The Effect of Social Control Models on Motivation and Use in Electronic Communication Infrastructures

THE EFFECT OF SOCIAL CONTROL MODELS ON MOTIVATION 103

The Effect Of Social Control Models On Motivation and Use In Electronic Communication Infrastructures

Dan Manson Computer Information Systems

Electronic communication can restrict organizational communication, or open communication channels to all employees regardless of status and personality. The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationships between social control patterns and electronic communication infrastructure use. Political, administrative, and computing infrastructure examples are used to provide initial understanding of infrastructure use. Social control models are used to provide insight into employee use of an electronic communication infrastructure. Case data from electronic communication systems is mapped to social control models to illustrate the effect of social control types on electronic communication use.

Introduction

A communications infrastructure provides an enabling platform for employees to share information to be used for decision-making, problem-definition, and coordination of organizational behaviors. A functioning infrastructure enables the delivery of products and services facilitating human and cognitive processes adding value through information and knowledge exchange.

In discussing the role of computing infrastructures, it is important to define infrastructure characteristics being considered. Computing infrastructure refers to the set of human and organizational resources that help make it simpler and faster for skilled people to use computerized systems (Kling, 1993). A computing infrastructure can consist of physical, technological and social characteristics. Physical characteristics can affect the ability to access the system. Technological characteristics involve issues of quality and reliability. Social characteristics address issues of information access and accountability. Physical and technological issues are driven by economic and technical issues, while social issues involve organizational issues.

Social issues involve social systems. Ottenberg (1994) defines social systems as collections of individuals who act together for collective and/or individual purposes. In a social system, physical and technical aspects are only important as they support the functions and interactions of the “peopleware” of the system. Social issues can have a greater effect on employee attitudes and motivation toward infrastructure use than economic or technical issues. According to Kiesler (1991), we tend to exaggerate technical changes and underes- timate social effects of new technologies.

Infrastructure control is a critical issue in organizations today. In addition to the need to conserve limited resources, control requires choices in patterns of organizational communication and information sharing, and types of information content and access. Although the need for an information infrastructure is found in many current publications, there has not been specific research into the type of social controls that should apply to an information infrastructure.

This research is especially relevant to the current drive toward building “information superhighways”. Even the most enthusiastic supporters of high-speed communication networks see difficulty in developing and implementing social control. “There are valid concerns that computer networks threaten the privacy and personal freedom of individuals. 104 DAN MANSON Fall 1996

There are equally valid worries that existing laws do not adequately protect the rights and liberties of computer users to express themselves in the new medium” (Gore, 1991).

The issue of social control is especially important in network communication systems where messages and documents receive wide distribution. This paper will focus on social control in electronic mail and groupware systems where interpersonal information transfer is widespread. It will address whether the type of social control used in electronic communication can affect employee use and motivation.

Background

If one accepts electronic communication as a social activity, it is possible to derive from social control theories predictions about level of use of and attitudes toward electronic communication systems. Tannenbaum (1968) describes control as a general measure of the various types of influence exercised in an organization. Sproull and Kiesler (1991) describe social control as imbuing workers with a sense of “the way we do things around here”. This definition of social control closely relates to Tannenbaum’s (1974) “law of the situation” as a key basis of power within organizations.

Sproull and Kielser’s research found a link between the level of participation in organizational affairs and employee satisfaction. Also, the degree of management control of electronic communication influences communication between workers and management. This suggests that the type of social control exercised over electronic communication can increase or decrease employee motivation and use of electronic communication.

Tannenbaum’s research focuses on the role of hierarchy in organizations. Tannenbaum found that members are influenced by supervisors largely because of a sense of commitment to the “law of the situation” within the organization. But what if the “law of the situation” is changed through widespread use of electronic communication?

Electronic communication can reduce the amount of management influence in a hierarchically structured organization. At the same time, a hierarchical organization may resist employee control over the use of electronic communication. In a hierarchical organization, use of electronic communication is likely to reflect formal reporting relationships. On the other hand, organizational structures that do not involve a formal hierarchy are likely to support employee control over electronic communication. Use is likely to be more dynamic and not limited to formal relationships.

The inherent desire of management to control information flows has been documented by several researchers. Pettigrew (1972) considered information access and control as a power resource. According to Mechanic (1962), within organizations dependency can be generated with others by controlling access to the resources of information, persons and instrumentalities. This suggests that managers have a vested interest in controlling the use of electronic communication. An organization with high levels of managerial control is likely to place restrictions on the use of electronic communication.

Kling and Iacono (1984) developed models of social control in computerized work settings. Social control models illustrate how organizational participants control certain behaviors in computerized work settings. As Table 1 illustrates, three social control models are 1) management control, 2) professional negotiations, and 3) institutional control. THE EFFECT OF SOCIAL CONTROL MODELS ON MOTIVATION 105

Table 1 Three Models of Social Control in Computerized Work Settings

Management Professional Institutional control negotiations control

Actors Managers/workers White-collar workers All users

Pattern of Up Up and sideways Any direction information flows

Pattern of Down Down and sideways Any direction control flows

Nature For every rule, Practices can be No single agent is of rule there is a single subject to exception effectively in system controlling agent control of the set of rules

Each model involves a “social order” that informs and describes the control processes. The management control model assumes that information flows up and control flows down between managers and workers. It is usually assumed that computerization is good for managers and bad for workers. Under the professional negotiations model white-collar workers send information flows up and sideways while control flows down and sideways.

Social control models suggest that employee motivation to use electronic communication can be determined through the type of social control in use. An “empowering” institutional control model should facilitate employee motivation to use electronic communication and provide greater employee control over electronic communication than more traditional professional and managerial control models. Employee and management motivation to use of an electronic communication infrastructure may be related to the type of social control exercised over the infrastructure.

The above analysis raises two important questions regarding social control over electronic communications. Should companies have one method of social control instead of another in electronic communication systems? Is institutional control the best social control model for employee use of electronic communications?

We conclude from our discussion of social control models the following hypothesis related to electronic communication systems:

Hypothesis 1: Electronic communication involving groupware and electronic mail will reduce the level of managerial control and professional negotiation and increase institutional control in an organization

Hypothesis 2: Continued motivation to use electronic communication involving electronic mail and groupware will be related to the type of social control used in the electronic communication infrastructure 106 DAN MANSON Fall 1996

Methods

Data was collected from four case studies of electronic mail, one case study of groupware, and a review of the Internet and other global electronic communication networks. Organizations include two professional services firms, one book publisher, one pharmaceu- tical company, one research organization, and an inter-organizational research and education network. The case studies and review are as follows: Office Automation at CSRO (Kling, 1982) Electronic Mail at HCP (Markus, 1993) Electronic Mail at PHC (Sproull and Kiesler, 1990) Computer Conferencing at Drugcorp (Zuboff, 1988) Groupware at a Big Six Accounting Firm (Orlikowski, 1992) Global Electronic Networks (Perry, 1992)

Office Automation at CSRO

CSRO is a university-based research organization coordinating research activities between computer scientists and researchers in other scientific fields. CSRO staff consists of principal researchers, research associates, graduate students, and research programmers. Researchers group according to common interests regardless of status. The computer system at CSRO was implemented to support joint research investigations. No one person was responsible for controlling system components. All computer users were aware of and used most of these components on a daily basis. A bulletin board (BB) was used to exchange notes, recipes, and reviews. Although there were a few complaints over frivolous messages, there was no attempt by management to control message content.

Most users spent 15-60 minutes a day using electronic mail. Electronic mail was considered essential to the work of many participants. There was no differentiation in motivation to use electronic mail according to status. There was no noticeable change in social control over electronic communication at CSRO over time.

Electronic Mail at HCP

HCP operates in the risk management industry, and has branches in 26 states. Subject to headquarters’ approval, branches were permitted to initiate contracts with local suppliers and customers. Most final approvals were performed at headquarters. In 1983 the Chairman of HCP became convinced of the potential of electronic mail to improve coordination in his widely-dispersed organization. The Chairman described electronic mail as “a condition of employment” and use spread from senior executives down to their subordinates. By 1987 electronic mail was used by all managers and many non-managerial employees on a daily basis. Most senior executives felt strongly about using electronic mail, many saying “I couldn’t live without it”. According to Markus, subordinates were pressured to use electronic mail to communicate with their superiors, however management became concerned that the heavy use of electronic mail was having a negative effect on boss-subordinate relationships. Management desire to use electronic mail appeared to be stronger that subordinates. There appeared to be no change in social control over electronic mail use over time. THE EFFECT OF SOCIAL CONTROL MODELS ON MOTIVATION 107

Electronic Mail at Porter Hall Corporation (PHC)

At the time of this study the average person reviewed had used electronic mail at PHC for four years. Organizational policies and procedures encouraged electronic mail use. System access was good and there was few sending restrictions. The focus of the study performed was discretionary versus non-discretionary use of group mail. Sproull and Kiesler found that overall daily group mail use was higher for PHC as a whole (80%) than male managers (67%). Discretionary groups were almost nine times larger on average (260 members) than required ones (30 members). Employee motivation to use electronic mail appeared to be greater than management use at PHC. Sproull and Kiesler determined that employee motivation to use group mail was more likely to be found in the pleasures of feeling in-the-know than in any immediate job relevance. Social control over electronic mail did not appear to change over time.

Computer Conferencing at Drugcorp

During the late 1970s studies were performed by Drugcorp’s R & D division to analyze and improve the innovation process. These studies stressed the importance of interpersonal communication as the most important channel for providing researchers with access to information and stimulation for new ideas. At the time of the review an internal report described corporate information exchange as hierarchical and carefully controlled, with warnings about only sharing information on a “need-to-know” basis. The social control model at Drugcorp could be considered managerial. Against this backdrop, a conferencing system known as DIALOG was implemented. DIALOG was structured so that each conference was initiated by an organizer, who was responsible for admitting and deleting its members. The DIALOG system provided users with communication that has not been hierarchical:

“Lots of people have power that is not knowledge-based; it is forceful and based on their personality or position. In DIALOG, the power lies in the ability to communicate and pass on knowledge.”

Initial employee use of the computer conferencing system was high. Three years after implementation, a report on DIALOG emphasized the need to increase middle management use, saying that group was “relatively disadvantaged”. Management involvement led to management control. After a group called the Women’s Professional Improvement conference was asked to defend the group’s “legitimate business purpose”, one user said that management has sent a signal that “DIALOG is too public for real day-to-day support”. Rumors circulated that involvement in one of the most popular conferences, an informal group called Computer Coffee Break (CCB), was viewed as sign of “nonproductivity” and a “negative element” in performance evaluations. DIALOG was replaced by a new system, called TONI, that required automatic enrollment. Electronic communication became more formal and hierarchical. Social control over electronic communication moved from institutional to managerial.

Groupware at a Big Six Accounting Firm

Alpha Corporation provides consulting services to clients around the world. The career structure at Alpha is hierarchical, involving staff consultants, senior consultants, manager, and principal. The Chief Information Officer of Alpha saw that a groupware product called Lotus Notes had a way to “manage our expertise and transform our practice”. Implementation of Lotus Notes was top-down, with little communication. Lack of communication and training resulted in what Orlikowski called weak “Technological Frames”. At the time of the study there 108 DAN MANSON Fall 1996

were no new policies regarding data quality, confidentiality, and access control. Principals were primarily concerned with data security:

“Security is a concern for me ... We need to worry about who is seeing the data... Managers should not be able to access all the information even if it is useful, [such as] financial information to clients, because they leave and may go and work for competitors. So there should be prohibitions on information access.”

Lower down the hierarchy Managers and Senior Consultants were more concerned with personal liability:

“There is a hesitancy here because you don’t want to put everything into public information as people may rely on that information and screw up, and it may reflect badly on you.”

Orilikowski described Alpha’s culture as against supporting cooperation and sharing of expertise, and as counter-cultural to the underlying premise of groupware technologies such as Notes. In this environment Senior Consultants and Managers are concerned with losing status and power by sharing ideas, while only Principals are likely to focus on overall interests of the organization. Social control over use of Lotus Notes did not appear to change over time, although the review time was limited.

Global Electronic Networks

In 1969, the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (Arpanet) provided researchers with a method to electronically ship computer data to each other. A year later, electronic mail on Arpanet was implemented and quickly became the most popular feature on Arpanet, and its successor, the Internet. Today the Internet is a group of interconnected national, regional, and campus networks that use the same communications protocols. The Internet is the largest all-purpose global meta-network supported by governments. Although Internet is funded through a combination of federal support and user fees, there is no central control over content. Internet provides communication for users freed of time, distance, and political boundaries. For example, although a U.S. resident cannot make a phone call to Cuba, an Internet message can be sent with a couple of keystrokes at the cost of a local call. The largest backbone of Internet is called NSFnet. Currently NSFnet has 30 networks in Brazil, 3 in Estonia, 10 in Poland, 119 in Japan, 187 in the United Kingdom, 287 in Germany, 243 in France, and 253 in Canada. Internet use continues to grow. According to a July 1992 survey, the Internet had 992,000 host computers, up by 100,000 host computers since April of that year. Social control over Internet has not appeared to change over time.

Findings

Social control is linked with corporate culture, and the implementation of new technology such as electronic communication is likely to reflect more than impact the existing corporate culture. Table 2 illustrates the relationship of social control to employee (E) and management (M) use of electronic communication for the six electronic communication networks reviewed. THE EFFECT OF SOCIAL CONTROL MODELS ON MOTIVATION 109

Table 2 Social Control and Employee/Management Use of Electronic Communication

SOCIAL CONTROL

Managerial Control Professional Institutional Control Control High HCP (M) PHC (E) DRUGCORP (E)1 CSRO (E,M) INTERNET (E,M) Medium HCP (E) PHC (M) DRUGCORP (E,M)2 Low ALPHA (E,M) DRUGCORP (M)1

1 - At point of implementation 2 - After change in social control

The results of electronic communication case studies reviewed show a clear distinction between managerial and institutional models of social control. With one exception, the highest use of electronic communication occurred when an institutional model of control was used in the electronic communication infrastructure. In the case of CSRO and Internet, high use of electronic communications occurred regardless of status. It is worth noting that primary users of CSRO and Internet are from academia and not industry. Academic use of electronic communication may inherently involve less restrictions than industry use.

At PHC and DRUGCORP1, employee use of electronic communication was also high. In the case of PHC, there was no attempt to limit electronic communication to “business” use. Higher use of non-discretionary distribution lists indicate that employee motivation to use electronic communication is related more to “desire-to-know” than “need-to-know”. The higher use of information not directly related to work also accounts for lower management use of electronic communication. Managers may be more likely to rely on traditional methods of face- to-face and telephone discussion to satisfy informal communication needs because of their ability to control who receives the informal communication. At DRUGCORP1, the initial use of computer conferencing was counter to the corporate culture. DRUGCORP was historically a hierarchical, top-down control, information limiting organization.

DIALOG may eventually have been perceived by management as a threat to existing corporate culture. There was an initial sense of institutional control connected to DIALOG. This is reflected by higher employee use than management use of electronic communication. Over time, management began resisting employee control over DIALOG use and content. It is not a surprise that after management began to become interested in DIALOG, social control began reverting from institutional to managerial control. As reflected in DIALOG2, as management use of DIALOG increased, employee use, especially discretionary use, decreased.

HCP provides an example of the ability of managerial control to support high levels of electronic communication, especially for upper management. At HCP the drive to use electronic mail was top-down, with the Chairman tying electronic mail use to employment. There was no mention of discretionary electronic mail use, so it is no surprise that employee electronic mail use trailed management use. 110 DAN MANSON Fall 1996

Alpha provides an example of the effect of social control over groupware use. It should be noted that the study on Lotus Notes at Alpha was made shortly after implementation, so long-term use may change both social control and the level of manager and employee use. As in HCP, initial use of Lotus Notes was due to top-down control. Unlike HCP, there appeared to be no internal incentives to use Notes. Groupware is an example of a system where standard procedures can facilitate use, but at Alpha policies and procedures had not been developed. The type of social control in place at Alpha does not require all members to follow standardized procedures to take advantage of the electronic communication system.

Discussion

Our original hypothesis proposed that electronic communication influences social control, management and employee motivation to use of electronic communication will vary according to the type of social control, and the type of social control will affect ongoing motivation to use electronic communication.

Returning to our findings, we found only one case where electronic communication clearly affected the type of social control. At Drugcorp, traditional managerial control was changed to a form of institutional control when DIALOG was first implemented. Many employees expressed a sense of liberation through their use of DIALOG, with lower level employees feeling they could communicate on an equal level with anyone in the corporation, regardless of status. Other employees displayed similar emotions, saying computer conferencing rewarded knowledge transfer more than personal stature. The spreading of information without central control is characteristic of the institutional social control model. As managers took more of a “hands-on” approach toward DIALOG, social control changed from institutional to managerial. This change in social control resulted in increased formal use and decreased informal electronic communication. Employee motivation to use computer conferencing, especially for non-hierarchical communication, significantly decreased. The implication is that electronic communication will not have lasting effects on social control, especially in companies with a tradition of hierarchical control of information.

The strongest use of institutional control in electronic communication was found in academic and inter-organizational settings involving CSRO and Internet. As much as organizations may wish to share information with and decentralize control to their employees, there is an inherent desire to limit access to sensitive organizational information. The wrong information in a competitor’s hands may be a greater concern than the right information in an employee’s hands. Users of “public” information such as that likely to be found on CSRO and Internet may be less concerned with control over information access and content than users of “private” information used by organizations. As more organizations make use of global networks such as Internet we may find more demand for information security and control over “unauthorized” information access. However, as long as Internet is considered a “public network”, there will be strong user support for the institutional model. If the proposed National Research and Education Network (WREN), the “information superhighway”, develops a similar social control model as the Internet, there is a good chance that information access will be broad and control will be decentralized. This may apply to social control, but not technological control. There is increasing concern over computer viruses and other malicious attacks on information systems. It will be interesting to see if strict technological control can develop alongside institutional social control.

Conclusion

Our findings shed some light on the strengths and limitations of social control models in electronic communication. When corporate culture is taken into consideration, social control THE EFFECT OF SOCIAL CONTROL MODELS ON MOTIVATION 111

models can be used to predict use of electronic communication. Social control is a contributing factor to employee motivation to use electronic communication. However, corporate culture appears to supersede the inherent institutional control bias of electronic communication. If an existing culture supports information sharing and decentralized control, high levels of non- discretionary employee electronic communication can be expected. In this environment, employees are given greater “freedom of choice” in how and what they communicate. When communication channels are viewed as open, employees are more likely to use them, and more likely to feel a part of the organization. The most important implication of this study for further research is that one should not assume one social control model is best for all organizational use of electronic communication. Research is needed to determine how a “fit” can best be found between existing corporate culture, social control model, and an electronic communications infrastructure.

In many organizations, electronic mail is becoming a staple of formal and informal communication. Electronic mail and groupware, which now includes the World Wide Web, provide the potential to open communication channels to all employees regardless of status and personality. Employees can view electronic communication as an empowering tool to provide access to people, information and knowledge. The ability for an organization to create an infrastructure where employees use electronic communication to give and receive information and knowledge because they want to rather than have to may depend on successful use of social control models. 112 DAN MANSON Fall 1996

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