Characterization of Mitochondrial Health from Human Peripheral Blood
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www.nature.com/scientificreports OPEN Characterization of mitochondrial health from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells to cerebral organoids derived from induced pluripotent stem cells Angela Duong1,2, Alesya Evstratova1, Adam Sivitilli3, J. Javier Hernandez4,5, Jessica Gosio4,5, Azizia Wahedi6, Neal Sondheimer4,6, Jef L. Wrana4,5, Jean‑Martin Beaulieu1*, Liliana Attisano3,7* & Ana C. Andreazza1,2,8* Mitochondrial health plays a crucial role in human brain development and diseases. However, the evaluation of mitochondrial health in the brain is not incorporated into clinical practice due to ethical and logistical concerns. As a result, the development of targeted mitochondrial therapeutics remains a signifcant challenge due to the lack of appropriate patient‑derived brain tissues. To address these unmet needs, we developed cerebral organoids (COs) from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) derived from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and monitored mitochondrial health from the primary, reprogrammed and diferentiated stages. Our results show preserved mitochondrial genetics, function and treatment responses across PBMCs to iPSCs to COs, and measurable neuronal activity in the COs. We expect our approach will serve as a model for more widespread evaluation of mitochondrial health relevant to a wide range of human diseases using readily accessible patient peripheral (PBMCs) and stem‑cell derived brain tissue samples. Mitochondrial dysfunction plays a crucial role in a wide range of human diseases 1,2. Te impact of aberrant mitochondrial activity is vast and disease burden will continue to increase unless we uncover their etiology and identify precise mitochondrial targets appropriate for the development of efective treatments. Te brain con- sumes 20% of the total energy budget to power neuronal activity 3–5. As a result, chronic mitochondrial dysfunc- tion can have profound efects on neurotransmission and contributes to unwanted changes in neuronal circuits that underlie cognition, memory and other forms of neuronal plasticity3,6,7. Te translation of this knowledge towards the development of efective drugs that target brain mitochondrial dysfunction remains at an early stage. Tis stagnation refects a lack of adequate, functional, patient-derived models to study mitochondrial health and neuronal activity simultaneously. To date, tools for studying mitochondrial dysfunction have largely relied on postmortem brain samples, animal models or two-dimensional neuronal systems8,9. While these tools have been benefcial, they do not translate well into clinical applications, largely due to the lack of complex functions and neural circuits. Tese limitations restrict the accurate prediction of patient responses and screening of mito- chondrial therapeutic compounds. In the absence of properly developed, patient-derived brain models capable of interrogating mitochondrial health, substantial barriers in testing etiological hypotheses and developing targeted mitochondrial therapeutics will continue to persist. Cerebral organoids (CO) have become an essential tool for evaluating human brain development and diseases10. Te ability of CO to diferentiate into many cell types and self-organize three-dimensionally makes 1Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada. 2Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada. 3Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada. 4Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada. 5Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Toronto, ON M5G 1X5, Canada. 6Program in Genetics and Genome Biology, Peter Gilgan Centre for Research and Learning, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada. 7Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada. 8Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada. *email: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Scientifc Reports | (2021) 11:4523 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-84071-6 1 Vol.:(0123456789) www.nature.com/scientificreports/ Neuronal Activity Whole cell patch clamp recording 4 -5 month iPSC and H9 hESC CO Sample Reprogramming & Differentiation Timeline Days Action Potential Spontaneous Activity Na+/K+ Current -5 0 180 184188 315 ) e V ud (m + ) ane r ) A /K mplit + Blood iPSC Neural Organoid (p Embryoid pA mb Episomal A ( t ential Na Collection Transfection Stabilization and Body Induction Maturation: t Me ak Po Characterization Formation 4-5 month-old ak Pe Curren PBMCs Pe Time (s) Extraction Time (ms) Time (ms) Mitochondrial Function Human PBMCs iPSCs iPSC-derived CO PBMCs iPSCs 4 –5 month –iPSC and H9 hESCs H9 hESC CO H9 hESCs H9 hESC-derived CO ATP I III IV V II Oxidative Phosphorylation Mitochondrial mtDNAGenetics Complexes I-V ATP Metabolite Membrane Potential Morphology Figure 1. Schematic summary of the study design. Purple panel: An overview and a timeline of sample reprogramming and diferentiation from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) to induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) to cerebral organoids (COs) or H9 human embryonic stem cells (H9 hESCs) to COs. Red panel: An overview of electrophysiology experiments (action potentials, spontaneous activity, and sodium and potassium currents) in cerebral organoids. Blue panel: An overview of mitochondrial (mt-) genetics (mtDNA haplogroup, heteroplasmy and copy number), function (oxidative phosphorylation, ATP production and mitochondrial membrane potential) and morphology assessment across PBMCs to iPSCs to COs or H9 hESCs to COs. them a unique and powerful tool for disease modelling and evaluation of mitochondrial health and neuronal activity10,11. COs have already been developed and extensively characterized using induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) derived from human dermal fbroblasts 11–13. However, this approach has drawbacks. Obtaining fbroblasts from the skin is an invasive and painful procedure. As well, dermal fbroblasts exhibit slow turnover and renewal rates and may potentially have accumulated environmentally-associated mitochondrial DNA mutations (such as those caused by ultraviolet radiation exposure from the sun) that may not refect the underlying biology of the patient14. In contrast, obtaining peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from whole blood is a much easier and less invasive means of obtaining biological samples from patients. Due to their rapid turnover and self- renewal rates, constant circulation throughout the body, and lifetime immunological memory15, COs generated from PBMCs may ofer the advantage of more accurately representing the current disease state of the patient. Here, we developed a human-derived CO model that allows for the assessment of mitochondrial health at the primary, reprogrammed, and diferentiated stages, using iPSCs derived from PBMCs and compared and validated these by comparison to COs derived from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs; Fig. 1, Schema). Characterization of fully functional and preserved mitochondrial health throughout the diferentiation to COs is crucial to moving toward understanding their role in brain development and disease. Te use of PBMCs is fexible and straightforward compared to the use of fbroblasts obtained from invasive biopsies. We expect our approach to be a starting point for more sophisticated patient-derived brain models to investigate mitochondrial health and neuronal activity in a wide range of human diseases—a way forward in developing a standard of care for mitochondrial medicine. Results Generation of cerebral organoids using iPSCs derived from PBMCs. To determine whether a blood sample can be used to make COs (Fig. 2A), we frst collected whole blood from a healthy female subject (Table S1 for clinical characteristics). PBMCs from whole blood were isolated using Ficoll density centrifugation and electroporated with episomal vectors expressing fve reprogramming factors (Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, L-Myc and Lin28, Fig. 2A,B-i). An episomal method was chosen because it has been proven to be the most efcient method for generating integration-free human iPSCs from the blood16. We confrmed an apparently normal human, female karyotype in the resulting iPSCs (Fig. 2B-ii), indicating that genetic characteristics were retained during the reprogramming process and corresponded to the parental PBMC lineage. Immunofuorescence staining of iPSCs showed positive expression of key pluripotent proteins (Fig. 2B-iii and iv and Table S2). At the mRNA Scientifc Reports | (2021) 11:4523 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-84071-6 2 Vol:.(1234567890) www.nature.com/scientificreports/ level, pluripotent markers in the iPSCs were similar to those observed in H9 hESCs (Fig. 2B-v), further demon- strating successful generation of iPSCs from PBMCs. We previously established a robust protocol that allows for the reproducible production of COs from human pluripotent stem cells17. Tese COs display consistent cell type composition and proportions across diferent batches, making this CO platform useful for disease research as it addresses the problem of variability 17. Using this protocol, we generated 4.5-month old COs from PBMCs-derived iPSCs (N = 14, Table S3) and demonstrated that they have similar overall morphology as those derived from the H9 hESCs (N = 14, Fig. 2C and Fig. S1-A). Immunofuorescence staining of the histological sections showed the presence