506 4940 ± 105 3805 (82.18%) 3639 3967 (90.92%) 3618 5672 ± 83 5743 ± 175 DiaoT2816-H1 Charcoal ZK2507 4730 ± 120 3638 (60.89%) 3488 3717 (89.44%) 3308 5513 ± 75 5463 ± 205 DiaoT2616-4A-1 Charcoal ZK2508 4765 ± 105 3646 (72.56%) 3497 3786 (99.40%) 3338 5522 ± 75 5512 ± 224 DiaoT2616-4A-2 Charcoal ZK2510 4735 ± 125 3641 (61.06%) 3485 3775 (92.22%) 3264 5513 ± 78 5470 ± 256 DiaoT2207-4B Charcoal ZK2577 5910 ± 100 4935 (100%) 4686 5039 (100%) 4539 6761 ± 125 6739 ± 250 DiaoT2207-H29 Charcoal ZK2578 5135 ± 90 4000 (50.19%) 3893 4080 (92.06%) 3708 5897 ± 54 5844 ± 186 DiaoT2209-H34 Charcoal ZK2579 5265 ± 110 4182 (82.18%) 3978 4338 (94.58%) 3927 6030 ± 102 6083 ± 206 DiaoT2308-4A Charcoal ZK2580 5280 ± 90 4180 (68.13%) 4037 4331 (100%) 3955 6059 ± 72 6093 ± 188 DiaoT1908-F5 Charcoal ZK2581 4880 ± 85 3774 (84.40%) 3631 3812 (90.70%) 3506 5653 ± 72 5609 ± 153 DiaoT2206-F6 Charcoal ZK2582 5020 ± 95 3821 (54.11%) 3710 3986 (100%) 3640 5716 ± 56 5763 ± 173 Diao92HZD-F15 Charcoal ZK2660 4402 ± 83 3106 (81.85%) 2910 3197 (74.38%) 2896 4958 ± 98 4997 ± 151 BianT47-2A Charcoal BK87010 5330 ± 80 4252 (100%) 4050 4332 (93.51%) 4032 6101 ± 101 6132 ± 150 BianT30-8 Charcoal BK87013 5995 ± 80 4989 (100%) 4792 5075 (97.82%) 4693 6841 ± 99 6834 ± 191 SaiM24 Bone ZK2181 4360 ± 130 3122 (72.29%) 2880 3368 (87.49%) 2830 4951 ± 121 5049 ± 269 SaiM22 Bone ZK2182 4360 ± 155 3141 (65.83%) 2875 3377 (98.13%) 2575 4958 ± 133 4926 ± 401 SaiT5-2 Charcoal ZK2235 5395 ± 105 4342 (55.69%) 4223 4375 (95.56%) 3988 6233 ± 60 6132 ± 194 SaiT7-M49 Bone ZK2283 4540 ± 200 3384 (75.90%) 3010 3707 (96.54%) 2847 5147 ± 187 5227 ± 430 SaiT106-2 Charcoal ZK2486 5205 ± 95 4083 (63.25%) 3944 4260 (99.35%) 3792 5964 ± 70 5976 ± 234 SaiT106-3 Charcoal ZK2487 5165 ± 95 4054 (66.91%) 3895 4235 (99.14%) 3761 5925 ± 80 5948 ± 237 SaiT113-2 Charcoal ZK2491 4815 ± 105 3703 (86.88%) 3513 3800 (99.00%) 3362 5558 ± 95 5531 ± 219 SaiT114-3-1 Charcoal ZK2494 5170 ± 90 4055 (66.89%) 3909 4236 (100%) 3767 5932 ± 73 5952 ± 235 SaiT114-3-2 Charcoal ZK2495 5380 ± 115 4335 (48.22%) 4221 4404 (97.47%) 3972 6228 ± 57 6138 ± 216 GuanT6-4 Charcoal ZK684 4745 ± 90 3636 (74.07%) 3500 3702 (100%) 3353 5518 ± 68 5478 ± 175 GuanT9-3 Charcoal ZK685 5035 ± 70 3944 (100%) 3770 3967 (98.53%) 3694 5807 ± 87 5781 ± 137 GuanT36-7-H13 Charcoal ZK831 5025 ± 80 3942 (47.13%) 3856 3964 (100%) 3659 5849 ± 43 5762 ± 153 GuanT51-3 Charcoal ZK832 4760 ± 110 3644 (68.57%) 3497 3791 (97.95%) 3330 5521 ± 74 5511 ± 231 GuanF22 Charcoal ZK891 4910 ± 110 3803 (79.40%) 3631 3958 (97.13%) 3511 5667 ± 86 5685 ± 224 GuanF21 Charcoal ZK892 5300 ± 250 4364 (88.88%) 3907 4689 (99.76%) 3634 6086 ± 229 6112 ± 528 GuanT76-3B-F30 Charcoal ZK991 4680 ± 80 3525 (87.50%) 3368 3645 (96.08%) 3329 5397 ± 79 5437 ± 158 GuanT69-6 Charcoal ZK992 5200 ± 250 4267 (94.60%) 3768 4542 (99.01%) 3503 5968 ± 250 5973 ± 520 L. Wu et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 173 (2017) 145e160 157

Table A1 (continued )

Sampling No. Material Laboratory 14C age 1s calibrated 2s calibrated 1s calendar 2s calendar dated No. (yr BP) age (BC) age (BC) age (cal. yr BP) age (cal. yr BP)

GuanT58-7 Charcoal ZK994 5130 ± 110 4044 (100%) 3784 4180 (96.03%) 3696 5864 ± 130 5888 ± 242 QingIT13-6 Charcoal ZK429 4340 ± 150 3127 (66.28%) 2865 3372 (99.21%) 2572 4946 ± 131 4922 ± 400 QingIIF1-D2 Charcoal ZK430 4500 ± 200 3377 (92.78%) 2915 3655 (94.00%) 2832 5096 ± 231 5194 ± 412 QingIT3-3 Charcoal ZK431 3980 ± 105 2628 (92.32%) 2332 2778 (93.35%) 2202 4430 ± 148 4440 ± 288 XiaoH42-1 Charcoal BK89037 4285 ± 100 3030 (66.62%) 2852 3120 (91.67%) 2616 4891 ± 89 4818 ± 252 XiaoH98 Charcoal BK89038 4135 ± 70 2777 (70.69%) 2623 2890 (96.65%) 2566 4650 ± 77 4678 ± 162 XiaoH42-2 Charcoal BK89045 4560 ± 80 3241 (53.95%) 3104 3521 (99.63%) 3020 5123 ± 69 5221 ± 251 XiaoH430 Charcoal BK90141 4510 ± 70 3244 (63.21%) 3102 3373 (95.65%) 3009 5123 ± 71 5141 ± 182 XiaoH434-2 Charcoal BK90142 4410 ± 100 3116 (72.28%) 2914 3362 (100%) 2883 4965 ± 101 5073 ± 240 DengT21-4 Charcoal BK87091 5190 ± 80 4070 (72.00%) 3940 4233 (85.02%) 3893 5955 ± 65 6013 ± 170 DengH9 Charcoal BK87092 4955 ± 80 3800 (93.17%) 3649 3954 (100%) 3635 5675 ± 76 5745 ± 160 JijF2-中 Charcoal BK80001 4630 ± 260 3651 (100%) 3016 3963 (96.22%) 2835 5284 ± 318 5349 ± 564 Jin2H2 Charcoal BK84070 4010 ± 120 2680 (78.94%) 2399 2880 (96.51%) 2271 4490 ± 141 4526 ± 305 JinH1 Charcoal BK84072 3890 ± 120 2495 (91.17%) 2199 2680 (97.61%) 2023 4297 ± 148 4302 ± 329 ChaT1-5 Charcoal BK84066 3860 ± 80 2462 (83.39%) 2276 2497 (94.75%) 2130 4319 ± 93 4264 ± 184 ChaH18 Charcoal BK84069 3830 ± 130 2470 (95.41%) 2133 2625 (99.86%) 1900 4252 ± 169 4213 ± 363 ChaH21 Charcoal BK84071 3960 ± 140 2634 (88.46%) 2276 2879 (98.63%) 2131 4405 ± 179 4455 ± 374 QiIT7A-3 Charcoal ZK549 4390 ± 200 3366 (95.56%) 2866 3533 (97.36%) 2565 5066 ± 250 4999 ± 484 QiIT1B-4 Charcoal ZK550 4130 ± 90 2779 (65.00%) 2618 2895 (100%) 2485 4649 ± 81 4640 ± 205 QiF8-NQ Charcoal ZK551 4600 ± 180 3529 (92.67%) 3094 3713 (99.87%) 2884 5262 ± 218 5249 ± 415 QiF8-BT Charcoal ZK552 4380 ± 120 3118 (73.15%) 2893 3370 (93.35%) 2840 4956 ± 113 5055 ± 265 HongT110-5-F-1 Peat ZK352 4355 ± 115 3116 (79.66%) 2880 3360 (90.66%) 2837 4948 ± 118 5049 ± 262 HongT110-5-F-2 Charcoal ZK686 4760 ± 300 3805 (77.14%) 3262 4243 (98.45%) 2856 5484 ± 272 5500 ± 694 HongT110-6-H Charcoal ZK687 5775 ± 120 4730 (91.94%) 4491 4855 (97.77%) 4360 6561 ± 120 6558 ± 248 LuoT1-7 Bone ZK1317 4405 ± 165 3196 (70.02%) 2899 3520 (99.86%) 2620 4998 ± 149 5020 ± 450 WeiT2-3-F Bone ZK2573 5285 ± 140 4260 (96.79%) 3973 4370 (99.44%) 3782 6067 ± 144 6026 ± 294 WeiT5-3-U Bone ZK2574 4795 ± 155 3712 (98.87%) 3369 3952 (93.38%) 3310 5491 ± 172 5581 ± 321 WeiT7-3-U Bone ZK2575 3180 ± 220 1694 (92.79%) 1190 1976 (99.89%) 897 3392 ± 252 3387 ± 540 WeiT7-3-L Bone ZK2576 3755 ± 170 2353 (86.15%) 1959 2631 (99.06%) 1730 4106 ± 197 4131 ± 451 ShenD1M-3F Bone ZK2392 2975 ± 100 1316 (93.92%) 1055 1428 (97.40%) 968 3136 ± 131 3148 ± 230 ShenD2-4 Bone ZK2393 5080 ± 350 4273 (86.78%) 3619 4618 (99.29%) 3011 5896 ± 327 5765 ± 804 XiT1-3 Bone ZK2511 4215 ± 130 2927 (100%) 2578 3117 (96.76%) 2467 4703 ± 175 4742 ± 325 XiangT17-6 Charcoal ZK2315 3290 ± 80 1668 (97.22%) 1494 1750 (100%) 1412 3531 ± 87 3531 ± 169 XiangT25-5 Charcoal ZK2316 3365 ± 85 1745 (73.54%) 1599 1883 (98.66%) 1492 3622 ± 73 3638 ± 196 XiangT27-7-1 Charcoal ZK2317 3745 ± 80 2234 (86.19%) 2033 2351 (94.27%) 1944 4084 ± 101 4098 ± 204 XiangT27-7-2 Bone ZK2553 3760 ± 115 2345 (96.87%) 2023 2489 (99.74%) 1883 4134 ± 161 4136 ± 303 LuT1-H1 Charcoal ZK2646 3120 ± 83 1466 (90.43%) 1297 1537 (94.83%) 1187 3332 ± 85 3312 ± 175 LuT7-5-下 Charcoal ZK2648 3523 ± 68 1931 (100%) 1755 2031 (100%) 1687 3793 ± 88 3809 ± 172 ZhongbT5402-13 Charcoal ZK2760 3352 ± 102 1750 (100%) 1509 1891 (100%) 1430 3580 ± 121 3611 ± 231 ZhongbT5503-14B Charcoal ZK2761 4446 ± 109 3133 (39.87%) 3010 3376 (98.23%) 2883 5022 ± 62 5080 ± 247 ZhongbH557 Charcoal ZK2762 4180 ± 86 2818 (71.19%) 2662 2924 (96.65%) 2558 4690 ± 78 4691 ± 183 ZhongbM10 Bone ZK2768 3750 ± 205 2467 (100%) 1913 2697 (97.74%) 1658 4140 ± 277 4128 ± 520 ZhongbM11 Bone ZK2769 3889 ± 205 2625 (90.95%) 2113 2900 (98.72%) 1873 4319 ± 256 4337 ± 514 ZhongbM12 Bone ZK2770 4403 ± 155 3139 (60.92%) 2900 3385 (85.14%) 2830 4970 ± 120 5058 ± 278 GuTN1E2-3 Charcoal ZK2811 3795 ± 113 2350 (71.89%) 2127 2496 (98.26%) 1923 4189 ± 112 4160 ± 287 Gu94WG-1-F5 Charcoal ZK2813 4420 ± 87 3113 (72.30%) 2921 3345 (100%) 2905 4967 ± 96 5075 ± 220 TongT11-6 Charcoal ZK559 3205 ± 400 1952 (98.10%) 971 2486 (99.38%) 484 3412 ± 491 3435 ± 1001 TongT7 Wood ZK758 3260 ± 100 1639 (97.31%) 1432 1772 (99.53%) 1311 3486 ± 104 3492 ± 231 TongT7-J223 Wood WB8040 3140 ± 80 1499 (78.21%) 1367 1612 (99.90%) 1209 3383 ± 66 3361 ± 202 TongT7-J203 Wood WB8044 3150 ± 80 1510 (84.52%) 1370 1617 (97.87%) 1251 3390 ± 70 3384 ± 183 TanT8-3-1 Charcoal ZK2867 3942 ± 99 2576 (100%) 2288 2698 (93.80%) 2188 4382 ± 144 4393 ± 255 TanT8-3-2 Charcoal ZK2868 3906 ± 106 2494 (78.75%) 2273 2675 (96.03%) 2114 4334 ± 111 4345 ± 281 ChiM108 Charcoal ZK2929 4446 ± 89 3131 (42.87%) 3011 3356 (100%) 2912 5021 ± 60 5084 ± 222 PanT6-3 Charcoal ZK3001 3500 ± 60 1895 (100%) 1745 1977 (99.12%) 1684 3770 ± 75 3781 ± 147 PanT6-2 Charcoal ZK3002 3427 ± 60 1778 (73.69%) 1662 1894 (97.77%) 1606 3670 ± 58 3700 ± 144 TanT0620-H2 Charcoal *GZ5043 3920 ± 25 2470 (42.54%) 2434 2475 (96.55%) 2336 4402 ± 18 4356 ± 70 JingT17-H19 Charcoal BK85081 4720 ± 80 3454 (41.50%) 3377 3652 (100%) 3353 5366 ± 39 5453 ± 150 SanT2-4 Charcoal BK85054 2990 ± 100 1325 (79.60%) 1113 1439 (98.24%) 970 3169 ± 106 3155 ± 235 NieD1-3 Charcoal BK82008 2860 ± 70 1126 (100%) 925 1221 (93.75%) 891 2976 ± 101 3006 ± 165 ZhouTDe-6 Charcoal BK83036 2890 ± 60 1133 (78.24%) 996 1263 (100%) 916 3015 ± 69 3040 ± 174 JinM9 Wood BK79033 2900 ± 90 1215 (93.18%) 976 1321 (95.86%) 895 3046 ± 120 3058 ± 213 ShiT11-3 Charcoal BK84052 3770 ± 85 2301 (75.38%) 2113 2464 (97.28%) 2007 4157 ± 94 4186 ± 229

*AMS14C dates from the present study; Zhongq-Zhongqiao Site, Da-Dasi Site, Qu-Qujialing Site, Diao-Diaolongbei Site, Bian-Bianfan Site, Sai-Saidun Site, Guan-Guanmiaoshan Site, Qing-Qinglongquan Site, Xiao-Xiaojiawuji Site, Deng-Dengjiawan Site, Jij-Jijiahu Site, Jin-Jinaohe Site, Cha-Chadianzi Site, Qi-Qilihe Site, Hong-Honghuatao Site, Luo- Luosishan Site, Wei-Weiganping Site, Shen-Shentanwan Site, Xi-Xisiping Site, Xiang-Xianglushi Site, Lu-Lujiahe Site, Zhongb-Zhongbaodao Site, Gu-Gushan Site, Tong- Tonglüshan Site, Tan-Tanpitangcun Site, Chi-Chishan Site, Pan-Panlongcheng Site, Tan-Tanjialing Site, Jing-Jingnansi Site, San-Sandouping Site, Nie-Niejiazhai Site, Zhou- Zhouliangyuqiao Site, Jin-Jinjiashan Site, Shi-Shibanxiangzi Site; T, H, M, C, W, F, D, G and J for excavation units, ash pit, tombs, cultural layer, west wall, building remains, cavern, trial trench and mine, respectively, then for the sampling number. 158 L. Wu et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 173 (2017) 145e160

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