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From Alders, R., Costa, R., Gallardo, R.A., Sparks, N., Zhou, H., 2019. Smallholder Poultry: Contributions to Food and Nutrition Security. In: Ferranti, P., Berry, E.M., Anderson, J.R. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Food Security and Sustainability, vol. 3, pp. 292–298. Elsevier. ISBN: 9780128126875 Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved Elsevier Author's personal copy

Smallholder Poultry: Contributions to Food and Nutrition Security Robyn Aldersa,b, Rosa Costab, Rodrigo A Gallardoc, Nick Sparksd, and Huaijun Zhoue, a School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Charles Perkins Centre and Marie Bashir Institute, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia; b International Rural Poultry Centre, Kyeema Foundation, Maputo, Mozambique, and Brisbane, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; c College of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, United States; d Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom; and e Animal Science Department, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, United States

© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Abstract 292 Introduction 292 Characteristics of Households Raising Smallholder Poultry 293 Urbanpoultry 293 Ruralpoultry 293 Challenges to Health and Production 295 Direct Contributions to Food and Nutrition Security 295 Urbanpoultry 295 Ruralpoultry 295 Indirect Contributions to Food and Nutrition Security 297 Conclusions 297 Acknowledgements 297 References 297

Abstract

Domestic chickens are the most abundant livestock species present across the world irrespective of culture and religion. The long-term relationship between humans and poultry is a testimony to the role played by poultry in human society. Over the centuries, poultry were generally kept in small numbers as part of household livelihood strategies. In the 20th century, after World War II, the introduction of intensive poultry production and increased ease of transport led to a dramatic increase in specialised and increasingly large and intensive, poultry farms. More traditional forms of poultry production have continued to exist in a range of settings. In high-income countries such as Australia, the UK and the US, backyard poultry raising in residential areas is seeing a resurgence in the 21st century. The major reasons for keeping backyardchickens included food forhome use first (eggs or meat or both), followed bygardening “partners” (e.g., pest control, manure as fertilizer) and pets. Smallholder poultry health and production challenges vary considerably depending on the location and the production systems involved, e.g. under extensive scavenging systems, the major limiting factors in most locations include infectious disease, predation and inadequate scavenging feed resource base. Smallholder poultry play a special role in food and nutrition security where cultural preferences and nutrition are taken into account. Meat and eggs from smallholder poultry constitute a high-quality food source, densely packed with essential macro- and micronutrients - nutrients that are often deficient or absent in the largely plant-based diets common in resource-poor settings. These birds contribute directly to food security through home consumption and indirectly through the sale of birds to support the purchase of other food items, improved household sanitary conditions and medicines.

Introduction

Domestic chickens are the most abundant livestock species present across the world irrespective of culture and religion. Archaeological evidence suggests that chickens were domesticated from the red jungle fowl in Asia 8000 years ago and that they later spread to Western Europe. Chickens even feature in one of the last great human migrations with ancient DNA research employing their DNA to track human migration across the remote Pacific(Thomson et al., 2014). Subsequent domestication events across Africa, the Americas and Europe led to the domestication of other birds commonly referred to as poultry: ducks, geese, turkeys, pheasants, pigeons and Guinea fowl (Alders, 2004). In the 21st Century, chickens constitute about 90 percent of the poultry population and the term “poultry” is therefore often used synonymously for chickens (FAO, 2014). The long-term relationship between humans and poultry is a testimony to the role played by poultry in human society and to food security in particular. Over the centuries, poultry were generally kept in small numbers, primarily in rural settings but also urban, as part of household livelihood strategies which included game fighting and for food security. In the 20th century, after

292 Encyclopedia of Food Security and Sustainability, Volume 3 https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.21527-8 Encyclopedia of Food Security and Sustainability, 2019, 292–298 Author's personal copy Smallholder Poultry: Contributions to Food and Nutrition Security 293

World War II, the introduction of intensive poultry production (with separate enterprises for eggs and meat) and increased ease of transport led to a dramatic increase in specialised and increasingly large and intensive, poultry farms. Instead of birds moving around to scavenge in their environment, transport and management systems were developed that brought food and water, sometimes considerable distances, to the bird. The efficiency of the poultry industry, where no part of the bird or egg is wasted and selective breeding is employed to great effect, has facilitated this growth and made it economically viable despite the transport costs in many parts of the world. More traditional forms of poultry production have continued to exist in a range of settings. In resource-poor rural settings, the raising of small flocks of poultry is common in mixed crop-livestock farming systems. In high-income countries such as Australia, the UK and the US, backyard poultry raising in residential areas declined dramatically for a number of decades before seeing a resurgence since the turn of the century. The motivation of these often relatively wealthy consumers are reported to be: reconnecting with what they perceive to be a healthier and/or cheaper form of nutrition; being more ‘self-sufficient’; and sometimes simply raising them as pets (Karabozhilova et al., 2012). Backyard chickens have been the fastest growing household pets in Eastern Australia for the past decade. Smallholder poultry also play a special role in food and nutrition security where cultural preferences and nutrition are taken into account and this interaction constitutes the focus of this paper. The systems under which they are raised are almost as diverse as the different breeds of chickens and are outlined in Fig. 1.

Characteristics of Households Raising Smallholder Poultry

In 2014, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) developed a new classification of family poultry production systems (Table 1). ‘Family poultry’ describes the full variety of smallholder poultry production systems that are practised by individual families as a means of obtaining food security, income and gainful employment (FAO, 2014).

Urbanpoultry Backyard birds are kept in urban and peri-urban settings across all countries with larger flock sizes in more rural areas. Recent studies suggest that the majority of poultry caregivers in the UK and the US are female with a high educational level (Elkhoraibi et al., 2014; Karabozhilova et al., 2012). The major reasons mentioned for keeping backyard chickens included food for home use first (eggs or meat or both), followed by gardening “partners” (e.g., pest control, manure as fertilizer) and pets. In these settings, backyard hens that initially provided eggs to households go on to become family pets once they cease laying.

Ruralpoultry In low-to middle-income countries extensive and semi-intensive poultry remain critically important with estimates suggesting that more than 80% of the world’s poultry stock is kept in small numbers, from as few as three up to about 20 birds (Sonaiya, 2007). In

RURAL PERI-URBAN URBAN

Figure 1 Classification of smallholder poultry systems across varying geographic and economic situations.

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Table 1 Characteristics of the four family poultry production systems commonly practised in low- to middle-income countries (FAO, 2014) with additions written in italics

Criteria Backyard Small extensive scavenging Extensive scavenging Semi-intensive Small-scale intensive

Production/farming system Poultry only Mixed, poultry and Mixed, livestock and crops Usually poultry only Poultry only

nylpdao odScrt n utiaiiy 09 292–298 2019, Sustainability, and Security Food of Encyclopedia crops, often landless Other livestock raised Rarely Rarely Usually Sometimes No Flock size (adult birds) 1–5 1–55–50 50–200 >200 broilers >100 layers Poultry breeds Commercial, local or dual Local Local or crossbred Commercial or crossbred or Commercial purpose local Source of new chicks Commercial day-old chickens Natural incubation Natural incubation Commercial day-old chickens Commercial day-old chicks or or natural incubation or natural incubation pullets or artificial incubation Feed source Limited scavenging; regular Scavenging; almost no Scavenging; occasional Limited scavenging; regular Commercial balanced ration supplementation supplementation supplementation supplementation Poultry housing Yes; conventional materials; Seldom; usually made Sometimes; usually made Yes; conventional materials; Yes; conventional materials; houses of variable quality from local materials or from local materials houses of variable quality good quality houses kept in [owner’s] house [overnight] Access to veterinary services Sometimes Rarely Sometimes Yes Yes and veterinary pharmaceuticals Mortality Low to medium <20% Very high >70% Very high >70% Medium to high 20% Low to medium <20% to >50% Access to reliable electricity Sometimes No No Yes Yes supply Existence of conventional Sometimes No Rarely Yes Yes cold chain Access to urban markets Yes Rarely Rarely or indirect Yes Yes Products Live birds, meat, eggs Live birds, meat Live birds, meat, eggs Live birds, meat, eggs Live birds, meat, eggs Time devoted each day to <30 minutes <30 minutes <1 hour >1 hour >1 hour poultry management Author's personal copy Smallholder Poultry: Contributions to Food and Nutrition Security 295 rural areas, village poultry are frequently part of complex, mixed farming enterprises involving cropping, livestock production and non-farm income generating activities (Alders, 2004). In vulnerable households, village chickens, in particular, are kept for sale and barter to resolve household needs such as medicines, school fees and to purchase other food for household consumption. In less vulnerable households, village chickens are raised for home consumption and for various socio-cultural uses. The FAO has divided village poultry into two categories according to the demographic characteristics of their owners: small extensive scavenging and extensive scavenging (Table 1). These owners are frequently mixed farmers with either no access to the supplies and services required to support semi-intensive or intensive production (i.e. supplementary feed, vaccines, conventional housing and, in some cases, land) or no desire to increase the proportion of household effort devoted to poultry production. As with backyard poultry, village poultry are frequently linked with women, often being the only livestock species over which women have some control (Alders and Pym, 2009; Thieme et al., 2014).

Challenges to Health and Production

Health and production challenges vary considerably depending on the location and the production systems involved. Under extensive scavenging systems, the major limiting factors in most locations include infectious disease, predation and inadequate scavenging feed resource base (Table 2). With increasing production, other challenges come into play such as inadequate market access and input supply.

Direct Contributions to Food and Nutrition Security

Meat (both muscle and organ meat) and eggs from smallholder poultry constitute a high-quality food source, densely packed with essential macro- and micronutrients. Animal-source foods are particularly concentrated in highly bioavailable iron, vitamin A, vitamin B12, zinc, and riboflavin - nutrients that are often deficient or absent in the largely vegetarian diets common in rural, resource-poor settings (de Bruyn et al., 2015; Wong et al., 2017). The spectrum of poultry production systems are but some of the solutions to improving global food and nutrition security, especially in vulnerable sectors of society. Despite their relatively low production levels, smallholder systems do make significant contributions at the household level with Wong et al. (2017) reporting that small-scale poultry production systems contribute to eight of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

Urbanpoultry In urban settings in high-income countries, layer chickens are the most common backyard bird producing eggs for household consumption. Informal reports in Australia have suggested that commercial egg sales increase in winter when backyard hens have gone off lay due to decreasing daylight hours. Backyard chickens accounted for almost 12 percent of Australia’s total egg production with 393 million eggs produced in metropolitan and regional gardens in 2012. These birds can become ‘part of the family’ and so retained by the family even after they stop laying eggs. In such cases, especially when feed is purchased for older hens, they move from contributing to household food and nutrition security to becoming another household member requiring feed produced by others. In low-to middle-income countries, hens that had stopped laying would usually be consumed by the household or sold for consumption by others.

Ruralpoultry As mentioned above, in vulnerable households where multiple needs remain unmet, poultry are raised as ‘petty cash’ to be used in times of emergencies rather than for primarily for consumption. The consumption of village poultry usually remains a rare event until flock numbers have been stabilised such that owners are confident that bird numbers will not decrease unexpectedly due to disease, predation or theft. In situations where mortality rates are high, village poultry eggs are rarely consumed as they are prioritised for hatching. In association with the objective of maximising egg hatching, cultural beliefs that discourage egg consumption can be encountered. This deterrence frequently targets women and children while adult male heads of household are able to consume eggs whenever desired (Alders et al., 2010). Consumption of hatching eggs is further complicated by the risk that, by the end of the 21 day (for chicken) incubation period, an infertile egg or one with very limited embryonic growth and which could have been consumed, has become contaminated with spoilage or food poisoning bacteria. In situations where flocks no longer suffer high mortality, such as after the introduction of regular vaccination campaigns against Newcastle disease, the consumption of both meat and eggs by the whole family has been reported to increase in Tanzania over a three year period (Harun et al., 2009), Mozambique and Nicaragua. However, the level of consumption reported by the end of the project in Tanzania remained low in relation to daily and weekly intake and it did not monitor who in the household consumed the products. In a subsequent two-year study in Tanzania, village chicken meat and eggs were infrequently eaten, but similar trends in maternal and child consumption patterns suggest the potential for strategies that increase household-level consumption to bring nutritional benefits to young children (de Bruyn et al., 2017).

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Table 2 Overview of major smallholder poultry health and production constraints

Constraint Backyard Extensive rural poultry Semi-intensive rural poultry Intensive peri-urban poultry References

Zoonotic infectious Salmonella, Campylobacter, avian influenza Ahlers et al. (2009); Anderson nylpdao odScrt n utiaiiy 09 292–298 2019, Sustainability, and Security Food of Encyclopedia disease et al. (2012); FAO (2014) Other infectious ND, Pox, fowl cholera, IBD, ND, Pox, fowl cholera, ND, Pox, fowl cholera, IBD, duck plague, pullorum disease Ahlers et al. (2009); Mete et al. disease pullorum disease duck plague, pullorum (2013) disease Biosecurity Low; variable risk Low; variable risk Low; medium risk Variable; high risk Alders et al. (2013); Derksen et al. (2018) Predation Variable High Medium Low FAO (2014) Scavenging feed Limited Vital; impacted by weather Complements supplementary feed Nil Ahlers et al. (2009); FAO (2014) resource base variability Supplementary feed Vital; varying quality e.g. fatty Minimal – variable quality Essential - variable quality 100% supplementation Ahlers et al. (2009); FAO (2014) liver haemorrhagic syndrome (aflatoxin contamination, (aflatoxin contamination, etc) due to supplementation with etc) excessive carbohydrates Food safety Salmonellosis and Campylobacteriosis; avian influenza (where products consumed raw); most studies conducted in commercial production FAO (2014); Wong et al. (2017) systems with limited data available from extensive and semi-intensive systems. Marketing Limited; some competition Limited; premium price Variable; premium price paid for High; sold at farm gate and Alders and Pym (2009); FAO with imported and locally paid for indigenous indigenous breed birds making it through local markets (2014) produced commercial breed birds making it to to urban markets poultry products urban markets Input supply Essential – can involve Minimal - local Medium – local and imported High – local and imported FAO (2014) significant transport Loss of genetic Erosion and dilution of indigenous genetic resources; decreased immune function in commercial birds due to excessive homogeneity; genetic Alders et al. (2013); Muir et al. heterogeneity drift; culling of rare breeds during disease control activities (2008) Owner formal Variable Usually low Medium Variable FAO (2014) education levels

ND ¼ Newcastle disease; IBD ¼ Infectious bursal disease. Author's personal copy Smallholder Poultry: Contributions to Food and Nutrition Security 297

Indirect Contributions to Food and Nutrition Security

In resource-poor settings, chickens are amongst the most affordable livestock, and they may be sold or exchanged for sequentially larger and higher-value species, building a household’s asset base, or used to provide income in times of need. As such, they are the first rung on the livestock ladder. The economic contributions of poultry to households vary by production system and location. Village poultry brought an average annual income of USD13 to households in Ethiopia (Muhiye, 2007); USD27 in Haiti (Nchinda et al., 2001), USD55 in Mozambique (Woolcock et al., 2004). Smallholder urban and ruralpoultry production are commonly used as part of mixed or integrated farming or livelihood systems, which allows households to use resources efficiently, spread risk and protect against shocks (Alders et al., 2013; Prein, 2002). Income from the sale of poultry products is often the main source of income for female-headed households, whereas male-headed households usually have multiple income sources (Aklilu et al., 2008; Muchadeyi et al., 2004). Income generated from poultry and egg sales allow greater access to health services, household sanitation and hygiene and provide opportunities to purchase a greater quantity and variety of foods (Wong et al., 2017).

Conclusions

The ongoing presence of smallholder poultry and increasing numbers of backyard poultry in high-income countries reflects their multiple and crucial roles in human societies. In terms of food and nutrition security, their full potential is yet to be fully realised.

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge sustained support by the Governments of Australia, United States of America and partner countries that have enabled research and development into smallholder poultry over several decades. Thanks also go to FAO for their commitment to improving village poultry production in support of food security, poverty alleviation and increasing household resilience. We also acknowledge our respective universities, i.e. the University of California, Davis, the University of Edinburgh and the University of Sydney for their commitment to sustainable and ethical food and nutrition security.

References

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