Pathanamthitta District, Kerala

कᴂद्रीय भूमि जल बो셍ड जल संसाधन, नदी विकास और गंगा संरक्षण विभाग, जल शक्ति मंत्रालय भारत सरकार Central Ground Water Board Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of Jal Shakti Government of India

AQUIFER MAPPING AND MANAGEMENT OF GROUND WATER RESOURCES

PATHANAMTHITTA DISTRICT, KERALA

केरल क्षेत्र, वत셁िनंतपुरम Kerala Region, Thiruvananthapuram

भारत सरकार GOVERNMENT OF INDIA जल संसाधन, नदी विकास और गंगा संरक्षण मंत्रालय MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, RIVER DEVELOPMENT & GANGA REJUVENATION केन्द्रीय भूवमजल बो셍ड CENTRAL GROUND WATER BOARD

AQUIFER MAPPING AND MANAGEMENT PLAN OF HARD ROCK AREAS OF PATHANAMTHITTA DISTRICT, KERALA (AAP 2017-18)

KERALA REGION THIRUVANANTHAPURAM JANUARY 2019

FOREWORD

The National Project on Aquifer Mapping (NAQUIM) is an initiative of the Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India, for mapping and managing the entire aquifer systems in the country. The aquifer systems in Kerala are being mapped as part of this Programme and this report pertains to aquifer mapping of the hard rock terrains of Pathanamthitta district. The target scale of investigation is 1:50,000 and envisages detailed study of the aquifer systems up to 200 m depth, to ascertain their resource, water quality, sustainability, and finally evolve an aquifer management plan. The report titled “Aquifer Mapping and Management plan of hard rock areas of Pathanamthitta District, Kerala” gives a complete and detailed scientific account of the various aspects of the hard rock aquifers in the area including its vertical and horizontal dimensions, flow directions, quantum and quality of the resources, of both - the shallow and deeper zones of the hard rock aquifers. Voluminous data were generated consequent to hydrogeological, ground water regime monitoring, exploratory drilling, geophysical studies etc. in the district, and incorporated in the report. The information is further supplemented by various data collected from State departments. It portrays the various ground water issues pertaining to the area along with recommendation for suitable interventions and remedial measures. Thus, it provides a total and holistic solution to the water security problems in the hard rock areas of Pathanamthitta district. This document has been prepared under the guidance of Dr. N. Vinayachandran, Scientist D & Nodal Officer, and Smt. T.S. Anitha Shyam, Scientist D & Team leader. The painstaking efforts of the field hydrogeologist Dr. Sakthimurugan, Asst.Hydrogeologist in carrying out the aquifer mapping and preparation of this report are well appreciated. Dr. K.R. Sooryanarayana, Suptdg. Hydrogeologist and Dr. V.S Joji, Scientist D deserves appreciation for their meticulous scrutiny of this report before printing. I am also thankful to the Chairman, Members and officers of CGWB, Faridabad for their valuable guidance in finalizing this document. Thanks, are also due to various organizations of Government of Kerala and Government of India for providing data required for the compilation of this document. This report evolved in the present form through incorporations and modifications as suggested during the presentation of the report before the State Ground Water Coordination Committee (SGWCC) chaired by the Water Resources Secretary, Kerala State, Smt. Tinku Biswal, IAS and before the DM, Pathanamthitta district. Their sincere efforts and encouragements for improvising the content of this report are acknowledged with gratitude. I hope this compilation will be of much help to the planners, administrators and stakeholders in the water sector in Kerala and will serve as a useful guide for the optimal and sustainable management of ground water resources in the hard rock areas of Pathanamthitta district bases on sound scientific foot. Thiruvananthapuram, January, 2019.

(V. Kunhambu) Regional Director

Table of Contents 1.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Objectives ...... 1 1.2 Methodology ...... 1 1.3 Brief Description of the area ...... 2 1.4 Administrative Divisions ...... 2 1.5 Climate ...... 5 1.6 Geomorphologic features ...... 6 1.7 Drainage and morphometric features ...... 6 1.8 Soil characteristics ...... 6 1.9 Hydrology ...... 6 1.10 Irrigation Projects: Major, Medium, and Minor ...... 7 1.11 Land use ...... 10 1.12 Forest ...... 10 1.13 Cropping pattern ...... 10 1.14 Urban Area, Industries and Mining activities ...... 10 1.15 Water supply ...... 11 1.16 Previous work ...... 11 1.17 General geology ...... 11 1.18 Geophysical Studies ...... 15 2.0 DATA COLLECTION, GENERATION AND INTEGRATION ...... 18 2.1 Data collection and data gap analysis ...... 18 2.1.1 Water Level Monitoring ...... 18 2.1.2 Exploration ...... 18 2.1.3 VES and Profiling ...... 19 2.1.4 Water Quality Monitoring ...... 19 2.2 Data generation and integration ...... 19 2.2.1 Groundwater Exploration ...... 19 2.2.2 Water levels and piezometric heads ...... 20 2.3 Water quality monitoring...... 20 3.0 DATA INTERPRETATION AND AQUIFER MAPPING ...... 24 3.1 Hydrometeorology ...... 24 3.1.1 Rainfall ...... 24 3.1.2 Droughts – Incidence, Intensity & Periodicity ...... 25 3.2 Soil Characteristics ...... 34 3.3 Geomorphology ...... 36 3.4 Drainage characteristics...... 36 3.5 Land Use, Irrigation and cropping patterns ...... 39 3.6 Cropping pattern ...... 42 4. AQUIFER MAPPING ...... 45

4.1 Thickness of weathered zone ...... 45 4.2 Water levels ...... 46 4.3 Saturated thickness of the weathered zone ...... 46 4.4 Water level trend ...... 52 4.5 Water Table Countour ...... 53 4.6 Quality of water in the weathered zone ...... 56 4.7 Groundwater potential of weathered zone ...... 57 4.8 Fracture Aquifer Geometry ...... 57 4.9 Geophysical Investigations ...... 62 4.10 Piezometric head in the fracture zone ...... 70 4.11 Groundwater and its relation to Geological Structures ...... 74 4.12 Aquifer characteristics ...... 76 4.13 Groundwater potential of fracture aquifer system ...... 77 4.14 Water quality of Deep Aquifers ...... 80 5.0 GROUND WATER RESOURCES ...... 83 5.1 Dynamic groundwater Resources in the weathered zone ...... 83 5.2 Groundwater recharge ...... 83 5.3 Groundwater Draft ...... 85 5.4 Number of ground water structure for future development ...... 86 5.5 Instorage in the weathered zone ...... 87 5.6 Instorage in the Fracture zone ...... 87 6.0 GROUND WATER PROBLEMS AND SPECIAL STUDIES ...... 88 6.1 Vulnerable area ...... 88 7.0 AQUIFER MANAGEMENT PLAN ...... 91 7.1 Phreatic aquifer - Present Scenario ...... 91 7.2 Fractured aquifer system ...... 92 7.3 Springs ...... 92 7.4 Sustainable development of Groundwater in hard rock area...... 93 7.5 Scope of Artificial Recharge ...... 94 7.6 Recommendations ...... 97 Acknowledgements ...... 98 References ...... 98

List of Tables

Table 1.1: Monthly Rainfall of Pathanamthitta district (2012-2016) ...... 5 Table 1.2: Morphometric analysis for seven sub basins in Pamba basin ...... 7 Table 1.3: Salient feature of the projects ...... 8 Table 1.4: The details of canals net work...... 9 Table 1.5: Base flow components in Pamba River (Gauge Station: Kurudamannil) ...... 9 Table 1.6: Regional Geological Setting of Pathanamthitta district ...... 11 Table 1.7: Generalised resistivity values of Pathanamthitta district ...... 16 Table 2.1: The data availability for data gap analysis ...... 18 Table 2.2: Data requirement and data generated under aquifer mapping...... 19 Table 3.1: Compilation of Drought Analysis of Rainfall Data over Study area ...... 26 Table 3.2: Land utilisation 2013-14 (Area in Hectares) ...... 39 Table 3.3: Net Area Irrigated (Source wise) 2013-14 ...... 42 Table 3.4: Major Crops in Pathanamthitta district 2013-14 ...... 42 Table 4.1: Water level trend of different formation in Pathanamthitta District ...... 52 Table 4.2: Quality of water in the weathered zone (April 2016) ...... 56 Table 4.3: Interpreted results of VES in Kallada basin ...... 64 Table 4.4: Interpreted results of VES in Pamba basin ...... 65 Table 4.5: Interpreted results of VES carried out in Pathanamthitta district from 2010-16 ...... 66 Table 4.6: Interpreted results of VES carried out in Pathanamthitta district, (recommended sites) ...... 66 Table 4.7: Interpreted results of VES carried out in Pathanamthitta district (Not recommended) ...... 67 Table 4.8: Piezometric head of the fractured aquifer system ...... 70 Table 4.9: Ground water Trend in Fractured Aquifer ...... 74 Table 4.10: Data of Aquifer Performance Test conducted ...... 76 Table 4.11: Yield of bore wells in different ranges and their percentage ...... 77 Table 4.12: Ground Water quality of Deeper Aquifers ...... 80 Table 5.1 Block wise groundwater resources in Pathanamthitta District as on 31st March 2013 ...... 84 Table 5.2: Groundwater Draft (MCM) in Pathanamthitta District as on 2013 ...... 85 Table 5.3: Stage of Development in Pathanamthitta district ...... 86 Table 7.1: Details of spring in Pathanamthitta district ...... 92 Table 7.2: Block-wise feasible methods of Artificial recharge structures ...... 95

List of Figures

Fig. 1 .1: Location map of the study area ...... 3 Fig. 1.2: Administrative map of study area ...... 4 Fig .1.3: Annual rainfall Pathanamthitta District ...... 5 Fig. 1.4: The Main Dam of Pamba Irrigation Project at Maniyar ...... 8 Fig. 1.5: Geology of study area ...... 13 Fig. 2.1: Exploratory well locations in the area ...... 21 Fig. 2.2: Locations of integrated water level monitoring wells and Piezometers ...... 22 Fig. 2.3: Locations of integrated Quality monitoring wells and Piezometers ...... 23 Fig. 3.1: Isohytel Map of the study area ...... 32 Fig. 3.2: Frequency of Occurrence of Drought ...... 33 Fig. 3.3: Soil Map of study area ...... 35 Fig. 3.4: Geomorphological map of study area ...... 37 Fig.3.5: Drainage map of study area ...... 38 Fig. 3.6: Land use map of study area ...... 40 Fig. 3.7: Schematic diagram of Land use pattern in Pathanamthitta District ...... 41 Fig. 3.8: Schematic diagram of Cropping Pattern in Pathanamthitta District ………………………………………………. 41 Fig. 3.9: Pinapple cultivated as inter-crop among Rubber plantation near Kumbazha ………………………………… 41 Fig. 3.10: Banana cultivated within rubberplantation in high land area near Laha ...... 44 Fig. 4.1: Pre-monsoon water level in the study area ...... 47 Fig. 4.2: Post monsoon water level in the study area ...... 48 Fig. 4.3: Water level Fluctuation in the study area ...... 49 Fig. 4.4: Saturated thickness of aquifer during Pre-monsoon ...... 50 Fig. 4.5: Saturated thickness of aquifer during post-monsoon ...... 51 Fig. 4.6: Water level trend of Crystalline and Laterite Aquifers ...... 53 Fig. 4.7: Water table contour map of Pre-monsoon ...... 54 Fig. 4.8: Water table contour map of Post monsoon ...... 55 Fig 4.9: Hill-Piper diagram showing Geochemical Classification of Shallow Aquifer ...... 57 Fig. 4.10: Groundwater potential map of phreatic aquifer system in the weathered zone...... 58 Fig. 4.11: Aquifer Map of Phreatic Aquifer system ...... 59 Fig. 4.12: Panel diagram displaying lateral and vertical variations in weathered thickness and depth of occurrence of fractures ...... 60 Fig.4.13: Panel diagram displaying lateral and vertical variations in weathered thickness ...... 61 Fig.4.14: Apparent resistivity contour map of Konni ...... 61 Fig.4.15: Geoelectrical Sections along Achenkovil fracture - Konni...... 63 Fig. 4.16: Representation of different field curves in Pathanamthitta district ...... 64 Fig. 4.17: Composite log of Lithology, electrical, gamma and caliper logs of Kalanjur bore well ...... 69

Fig. 4.18: Pre-monsoon Piezometric Head in the study area ...... 71 Fig. 4.19: Post-monsoon Piezometric Head in the study area...... 72 Fig. 4.20: Water Level Fluctuation of Piezometric Head in the study area ...... 73 Fig. 4.21: Water level Trend of Hydrographs of Piezometers ...... 74 Fig. 4.22: Multiple direction Joints in country rock Near Ranni...... 75 Fig.4.23: Joints and fractures observed in a quarry Near Naranganam ...... 76 Fig.4.24: Ground water potential map of fracture aquifer system...... 78 Fig.4.25: Aquifer map of fracture aquifer system ...... 79 Fig. 4.26: Electrical Conductivity map of Deeper Aquifer in the study area...... 81 Fig. 4. 27: Hill-Piper diagram showing Geochemical Classification of fractured Aquifer ...... 82 Fig 5.1: Present Ground water Draft and Availability ...... 86 Fig. 6.2: Indiscriminate quarrying in Parakuttam and Ranni ...... 89 Fig. 6.3 Waste materials dumped on the river and bank ...... 89 Fig. 7.1: Spring at Nilackal ...... 93 Fig. 7.2: Spring at Arrekakavu ...... 93 Fig. 7.3: The roof top rain water harvesting practises near Maniyar...... 97

List of Appendices

Appendix 1: Heavy metals in different source in Pathanamthitta District (Sample collected during Management studies in 2012) ...... 100 Appendix 2: Salient features of Bore wells (EW) drilled in Pathanamthitta ...... 101 Appendix 3: Water related data from Village Panchyaths ...... 104 Appendix 4: Data of Aquifer Performance Test Conducted ...... 118 Appendix 5: Monitoring wells in phreatic aquifer ...... 119 Appendix 6: Pre and Post monsoon Depth to the water level in fractured aquifer system (Piezometers) ...... 122

Minutes

Minutes...... 123

Contributor’s page

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The Central Ground Water Board, Kerala Region carried out aquifer mapping under National Aquifer Mapping Programme (NAQUIM) in Hard Rock Terrains of Pathanamthitta district, during the annual action plan of 2017-2018. The aquifer mapping is a multi- disciplinary scientific process where data related to the aquifer system and groundwater regime are integrated to characterize the quantity, quality and movement of groundwater in aquifers. A better understanding of the hydrogeological processes that control the distribution and availability of groundwater in the weathered and fracture zones of the aquifer system is imperative for sustainable resource management. The sustainable development and management of hard rock aquifer system involves development of strategies for balancing the water draft and water availability. Integrated studies on various aspects of the groundwater regime have been carried out to know the disposition and productivity of the aquifer systems.

The hydrogeological environment of the study area has been conceptualized from the study of historical data on the groundwater regime and from the available technical reports and publications. The data gaps could be identified from the analysis of historical data which facilitated generation of new data in gap areas. The hydrogeological, hydrological, geophysical, hydrochemical and meteorological data were analysed for data gaps. Groundwater draft from the aquifer systems has been evaluated from well inventory data and integrated use of lithological and geophysical data could refine the aquifer geometry of the area. 1.1 Objectives Aquifer mapping is a process wherein a combination of geologic, geophysical, hydrologic and chemical field and laboratory analyses are applied to characterize the quantity, quality and sustainability of ground water in aquifers. Thus, the main objective of aquifer mapping is to generate an aquifer map of the area in 1: 50,000 scale and to develop a management plan for aquifer sustainability. Numerous studies have been carried out to achieve the objectives such as 1. Analyses of the present water demand from various sectors, 2. Study on the climate, rainfall and their contribution to ground water, 3. Analyses of the geomorphology, soil, morphometric pattern and their influence to ground water, 4. Study of bore hole lithology to define the aquifer geometry and to characterize the aquifer systems, 5. Studies on groundwater regime behaviour, 6. Studies on the recharge characteristics and resource potential, 7. Ground water resource assessment and quality evaluation, 8 Study on hydro-chemical characteristics of weathered and fracture aquifer systems and the extent of contaminant/pollutant in groundwater, if any, and 9 Arrive at an effective groundwater management plan.

1.2 Methodology The methodology involves various steps of activities in achieving the objectives. The major activities envisaged under aquifer mapping are 1. data gap analysis, 2. data generation and integration and 3. Preparation of thematic maps and aquifer models.

The data gap analysis primarily involves compilation, analysis and interpretation of the existing data on the groundwater regime. The data inadequacy or data gaps identified from this study forms the base for additional data generation. The existing data and the new data generated under aquifer mapping activities has been integrated and various thematic maps depicting hydrogeology, hydrology, geomorphology, water quality etc and cross- sections, panel diagrams, elevation models and aquifer geometry (2-D models and 3-D models) were prepared.

1.3 Brief Description of the area

Pathanamthitta is combination of two words Pathanam and Thitta which means an array of houses on the river side. Pathanamthitta is an inland district of Kerala State covering an area of 2531 sq.km. It accounts for 7.02% of the total area of the State and is bordered by Quilon in the south and Alleppey on the west, Kottayam and Idukki districts on the north and Tamil Nadu state in the east. The district lies between North latitude 9°4’12’’ and 9°28’55’’ and East longitudes 76°33’53’’ and 77°17’4.52’’, falling in part of the Survey of India degree sheets 58 C and 58 G. The famous hill shrine of Lord Ayyappa at Sabarimala is in the district. Pathanamthitta town, the district headquarters, is well connected by major state highways to Thiruvananthapuram, Kottayam and Kochi. The location map of the district is shown in Figure 1.1

1.4 Administrative Divisions

The district has two revenue divisions namely Thiruvalla and Adoor and consists of five taluks viz; Adoor, Kozhencherry, Thiruvalla, Mallapally and Ranni. Other administrative divisions include eight blocks viz Parakode, Pandalam, Elanthoor, Konni, Mallappally, Pulikeezhu, Ranni, and Koipuram and four municipalities - Pathanamthitta, Adoor, Pandalam and Thiruvalla. Ranni is the biggest block of Thiruvalla division with an area of 1004.6 sq.km and Konni is the biggest block of Adoor division constituting an area of 841.26 sq.km. The Location and administrative divisions are shown in Fig. 1.2.

Fig. 1 .1: Location map of the study area

Fig. 1.2: Administrative map of study area

1.5 Climate Pathanamthitta has a moderate climate with annual temperature range between 20 and 39 °C. The district experiences heavy rainfall during southwest monsoon season followed by the northeast monsoon season. During January to May the rainfall is scanty with occational summer showers which constitute the non-monsoon rainfall. March and April are the hottest months and December to February are the coldest. The annual rainfall during the period 2012 to 2016 varies from 1817.9 to 3143.50 mm. Table 1.1: Monthly Rainfall of Pathanamthitta district (2012-2016) Total Rain fall in YEAR JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC mm 2012 9.1 13 84.6 281.5 84.6 179.5 270.6 451.6 138.4 158.9 120.1 26 1817.9 2013 9 24.4 92 47 154 728.7 608.4 281 310.3 268.4 306.1 18 2847.3 2014 2.9 35.8 36.4 287 295.1 415.6 429.4 778.7 289.6 401.2 94.6 77.2 3143.5 2015 7.8 18.3 76 477 177 369.6 186.1 269.1 347.8 546.4 336 79.1 2890.2 2016 0.5 4.6 70 123.3 427.4 459.4 344.8 211.7 79.5 224.1 193.9 7.8 2147

ANNUAL RAIN FALL (in mm) 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Fig .1.3: Annual rainfall Pathanamthitta District The district receives an average annual rainfall of 3133.9 mm. The major rainfall contribution is from south-west monsoon season during June to September. The other seasons are contributing less rainfall in comparison with the south-west monsoon season. The long-term rain fall data from Rajagiri and Kalleli reveals that rain fall pattern has not changed significantly over the years.

Areal distribution

The eastern part of the district receives maximum rainfall in comparison with the western part. The area around Konni receives the highest and the area around Adoor receives the lowest. The maximum rainfall occurs during June and July of the south-west monsoon season. The normal annual rainfall of the district is presented in Fig.1.3.

1.6 Geomorphologic features

The district can be divided into three geomorphic units viz. highland, midland, and lowland. The highland stretches through the Western Ghats, where the hills are having an average altitude of around 800 m and covered with thick forests. The high lands cover parts of Ranni and Konni blocks of the district with undulating topography. The mid-land region of the district is covered by low and broad valleys with some valleys sharpening to the foot hills and is characterized by thick pile of laterite cover. It descends to the smaller hills of midland in the center and finally to the lowland.

1.7 Drainage and morphometric features Three rivers viz; Pampa, Achankovil and Manimala flow through the district. The Pampa River is formed by the confluence of Pambayar, Aruthayar, Kakkadayar, Kakkai and Kallar. It descends from Sabarimala, flows through various parts of Ranni taluk, enters Alappuzha district after joining with river Manimala and river Achankovil and empties itself into the Vembanad Lake. The river Achankovil is formed by the confluence of several small streams originating from Rishimala, Pasukidamettu and Ramakkalteri and joins the Pamba at Veeyapuram in Alappuzha district. Pamba and Achankovil rivers together drain more than 70% of the area of Pathanamthitta. The Kallada River flows through the southern part of the district. The Pamba and Kallada rivers are perennial. These rivers with their tributaries exhibit trellis pattern of drainage in the eastern portion of the hills, sub-trellis in the middle and dendritic in the western part of the district.

1.8 Soil characteristics

The weathering of the parent rocks has led to the formation of diverse types of soil like forest Loam, lateritic, brown hydromorphic, riverine alluvium, and greyish Onattukara.

1.9 Hydrology

Three important rivers flow through the district. These rivers originate from the Western Ghats. The Pamba which is the third longest river in Kerala has its origin in Pulachimala. The Achankovil River originates from Pasukida Mettu, and Manimala River originates from the Thattamalai hills. These rivers are harnessed for irrigation projects.

Surface Water irrigation The Pamba and Kallada projects are major irrigation projects in this district. There are no existing medium irrigation schemes in the district. The minor irrigation schemes have a total command area of 5988 ha. The total area irrigated annually from the existing projects is 38855 ha. The surface water utilisation by the existing Pamba Irrigation Project is assessed to be 230 MCM. The utilisation by existing minor schemes is 79 MCM. Thus, the total surface water utilisation from the existing projects is 309 MCM. The southern part of the district is irrigated by the canal network of Kallada irrigation project. Morphometric analysis carried out for all the existing sub basins reveals a slight variation in the characteristic properties except the pamba west is mainly because of uniform nature of under lying lithology which has been confirmed by the drainage pattern

developed over it. It was brought out that Kallar and Alutha sub basins show higher erosion characteristic. Thus, suitable soil conservation measures are required in this area to prevent further land erosion. Variation in bifurcation ratio of the sub basins reflects the effects of structural disturbance of the area. Elongation ratio shows that majority of sub basins shows elongated in shape that can be correlation with undulating and sloping nature of the terrain. The present study is valuable for erosional planning and further prospective related to runoff study. The results of Morphometric analysis are presented in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2: Morphometric analysis for seven sub basins in Pamba basin # Sub Relief areal aspect basin linear aspect ratio Bifurcati Draina Stream Text Length Circula For Elon Compa on ratio ge freque ure of tory m gatio ctness densit ncy ratio overla ratio fact n coeffici y nd or ratio ent flow 8.79 0.15 0.44 1 Alutha 5.780 3.695 9.049 5 0.541 0.229 35 21 2.090 0.039 Pamba 8.37 0.13 0.41 2 Centre 3.251 3.284 7.831 0 0.609 0.259 53 52 1.964 0.030 PambaE 11.2 0.26 0.57 3 ast 5.519 3.735 9.331 04 0.536 0.380 29 87 1.623 0.058 Pamba 4.55 0.18 0.47 4 West 2.618 1.800 3.217 4 1.111 0.261 00 89 1.960 0.008 kakkadA 13.6 0.16 0.45 5 r 8.242 3.345 8.356 14 0.598 0.352 04 20 1.686 0.027 11.0 0.19 0.49 6 Kokkiar 6.137 3.195 7.781 75 0.626 0.277 29 58 1.902 0.040 12.1 0.13 0.41 7 Kallar 6.083 3.369 8.523 13 0.594 0.293 52 51 1.849 0.030

At Kurudamannil gauge station, the mean annual runoff is estimated to be about 3540 MCM. The runoff coefficient for the Pamba River at this station works out to be 0.88. For the Achenkovil River at Thumpamon, the mean annual runoff is estimated to be around 750 MCM and the runoff coefficient 0.46. At the Thumpamon gauge station the percentage of south-west monsoon runoff ranges between 79.7 and 40.9 with a mean value of 66% while the percentage of north-east monsoon varies between 57.2 and 14.2 with a mean value of 28.8%. 1.10 Irrigation Projects: Major, Medium, and Minor Pamba Irrigation Project The total cultivable command area (CCA) envisaged is 19800 ha, out of which 12820 ha falls in Pamba basin, 4850 ha in Achenkovil basin and 2130 ha in Manimala basin. The Pamba Irrigation project in Pathanamthitta district aims at the utilization of the tail race water of Sabarigiri Hydro Electric project for irrigation purpose. The tail-race water is let into the river Kakkad and is picked up at Maniyar by a barrage. The water thus collected is diverted through a canal on the left bank of the river. The project was completed during 1993. Project potential is 21135 Ha. in Ranni, Kozhenchery, Mallappally and Thiruvalla in Pathanamthitta district and Chengannoor, Mavelikkara, Karthikappilly and Kayamkulam in Alapuzha district. The ayacut is generally on the right and left bank of river Pamba which is in between the rivers of Manimala and Achancoil on the right and left respectively and in

tail reaches it covers Onattukara and eastern fringes of paddy field in Kuttanad of Kerala. The project consists of a barrage of length 115.22m with FRL at 34.62m. Details of canals compiled are given in Table 1.3 and main dam of Pamba Irrigation Project at Maniyar shown in Fig. 1.4. Table 1.3: Salient feature of the projects

Canal Length in Km Year of Commencement 1961 Length 115.22 meter Main canal 20 Right bank canal 20.23 Right bank distributary 33.78 Left bank canal 47.15 Left bank distributor 190.59 Purpose Irrigation Ayacut Net 21135 Catchment area 287 Km² Completion 1992 Location Maniyar District Pathanamthitta Basin Pampa Sub-basin Kakkad Longitude 76° 53’ E Latitude 9° 20’ N

Fig. 1.4: The Main Dam of Pamba Irrigation Project at Maniyar

Kallda Irrigation Project

Kallada irrigation and Tree Crop Development project is the largest irrigation project in Kerala. The command area of this project is distributed over Kollam, Pathanamthitta and

Alappuzha district and covers Pathanapuram, Kottarakkara, Kollam, Kunnathur, Karunagappally, Adoor, Mavelikkara and Karthikappally Taluks. The project was planned to irrigate net cultivable command area of 61630 Ha. During the course of execution few canals including Kayamkulam Branch canal were dropped and now this project is benefited for a net cultivable command area of 53514 Ha in 92 villages. The details of canals net work are given in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4: The details of canals net work Canal Rt. bank length, Km Nos Lt. bank length, Km Nos Main Canal 69.75 1 56.00 1

Branches 47.57 3 61.72 3 Distributaries 279.63 46 208.85 29 Minor 124.4 55 63.26 24 Distributaries Total 521.35 105 389.83 57

Baseflow The baseflow components were separated from the surface runoff based on the analysis of the hydrographs using "Arbitrary method based on recession trends”. The base flow in streams represents effluent ground water discharge after abstraction by various means. In highland areas, where the bed rock is cut open by open fractures and where the soil cover is permeable, a sizeable portion of the rainfall moves directly into the ground water reservoir and later reappears as base flow. The base flow after the monsoon is considered to be largely derived from the ground water storage. Hence, high amount of base flow is possible in areas with high ground water recharge.

For the Pamba River at Kundamannil gauge station, the mean annual base flow is estimated at about 290 MCM which is about 7.8% of the mean annual run off at the station. For the Achenkovil River at Thumpamon gauge station, the mean annual base flow is estimated at about 30 MCM which is about 4.2% of the mean annual runoff at the station. The base flow components are given in the Table 1.5 Table 1.5: Base flow components in Pamba River (Gauge Station: Kurudamannil) Year Annual Run off Baseflow (MCM) Percent of (MCM) baseflow 1980 3659.9 387.6 10.6 1981 5750.2 355.3 6.2 1982 2888.6 452.9 15.7 1983 2557.5 94.2 3.7 1984 3302.9 369.3 11.2 1985 3516.6 3352.6 10.0 1986 2956.4 196.7 6.6 1987 2937.9 215.5 7.3 1988 3363.3 337.7 10.0 1989 4385.4 295.4 6.7 1990 3131.3 335.8 4.6 1991 3128.2 142.9 4.6 1992 4415.1 191.6 4.3 Mean 3538.6 286.7 7.8%

Ponds, tanks and other water conservation structures

Under Minor Irrigation schemes based on surface water, there are lift irrigation schemes, tanks, ponds and other sources. Ground water irrigation is done through dug wells and bore wells. In the district the gross area irrigated by Minor Irrigation schemes is 5218 ha.

Net Area Irrigated through surface water schemes in the District a) Tanks - 33 ha. b) Minor & L.I. - 238 ha. c) Other sources - 2492 ha. Total = 2763 ha. Net Area Irrigated through ground water schemes Wells - 2455 ha. Grand Total = 5218 ha.

1.11 Land use The utilization of land for a purpose is governed by a host of factors including topography, type and thickness of soil, rainfall pattern etc. Based on the panchayat level statistics 2006 published by the State Government the recent details are presented in following Chapter.

1.12 Forest Pathanamthitta district has a reserve forest area of 1,385.27 sq km. This is approximately 50% of the total area of the district. The forest area can broadly be classified as evergreen, semi-evergreen and moist deciduous. The forest is the main source of raw materials for wood based industrial units. Timber is the most important produce Teak, rose wood, jack tree, manjakadambu, anjili and pala are the important varieties of timbers available in the district. 1.13 Cropping pattern Agriculture is the main occupation of people and about 75% people are dependent on this sector paddy, tapioca, rubber, sugarcane, pepper and banana are the main crops cultivated in the district. Rubber is the most important cash crop, covering an area of 478 sq. kms. The hilly terrain coupled with high humidity makes the region suitable for rubber plantations. Paddy is the most important crop cultivated in the valley and plain land. Tapioca and pulses are the important dry land crops. Other major crops are coconut, banana, pepper and ginger. In certain areas cashew, pineapple, sugarcane, cocoa and other tree spices are cultivated. The land available for cultivation is less since sizeable area of the district is reserve forest. Agricultural production can be revitalized by tapping the groundwater resources of the district with sustainable development. The total cropped area of the district 117603 ha, and area sown more than once is 27767 ha.

1.14 Urban Area, Industries and Mining activities

Pathanamthitta, Adoor and Thiruvalla are the urban area in this district and their population is about 123798 and density of the population is 1723. Pathanamthitta district is

considered as industrially backward. There are 13,898 registered Small-Scale Industries (SSI), employing 46,421 people and also 378 workers employed in the handloom sector. Three Mini Industrial Estates in the district with the State government declaring 8.5 hectares of area as development plot, one each at Adoor, Mallappally and Pandalam. The units in these estates are engaged in manufacturing primer paints, bone meal, coconut oil, cattle feed, rubber molded goods, metal products etc. There is no mining activity in the district except open cast quarry for building stones and metal crushers. 1.15 Water supply The urban and rural water supply by Kerala water authority mainly depends on surface water particularly from nearby rivers. The water supply details are given in Appendix- I 1.16 Previous work Geological and mineral mapping was carried out in the district by Geological Survey of India and geology and mining department of Kerala. Systematic Hydrogeological Surveys were carried out by Shri. Lakshminarayanan. P of CGWB during 1975-76 & 1982-83. The SIDA Assisted Coastal Kerala Ground Water Project carried out detailed hydrogeological studies with exploration in the district during the period 1983 – 88. Shri. D.D. Sharma carried out reappraisal hydrogeological surveys during 1989-90.

The district report prepared by S/Sh. D. Shivane V. Elenchelian, Sc B and K. Balakrishnan Sc B carried out reappraisal hydrogeological surveys in the district during 1987-88. The recent district reports by Sri. K.Md. Najeeb, Sc D.and Smt Mini Chandran Sc C. The water samples collected from the groundwater monitoring stations of the district during April every year is being analysed and studied for suitability of different uses. The hydro meteorological and hydrogeological data collected from the district is also analysed and studied periodically. The Ground water management studies were carried out by S. Sakthi Murugan Assistant Hydrogeologist during the year 2011-2012.The ground water exploration was carried out by various Officers of Central Ground Water Board in recent years.

1.17 General geology

The geology of study area is mainly Archaean metamorphic complex. The eastern part of the district constituting the hilly area and part of midland area comprises rocks of Archaean era forming part of the stable peninsular shield. Along the western parts of the district, small patches of sedimentary formations of Tertiary and Recent age are seen overlying the crystalline rocks. The general stratigraphic succession in the district is given in Table 1.6 and geology map presented in Fig. 1.5.

Table 1.6: Regional Geological Setting of Pathanamthitta district Age Formation/rock type Sub-recent Laterite Tertiary Coarse sand and gravel with lignite and clay (Viakom bed) Undated Intrusive of gabbro, Dolerite, granite, pegmatites and quartz veins Archaean Hornblende Biotite Gneiss, Biotite Gneiss, Garnet Biotite Gneiss, Charnockites

Archaean formations

The Archaean group of rocks comprising charnockites and gneisses along with minor occurrence of pyroxene granulite, pyroxene gneisses and calc-granulite traversed by pegmatites, quartzite and quartz veins are exposed in the eastern part of the district. The basic intrusive traversing the Archaean are gabbro and dolerites. All the rock types have been lateritised and thickness of lateritisation varies from place to place and goes up to 20 m. at places.

Fig. 1.5: Geology of study area

Charnockite group of rocks are found in almost all the blocks except Pulikeezh block and particularly around Mallappalli, Kulanada and Ranni blocks covering an area of around 1829 sq.km. The Charnockites are less susceptible to weathering than other crystalline rocks and are in general massive. The pyroxene granulites east of Kudasanad have strike in ENE-WSW and NW-SE directions and have exposures with a width of 10 to 20m running over a few hundred meters. The gneisses represented by Hornblende Biotite Gneiss, Biotite Gneiss, Garnet Biotite Gneiss and garnet sillimanite gneiss (Khondalite) occur mostly in the southeastern part of the district covering an area of around 80 sq.km and particularly Parakode and Konni blocks. These are fine to medium grained, foliated and light colored.

There are several basic dykes of dolerites and gabbroic composition cutting across the crystalline rocks. The dykes are parallel or sub-parallel to regional foliation. Majority of the dykes trend in two directions viz; NW-SE and NNW-SSE.

Laterite formation

The laterite of Sub-recent age occurs east of coastal alluvium over an area of about 740 sq.km. in the district. The general thickness of laterite ranges from 5 to 7m to a maximum of 20 m. The typical laterite profile seen in the crystalline terrain is a lateritic soil at the top followed by soft laterite, lithomargic clay and weathered zone. The laterite derived from the Tertiaries is light, homogeneous, soft and devoid of any sand fragments and occur below the alluvium. The thickness of this laterite below alluvium is negligible in the district. The laterites are seen as patches almost all the blocks and the tertiary laterites are seen near Thiruvalla.

Sub surface Geology

In the north western parts of the district the recent alluvium attains a thickness of more than 2 m. It is followed by a top clay layer of 3 m thickness followed by fine to coarse sand. The Recent alluvium is underlain by the Vaikom beds having a thickness of more than 65 m. Weathered, fractured and massive charnockites are encountered below Vaikom beds. Around 52 exploratory boreholes drilled in the crystalline areas of the district. The lithological succession are hard laterites are followed by lithomarge clay than weathered crystalline rocks are seen in mid land region. The data from exploratory bore hole indicates the presence of deep-seated fractures at depths down to about 260 mbgl. The top weathered thickness varies from 5-17 m and is underlain by massive charnockites. These massive charnockites are traversed by several fracture zones at depth.

Structure and tectonics

The crystalline rocks have undergone several phases of deformation and have suffered intensive fracturing and dislocation. The earliest phase appears to be folding and metamorphism on a regional scale. The regional metamorphism is of high grade granulitic facies resulting in formation of charnockites, pyroxene granulites, sillimanite gneisses and biotite gneisses. They show regional isoclinical folding on NW-SE direction. The regional strike of foliation in charnockites and gneisses is generally NW-SE. Trend of foliation near

Kulanada varies from N-S to NW-SE with steep dip towards west and in the northern portion, it swings from NNW-SSE to NW-SE with medium to high dip on either side.

There is one major shear zone. The Achenkovil shear trending in NW-SE direction along which the Achenkovil River flows. This shear zone has not only formed weak plane for the intrusion of dykes but they have also become weak planes for weathering and erosion to form drainage channels for most of the tributaries and streams. Prominent sets of joints are seen in most of the rocks. Strike joints and dip joints are very common in charnockites and gneisses (Photographs).

Since the Achenkovil shear zone is a major shear zone running through this district and having long stretch from eastern part Alleppy district to Tirunelveli in Tamilnadu state. Though the fracture is very wide and deep, the water holding capacity of this lineament is very less because of inter connected long lineament leads to transmit the water to tail end of the lineament. It is evident that the bore wells drilled along the lineament either got failure or meager discharge. The fractured potential ground water zones may be available in deeper depth along /near to the lineament.

1.18 Exploratory drilling

A total of 56 exploratory bore holes were drilled in Pathanamthitta district, the yield of the wells goes up to 16.0 lps. The well in the northeast lineament at Vadasserikara on the banks of the river did not yield water. The places like Plapally, Vallicode, Kummannur, Chadanapally, Ottethekku, Munudumuzhy, Thannithode, Malayapuzha, Manajadi and vennikulam are low yielding wells.

The bore well along the NNW lineament had the highest yield of 990 lpm. The bore holes located along NW lineament also yielded little water. The successful bore wells that have yields 3 to 16 lps, are located at Perumpatti, Kodumon, Konni, Pathanamthitta, Vadeserikkara, Koipuram and Kadamanchira. The southern parts of the district covered by the khondalites rocks are predominant and very potential around koduman and kalanjur. In general, where ever the lithological changes are observed during the drilling the yielding of water gradually increased. In sedimentary area one tube well was also drilled at Pulikeezh. The salient details of bore wells drilled in the district are presented in Appendix-6.

In general, the lineaments are showing good potential of ground water, but the ground exploration data reveals that the potential ground water is available away from the lineaments. The best example is the ground water exploration carried out in and around Pathanamthitta where the Achankoil lineament passing through southern part of the district.

1.18 Geophysical Studies

Detailed geophysical surveys comprising of electrical resistivity and electromagnetic techniques were carried out across the inferred lineaments to locate sites for exploratory drilling during the Coastal Kerala Groundwater Project.

Detailed resistivity and VLF surveys were undertaken to define the major NW-SE trending Achenkovil shear zones at Konni. The VLF measurement have shown fairly strong anomaly of +17 to –20% in the in-phase component against the broad fracture zone. The resistivity map and the geoelectrical section have clearly brought out this broad zone of low resistivity layer (100-250 ohm.m).

The Slingram-60 and VLF measurements taken across the NE-SW lineament indicated strong anomalies over the dipping fracture zone at Podimattom. These inferences were confirmed later by resistivity survey followed by exploratory drilling. At Perumbatti, the results of VES have indicated fracture zone between 20.2-96.2 m bgl with a resistivity of 240 ohm.m and bore hole lithology showed highly fractured charnockites at 20-95.86 m bgl. South of Angadikkal near Chandanapalli, the Slingram –60, VLF and deep VES measurements taken across N-S lineaments demarcated 100 m wide vertical fracture zone and has given a strong evidence of deep fractures from 30-300 m bgl with a characteristic value of resistivity of 170-250-ohm m. The generalized resistivity observed in different lithological sequence given in Table No 5.2

Bore hole Geophysics

Bore hole geophysical investigation was conducted in nine bore holes in the district during the SIDA assisted coastal Kerala Groundwater Project studies. The surveys comprised multiple logging with electrical, Gamma, Caliper and Thermal probes. In addition, graphic calculate of salinity of interstitial waters was also carried out from spontaneous potential (S.P.) logs. Apart from these, electrical logging of the two boreholes of Pulikeezh was also conducted and critical analysis of the logs aided in delineating suitable granular zones.

In general, short, long Normal Resistivity as well as Point Resistance logs indicated the following spectrum of resistivity pattern of the rock formations of the area.

Table 1.7: Generalised resistivity values of Pathanamthitta district Clay Less than 20 ohm-m Sand/sandstone 20-60 ohm-m Weathered crystalline rock Less than 50 ohm-m Semi-weathered/highly fractured rock 50-150 ohm-m Fractured rock 150-275 ohm-m Less fractured rock 275-400 ohm-m Massive rock >400 ohm-m

Natural gamma background radiation measured values in the range of 30-40 C.P.S The general range of natural gamma counts in different rock patterns was 40-250 C.P.S. Higher counts were observed opposite to the fractured layers, clay layers as well as gneissic rocks mostly due to the presence of higher potassium content in the mineralized rock. Lower counts were observed opposite the Gabbro/Dolerite dyke layers.

1.19 The Aquifer Systems The weathered zone and fracture system in crystalline rocks form the repositories of groundwater in the area. Groundwater exists under phreatic condition in shallow/ weathered zone and under semi confined conditions in fracture systems. The weathered

zone and the zone of fractures are interconnected and groundwater draft from the fracture system impacts the groundwater levels in the weathered zone. Hence, the area is considered to have a single aquifer system with two distinct horizons of different hydraulic properties such as; 1. Weathered zone with shallow fractures 2. Deeper Fracture zone

Ground water in weathered zone with shallow fractures The shallow aquifers in the weathered zone form the phreatic aquifer system in the study area. Weathered and massive charnockites cover a major part of the area and the weathered thickness varies highly in these formations, whereas southern parts are covered by the Kohndalite groups’ rocks the occurrence and movement of groundwater in the weathered zone is mainly influenced by the depth of weathering and topography and generally groundwater follows the topography. Groundwater abstraction structures in this zone include dug wells and shallow bore wells. The depth of dug wells ranges from 5 to 16m bgl and that of bore well up to the depth of 80 m bgl. The water level ranges from 3 to 15m bgl during the pre-monsoon period. During post monsoon period, the water level ranges from 1.00 to 7m bgl. The diameter of the dug well ranges from 1.5 to 5 m. The yield of dug wells ranges from 6 to 154 m3/day and sustains 1 to 4 hours of pumping. The yielding capacity of phreatic aquifers varies spatially and is related to the aquifer characteristics, rainfall received, surface water availability, and thickness of weathered residuum.

Deeper Fracture zone

The Deeper Fracture zone is very potential as the area is tectonically disturbed and groundwater exists there under semi-confined conditions. Since the area experienced several episodes of tectonic deformations, many interconnected fractures developed which offer very good conduits and storage space for groundwater. The Central Ground Water Board has drilled 56 numbers of exploratory wells in the study area, the depth of the bore wells ranges from 50 m to 250 mbgl. The depth to fracture zones ranges from 22 m to 230 m bgl and the discharge ranges from 0.5 to 16 lps. However, most of the potential fracture zones occur within the depth of 80 mbgl. The area of Perumpatti, Pathanmthitta, Koduman, Vadaserrikara, Konni, Ranni, Kadamanchira area having the high yielding bore wells in the deeper fracture too.

2.0 DATA COLLECTION, GENERATION AND INTEGRATION

2.1 Data collection and data gap analysis

The available data on Geology, Geophysics, Hydrogeology and Hydrochemistry generated under various studies by the department Central ground water board, such as Systematic Hydrogeological studies, Reappraisal Hydrogeological studies, Groundwater Management studies, Ground water Exploration, Micro level hydrogeological studies, short term investigation and special studies have been utilized for data gap analysis in conjunction with the data collected from various State and Central government departments. The thematic layers on drainage, geomorphology, land use, soil and land cover were reproduced from the data obtained from concerned State departments. The existing data on various themes analysed for finding the data gaps is given in Table 2.1 Table 2.1: The data availability for data gap analysis # Item Data Availability

1 Groundwater level data 76 nos. 2 Piezometers 12 nos. 3 Groundwater quality Data Dug wells-30nos. Bore wells -9 nos. 4 Borehole Lithology Data 56 5 Geophysical Data 25 6 Pumping Test 10 7 Land use and Land Cover Available 8 Drainage Available 9 Geology Available 10 Soil Available 11 Climate Data Available

2.1.1 Water Level Monitoring

Water level monitoring wells maintained by Central ground water board and SGWD in the area have been made part of the monitoring network for the present study. 76 dug wells are presently monitored by Central ground water board and 15 dug wells by SGWD for water levels in the phreatic aquifer system. Central ground water board wells are being monitored four times (January, April, August and November) in a year whereas the monitoring wells of State Ground Water Department (SGWD) are being monitored every month.

2.1.2 Exploration

Information on aquifer geometry, Groundwater potential of fracture systems and their characterization are primarily inferred from exploratory drilling data. The basic data from 56 exploratory drillings in the area could be used for data gap analysis. Apart from exploration the Information on weathered thickness and depth of occurrence of fractures are also inferred from geophysical data such as Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) and profiling. Geophysical methods are normally employed as a reconnaissance study before

exploratory drilling. As the cost of geophysical investigation is much less when compared to exploratory drilling it is effectively used to extract subsurface information.

2.1.3 VES and Profiling

Geophysical data on VES and profiling are used to extract information on the weathered thickness, basement, fracture depth, thickness of fracture etc. The aquifer geometry could be refined from the interpretation of geophysical data in conjunction with the available groundwater exploration data. Based on the study data gap of 25 VES sites were identified.

2.1.4 Water Quality Monitoring

The historical data on water quality in the area is available from the water level monitoring stations maintained by Central ground water board. Water sampling is being done every year from these wells during pre-monsoon period (April). The data gap analysis has been carried out to find out the adequacy of information on water quality and identified 9 new locations for additional sampling. Water sampling analysis from the integrated locations is proposed for out sourcing.

2.2 Data generation and integration

The data gaps were identified from detailed analysis of existing and based on the finding of the studies new data generated for the data gaps. The activities include establishment of Key wells, water quality monitoring wells, geophysical survey and aquifer evaluation. The data gap identified and the new addition of data under various themes is given in Table 2.2. The value addition made after data generation and integration of various components of the groundwater regime are described in the following sections. Table 2.2: Data requirement and data generated under aquifer mapping Themes Existing Data Total Data generated Additional Data data Gap requirement Dug wells 76 19 97 19 nil Exploratory 56 nil 56 nil nil wells Piezometers 12 0 12 0 nil VES 25 30 30 0 30 Water quality 30 0 30 0 nil Soil Infiltration Nil 5 5 Nil 5 Pumping tests 08 0 05 0 0

2.2.1 Groundwater Exploration

The existing exploratory well locations are shown in Fig 2.1. The integrated data could be used for refining the aquifer geometry and characterization of the aquifer systems in the area which is described under the chapter ‘Aquifer mapping’.

2.2.2 Water levels and piezometric heads

Based on data gap analysis 19 additional monitoring stations were established and monitored water levels from both existing and newly established wells four times in a year. In addition to this the water levels from the monitoring wells of State Ground Water Department were also collected. The integrated data on water level could refine water level maps and resource computations. The data on piezometric head have been collected from 12 piezometers tapping the fracture systems in the area. Historical data on water levels and piezometric heads are available for different periods for all the monitoring wells in the area. The location of Monitoring wells shown in Fig. 2.2

2.3 Water quality monitoring

The existing water level monitoring wells are maintained as water quality monitoring wells by CGWB and historical data is available for pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC) and for the ions Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl,CO3, HCO3, SO4, NO3 and F. The monitoring wells and piezometers of both CGWB and SGWD are integrated for water quality monitoring through out sourcing. The location of quality Monitoring wells shown in Fig. No. 2.3

Fig. 2.1: Exploratory well locations in the area

Fig. 2.2: Locations of integrated water level monitoring wells and Piezometers

Fig. 2.3: Locations of integrated Quality monitoring wells and Piezometers

3.0 DATA INTERPRETATION AND AQUIFER MAPPING

In the present study, the aquifer disposition and aquifer characterization has been brought out mainly by analysing the data from 56 lithological logs, 76 hydrographs from dug wells, 12 piezometric heads, hydro-chemical data from NHS, previous literatures and inputs from the field investigations. Aquifer mapping involves extraction of information from the analysis of data and preparation of various thematic maps related to the groundwater regime so as to get any required information about the aquifer system from the thematic layer or from a suitable combination of thematic layers. Various aspects of the groundwater regime such as rainfall, soil, geomorphology, geology, aquifer geometry, aquifer characteristics, water levels, water resources and water quality were studied in detail and thematic maps prepared accordingly.

3.1 Hydrometeorology

Hydrometeorology is the science that deals with various aspects of meteorology in relation to water resources. As far as ground water is concerned rainfall is the primary source of recharge. The other sources of recharge are river and canal flows, seepage from tanks, return flow form applied irrigation. For proper evaluation, exploitation and management of water resources a thorough understanding of rainfall, and its causative factors is essential. A systematic study, typically, includes collection and analysis of meteorological and hydrological data is essential for water resources management. Primarily, the data is in respect of the following elements of water balance equation.

1) Rainfall 2) Evaporation and evapotranspiration 3) Soil moisture and Infiltration 4) Runoff or stream flow 5) Ground water Recharge

3.1.1 Rainfall

Rainfall being the primary source of ground water recharge utmost care should be given to measure the rainfall as accurately as possible. Authenticity, continuity and consistency of rainfall records are essential for analysis and interpretation. Data of stations, which are well exposed, properly maintained, regularly monitored and periodically inspected are dependable. As far as possible daily rainfall data is to be collected and validated. The data can be either historical or current. The historical data is used to study the trends and estimate statistical parameters. In this study the IMD Rainfall data for 06 stations ranging from 56 years to 100

years have been collected and analyzed. The missing data were then replaced by the suitable supplementation methods.

Distribution of Annual Rainfall

The isohyetal method is used to estimate the mean precipitation across an area by drawing lines of equal precipitation. The method uses topographic and other data to yield reliable estimates. Isohyets are contours of equal precipitation analogous to contour lines on a topographic map. In the isohyetal method, precipitation values are plotted at their respective stations on a suitable base map, and isohyets are drawn to create an isohyetal map. Isohyetal lines are based on interpolation between rain gauge stations. While constructing isohyets, it is assumed that rainfall between two stations varies linearly, unless abrupt changes in topography indicate otherwise. There are six rain gauge stations falls within the study area and annual normal rainfall of these stations considered to plot the isohyet map and presented in Fig.3.1. The normal annual rainfall over the study area varies from about 2627 mm to about 4031 mm. It is the minimum around Rajagiri Estate (2627 mm), Adur IMD (2652 mm) and Pathanamthitta (3159). It gradually increases and reaches the maximum around Laha Estate (4031).

Variability of annual rainfall

The coefficient of variation of annual rainfall from the normal, overall, it is not that much high all over the study area. It ranges from 16% to 24%. It is the minimum (16-19%) in the area around Pathanamthitta and Laha estate. It is the maximum (20-24%) in the southern parts around Rajagiri estate, Konni DFO and Konni estate.

3.1.2 Droughts – Incidence, Intensity & Periodicity

A study of the negative departures of the annual rainfall from the normal reveals that the probability of occurrence of moderate drought ranges from 2% at Laha estate to 23% at Rajagiri estate. Severe drought conditions were experienced at all the stations except Konni DFO 0% to 3% of the years. Acute drought conditions were not at all experienced in the district at any time. It can be observed from Fig. 3.2 that the extreme southeastern parts of the district around Rajagiri estate and Adur experienced drought conditions for more than 20% of the study period. Hence, this area of the district comes under the category “drought area”.

Frequency of occurrence of Drought

The frequency of occurrence of various kinds of drought at each station has been studied based on number of years per one drought. It has been observed that the frequency of occurrence of drought is rather high (7 years or less, per drought) over the extreme southern parts of the study area around Adur, Rajagiri estate and Konni DFO. Over the remaining major part of the study area the frequency is slightly less and is in the range of 10 to 30 years per drought (Plate-8).

Trend of annual rainfall

Time-series and trend analyses of annual rainfall have been carried out. The trend of annual rainfall ranged from –3.1547 mm/year at Laha estate to -16.6008 mm/year at Rajagiri estate. Almost the entire district experienced a declining trend in annual rainfall. There is no rising trend is experienced in the district. From the results of the analyses major part of the district experienced a declining trend. This declining trend in annual rainfall is the maximum (-10 to –16 mm/year) in the small area in the southern part of the district around Rajagiri estate, Pathanamthitta and Adur. In the rest of the district it is in the range of -1 to –5 mm/year (Plate-3).

Probability of Occurrence of Normal Seasonal Rainfall

The probability of occurrence of normal seasonal rainfall over the district has been studied. It is observed that the chances of receiving normal seasonal rainfall vary from 41% at Konni estate to 55% at Rajagiri estate. These chances are the maximum in the central part of south –North direction around Laha estate, Pathanamthitta and Rajagiri estate (50 - 55%). The chances are the minimum (41-47%) in the remaining part of the district covering Adur, Konni DFO and Konni estate. (Table 3.1).

1) The normal annual rainfall over the study area varies over a wide range i.e. from 2627 mm to 4031 mm. 2) The chances of receiving normal annual rainfall vary from 23% to 49% over the study area. 3) Almost the entire study area experienced a declining trend in annual rainfall. Adur, Pathanamthitta and Rajagiri estate experienced a very high-level declining trend; the trend of annual rainfall ranged from –-10.6467 mm/year to 16.6008 mm/year.

Table 3.1: Compilation of Drought Analysis of Rainfall Data over Study area Adurimd Winter rainfall Summer rainfall SW monsoon NE monsoon Annual rainfall Normal 127 413 1518 594 2652 years % years % years % years % years % Count tot. 93 100 93 100 93 100 93 100 93 100 Above nor. 37 39.79 40.00 43.01 44.00 47.31 40.00 43.01 49.00 52.69 Below nor. 53 56.99 50.00 53.76 49.00 52.69 53.00 56.99 44.00 47.31 Normal 22 23.66 41.00 44.09 57.00 61.29 46.00 49.46 66.00 70.97 Excess 29 31.18 24.00 25.81 19.00 20.43 24.00 25.81 14.00 15.05 Moderate 16 17.20 19.00 20.43 15.00 16.13 15.00 16.13 10.00 10.75 Severe 12 12.90 6.00 6.45 2.00 2.15 7.00 7.53 3.00 3.23 Acute 14 15.05 3.00 3.23 0.00 0.00 1.00 1.08 0.00 0.00 Tot.drt. 42 45.16 28.00 30.11 17.00 18.28 23.00 24.73 13.00 13.98 Konni DFO years % years % years % years % years % Normal 217 567 1796 727 3307 Count tot. 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Above nor. 43 43.00 37.00 37.00 45.00 45.00 45.00 45.00 45.00 45.00 Below nor. 53 53.00 59.00 59.00 55.00 55.00 55.00 55.00 55.00 55.00 Normal 45 45.00 59.00 59.00 70.00 70.00 42.00 42.00 85.00 85.00 Excess 26 26.00 17.00 17.00 14.00 14.00 25.00 25.00 7.00 7.00 Moderate 13 13.00 18.00 18.00 15.00 15.00 25.00 25.00 8.00 8.00 severe 11 11.00 6.00 6.00 1.00 1.00 8.00 8.00 0.00 0.00 acute 5 5.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 tot.drt. 29 29.00 24.00 24.00 16.00 16.00 33.00 33.00 8.00 8.00 Konni estate years % years % years % years % years % normal 191 562 1716 719 3188 count tot. 56 100 56 100 56 100 56 100 56 100 above nor. 30 53.57 28.00 50.00 23.00 41.07 23.00 41.07 23.00 41.07 below nor. 26 46.43 28.00 50.00 33.00 58.93 33.00 58.93 33.00 58.93 normal 22 39.29 31.00 55.36 43.00 76.79 29.00 51.79 45.00 80.36 excess 16 28.57 11.00 19.64 6.00 10.71 12.00 21.43 7.00 12.50 moderate 5 8.93 11.00 19.64 7.00 12.50 12.00 21.43 3.00 5.36 severe 7 12.50 3.00 5.36 0.00 0.00 3.00 5.36 1.00 1.79 acute 6 10.71 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 tot.drt. 18 32.14 14.00 25.00 7.00 12.50 15.00 26.79 4.00 7.14 Pathanamthitta years % years % years % years % years % normal 187 535 1719 718 3159 count tot. 68 100 67 100 68 100 68 100 68 100 above nor. 32 47.059 34 50.746 36 52.94 34 50 35 51.47 below nor. 36 52.941 33 49.254 32 47.06 34 50 33 48.53 normal 21 30.882 41 61.194 50 73.53 35 51.47 55 80.88 excess 20 29.412 13 19.403 7 10.29 16 23.53 6 8.82 moderate 7 10.294 9 13.433 8 11.76 13 19.12 6 8.82 severe 16 23.529 4 5.9701 3 4.41 3 4.41 1 1.47 acute 4 5.88 1 1.49 0 0 1 1.47 0 0 tot.drt. 27 39.706 14 20.896 11 16.18 17 25 7 10.29 Laha estate years % years % years % years % years % moderate 10 16.667 9 15 7 11.67 12 20 1 1.67 severe 4 6.6667 7 11.667 1 1.67 1 1.67 1 1.67 acute 0 0 3 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 tot.drt. 14 23.333 19 31.667 8 13.33 13 21.67 2 3.33 Rajagiri estate years % years % years % years % years % normal 149 450 1396 632 2627 count tot. 56 100 56 100 56 100 56 100 56 100 above nor. 23 41.071 27 48.214 31 55.36 27 48.21 28 50

below nor. 33 58.929 29 51.786 25 44.64 29 51.79 28 50 normal 20 100 22 103.57 42 139.29 31 119.64 38 132.14 excess 16 28.571 16 28.571 6 10.71 10 17.86 4 7.14 moderate 9 16.071 10 17.857 7 12.5 11 19.64 13 23.21 severe 5 8.9286 3 5.3571 1 1.79 4 7.14 1 1.79 acute 6 10.714 5 8.93 0 0 0 0 0 0 tot.drt. 20 35.714 18 32.143 8 14.29 15 26.79 14 25

15 80 1200 25 30000

Fig. 3.1: Isohytel Map of the study area

Fig. 3.2: Frequency of Occurrence of Drought

3.2 Soil Characteristics The weathering of the present rocks and their chemical composition and the climatic conditions has led to the formation of these different types of soil.

The soils of the district are classified as (a) Forest Loam, (b) Lateritic, (c) Brown hydromorphic, (d) Riverine alluvium, and (e) Greyish Onattukara (a) Forest Loam This is the most widely occurring soil type in the district. Forest loamy soils are encountered in the eastern parts of the district forming parts of Ranni and Konni blocks. This is the product of weathering of the country rock under forest cover, having limited thickness. They are dark brown to black with loam or silky loam texture. They are rich in nitrogen and are acidic with pH ranging from 5.5 to 6.3.

(b) Lateritic soil Lateritic soil occurs widely in the district and forms one of the most predominant soil types throughout the district except in the blocks of Ranni and Konni. The soils are well drained low in organic matter and plant materials. The major crops grown are coconut, tapioca, rubber, pepper, cashew etc. This soil is the product of lateralization of the crystalline and sedimentaries under humid tropical conditions. The soil is reddish brown composed essentially of hydrated oxides of iron and aluminium.

(c) Brown Hydromorphic Soil This soil occurs mostly in valley portions in the midland area of the district. The soil is enriched in clay content and plant nutrients and is ideal for paddy cultivation. The soil is formed as a result of transportation and deposition of material from the adjoining hill slopes under impeded drainage conditions. In Parakode, Kulanada, Elanthoor, Koipuram and part of Mallappally blocks this soil are seen.

(d) Riverine Alluvium These soils occur mostly along the banks of rivers and their tributaries. They show wide variation in their physico--chemical properties depending on the nature of alluvium and the catchment area of the drainage. The texture varies from sand to clayey loam and is enriched in plant nutrients. It is suited for a large variety of crops like coconut, paddy, areca nut, pepper, vegetables etc. These soils are seen almost all the blocks where the small drainages are confluences. Soil Map of study area presented in Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3: Soil Map of study area

3.3 Geomorphology The district can be divided into three natural geographical regions viz. the highland, the midland and the lowland. The highland stretches through the Western Ghats, where the hills maintains an average altitude of around 800 m and covered with thick forests. The high lands cover in parts of Ranni and Konni blocks of the district with undulating topographic nature.

The mid land region of the district is covered by low and broad valleys with some valleys sharpening to the foot hills and it is characterized by thick pile of laterite cover. It descends to the smaller hills of midland in the centre and finally to the lowland. The geomorphology map is given in Fig. 3.4.

3.4 Drainage characteristics

Three important rivers flow through this district. They are Pampa, Achankovil and Manimala Rivers. The Pampa River is formed by the confluence of Pambayar, Aruthayar, Kakkadayar, Kakkar and Kallar. It descends from Sabarimala, flows through various parts of Ranny taluk, enters Alappuzha district after joining with river Manimala and river Achankovil and empties itself into the Vembanad lake. The river Achankovil is formed by the confluence of several small streams originating from Rishimala, Pasukidamettu and Ramakkalteri and joins the Pamba at Veeyapuram in Alappuzha district. Pamba and Achankovil rivers together drain more than 70% of the total area of Pathanamthitta. The drainage density is about 0.3 km/sq.km, with trellis to sub trellis drainage pattern in the high land and dendritic and sub dendritic pattern in the rest of the area. The drainage feature of Pathanamthitta district given Fig. 3.5.

Fig. 3.4: Geomorphological map of study area

Fig.3.5: Drainage map of study area

3.5 Land Use, Irrigation and cropping patterns

The utilization of land for a purpose is governed by a host of factors including topography, type and thickness of soil, rainfall pattern etc. Based on the panchayat level statistics 2006 published by the State Government the land use details are given in table 3.2. The land use map of the district (Fig. 3.6) shows limited land availability for cultivation as a major part of the district is under forest cover. The percentile classification of land under various category are depicted in the schematic diagram of Land use pattern shown in Fig. 3.7.

Table 3.2: Land utilisation 2013-14 (Area in Hectares) Total Geographical area 265277 Forest 155214 Land put to non-agricultural use 16488 Barren & uncultivable land 162 Permanent pastures &other grazing land 0

Land under misc. tree crops 93 Cultivable waste 1873 Fallow other than current fallow 2974 Current fallow 4128 Marshy Land 0 Still Water 2698 Water Logged Area 165 Social Forestry 118 Net area sown 81364 Area sown more than once 19962 Total cropped Area 101326 (Source: Department of Economics & Statistics 2015)

Fig. 3.6: Land use map of study area

Fig. 3.7: Schematic diagram of Land use pattern in Pathanamthitta District

Forest Pathanamthitta district has a reserve forest area of 1,385.27 sq.kms. This is approximately 50% of the total district area. The forest area can broadly be classified as evergreen, semi-evergreen and moist deciduous.

The forest is the main source of raw materials for wood based industrial units. Timber is the most important produce Teak, rose wood, jack tree, manjakadambu, anjili and pala are the important varieties of timbers available in the district. View of thick forest near Triveni

Irrigation The surface water resources are utilized for irrigation purpose through the Kallada and Pamba irrigation projects. Less than 2% of the geographical area of the district gets irrigation from different sources and the net area irrigated is given in table 3.3.

Table 3.3: Net Area Irrigated (Source wise) 2013-14 Govt Private Small stream (Thodu/Canal) 2911 170 Pond 16 44 Well 0 2118 Borewell/ Tube well 2 0 Lift & Minor Irrigation 0 0 (Source: Department of Economics & Statistics 2015)

3.6 Cropping pattern

Agriculture is the main occupation of people and about 75% people are dependent on this sector paddy, tapioca, rubber, sugarcane, pepper and banana are the main crops cultivated in the district. Rubber is the most important cash crop, covering an area of 50740 in Ha. The hilly terrain coupled with high humidity makes the region suitable for rubber plantations. Paddy is the most important crop cultivated in the valley and plain land. Tapioca and pulses are the important dry land crops. Other major crops are coconut, banana, pepper and ginger. In certain areas cashew, pineapple, sugarcane, cocoa and other tree spices are cultivated. The land available for cultivation is less since sizeable area of the district is reserve forest. A schematic diagram of cropping pattern in the area is depicted in Fig. 3.8.

Agricultural production can be revitalized by tapping the groundwater resources of the district with sustainable development. The total cropped area of the district is 101326 ha, and area sown more than once is 19962 ha. Tipical agricultural practices such as pineapple and banana cultivation as intercrop with tender rubber plantation in high lands is common in the area and field photos are shown in Fig. 3.9 and 3.10.

Table 3.4: Major Crops in Pathanamthitta district 2013-14 Crop Area, Hecters Paddy 2467 (summer paddy 90%) Pepper 1653 Arecanut 1210 Banana 2096 Tapioca 5082 Coconut 15606 Rubber 50740 Other Crops & Trees 4818 (Source: Department of Economics & Statistics 2015)

Cropping pattern Other Crops & Banana Trees Arecanut 2% 6% 1% Tapioca Paddy Pepper 6% Paddy 2% 3% Pepper Coconut 19% Arecanut Banana Rubber 61% Tapioca Coconut Rubber Other Crops & Trees

Fig. 3.8: Schematic diagram of cropping pattern in Pathanamthitta District

Fig. 3.9: Pineapple cultivated as intercrop in rubber plantation near Kumbazha

Fig. 3.10: Banana cultivated within rubberplantation in high land area near Laha

4. AQUIFER MAPPING

Ground water occurs under water table conditions in the weathered and fractured hard crystalline rocks, laterites, unconsolidated riverine sediments and the alluvium occurring along the river courses and intermontane valleys. It occurs under semi-confined to confined conditions in the deep-seated fractured aquifers in the crystalline rocks. The Recent intrusives like pegmatite, dolerite and quartz veins act as good repositories of ground water in the hard and fractured rocks. The ground water movement is controlled by the joints, fissures, minor and major fractures and fractured planes of structural weakness found in the hard rock. The ground water movement is further controlled by the extension, size, and continuity of interconnected fractures.

The recharge to the ground water body is through infiltration from the rainfall, influent seepage from streams, percolation from surface water bodies and return flow from surface and ground water irrigation. The discharge of ground water takes place mainly due to withdrawal from dug and bore wells for domestic and irrigation purposes and as the base flow into springs, streams and rivers. Hence, the area is considered to have a single aquifer system with two distinct horizons of different hydraulic properties such as weathered zone with shallow fractures and deeper Fracture zone.

Weathered zone with shallow fractures

The shallow aquifers in the weathered zone form the phreatic aquifer system in the study area. Weathered and massive charnockites cover a major part of the area and the weathered thickness varies highly in these formations, whereas southern parts are covered by the Kohndalite groups of rocks. The occurrence and movement of groundwater in the weathered zone is mainly influenced by the depth of weathering and topography and generally water table follows the topography. Groundwater abstraction structures in this zone include dug wells and shallow bore wells. The depth of dug wells ranges from 5 to 16 m bgl and that of bore well up to the depth of 80 m bgl. The water level ranges from 1.1 to 11.90 m bgl during the pre-monsoon period. During post monsoon period, the water level ranges from 0.75 to 10.11 m bgl. The diameter of the dug well ranges from 1.5 to 4 m. The yield of dug wells ranges from 6 to 152 m3/day and sustains 1 to 4 hours of pumping. The yielding capacity of phreatic aquifers varies spatially and is related to the aquifer characteristics, rainfall received, surface water availability, and thickness of weathered residuum.

4.1 Thickness of weathered zone

The exploratory drilling data reveals two aquifer zones identified as the zone of weathering and shallow fractures (phreatic aquifer) and the fracture zone below it. The weathered zone thickness varies from less than a meter to 22.5 m. The weathered thickness in the area varies highly as observed from exploratory drillings and the data has been used to elucidate the lateral and vertical changes in weathered zone. The information from 56 bore

wells have been analysed for understanding the spatial variations in the thickness of weathered zone.

4.2 Water levels

Measurements of water levels in wells provide the most fundamental indicator of the status of groundwater resource and are critical to meaningful evaluation of the quantity of ground water and its interaction with surface water. Water levels were monitored four times (April, August, November and January) during the field season from 96 dug wells which include 20 newly established dug wells for this purpose and 76 regular monitoring wells (NHS) of CGWB. The water level data shows shallow water levels during the months of August and November and deepest water levels during April. November water level is considered as post- monsoon and that in April is taken as pre-monsoon for detailed analysis.

The water levels in the weathered zone were analysed for pre- and post-monsoon and depth to water level maps were prepared (Fig. 4.1 and 4.2). The pre-monsoon water level map shows deep water levels in the range of 5 to 10 in the eastern and central parts of the area where weathered zone and shallow fractures form the phreatic aquifers. In a major part of the area the water level is less than 5.0m. The water level fluctuation varies from greater than -4 to less than 4 m with 2m fluctuation in a major part of the area (Fig.4.3).

4.3 Saturated thickness of the weathered zone

The saturated thickness of the weathered zone which is under phreatic conditions during pre- and post-monsoon seasons are shown in Fig. 4.4 and 4.5. During post monsoon period the aquifer gets fully saturated mostly in the range of 5 to 10 m thickness. That means the water holding capacity of the phreatic aquifer in the area is limited.

Fig. 4.1: Pre-monsoon water level in the study area

Fig. 4.2: Post monsoon water level in the study area

Fig. 4.3: Water level Fluctuation in the study area

Fig. 4.4: Saturated thickness of aquifer during Pre-monsoon

Fig. 4.5: Saturated thickness of aquifer during post-monsoon

Whereas, during pre-monsoon period the saturated thickness is mostly within 2m and the water levels are also deep, providing ample scope artificial recharge. As the thickness of aquifer is limited even one-meter rise in water level through artificial recharge will have great impact on the groundwater scenario of the area. Hence, capturing summer showers will be useful in mitigating water shortage as well as for providing support to the vegetative cover or the biosphere requirement.

4.4 Water level trend

The long-term water level fluctuations in the district have been analyzed using the historical water level data of observation wells available in the district. The trend of pre and post monsoon water levels for the last one decade analyzed and presented table 4.1 and some representations from weathered crystallines and laterite aquifers are depicted in Fig. 4.6. The analysis of water level data of 28 (GWMW) observation wells for premonsoon period indicate that the water levels have risen in about 67 % percent of the wells throughout the district during the period where as the post monsoon period 53 % showing rising trend.

Table 4.1: Water level trend of different formation in Pathanamthitta District Premonsoon Post monsoon #

Location Rise(m/year) Fall(m/year) Rise(m/year) Fall(m/year) 1 Angadikkal North 0.0502 0.0986 2 Angamuzhi 0.0711 0.0863 3 Aranmula 0.1528 0.2755 4 Elanthoor 0.01 0.1087 5 Enathu 0.1066 0.4781 6 Konni 0.2415 0.1834 7 Koodal 0.0786 0.0425 8 Kottanadu 0.1285 0.1147 9 Kumplampoika 0.0327 0.0391 10 Kunnamthanam 0.0813 0.0051 11 Laha balawadi 0.1113 0.0606 12 Laha peruman 0.0014 0.1208 13 Mallappally 0.0225 0.0263 14 Maniyar 0.0154 0.1424 15 Muthoor 0.0297 0.0351 16 Naduvathumuzhi 0.0056 0.0673 17 Nilakkal 0.0422 0.0405 18 Pandalam-1 0.0221 0.0156 19 Pathanamthitta 0.3351 0.1041 20 Peringara (R1) 0.0275 0.0626 21 Plappally 0.0329 0.016 22 Prakkanam 0.0018 0.0007 23 Ranni i 0.0296 0.0119 24 Ranni Perunad 0.0319 0.0881 25 Thatta (R1) 0.0075 0.0372 26 Thelliyur 0.0052 0.0318 27 Ullannur 0.0309 0.0942 28 Vadasserikara 0.0373 0.0099

Weathered Crystalline

Laterite

Fig. 4.6: Water level trend of Crystalline and Laterite Aquifers

4.5 Water Table Countour

The water table contour has been prepared to find out the ground water behavior in both high land and mid land regions. The pre-monsoon map shows that the mid land and low land areas shows that the water table follows the topography. The post-monsoon water table almost matches with the pre-monsoon water level behaviors. The pre and post monsoon water table contour were presented in Fig. 4.7 and 4.8. From the water table contour maps it can be easily inferred that the map does not represent any regional continuity of the groundwater flow system as the contour intervalas are not smooth and abrupt. It rather reflects different hydrogeological units especially, in the eastern parts representing high land regions.

Fig. 4.7: Water table contour map of Pre-monsoon

Fig. 4.8: Water table contour map of Post monsoon

4.6 Quality of water in the weathered zone

The existing water quality data from the selected dug wells have been analysed for extracting information on regional distribution of water quality and their suitability for various uses. The following table shows the range of chemical parameters in the ground water taken from Ground Water Monitoring Wells (GWMW) during April 2016 is presented in Table 4.2. The Heavy Metal Analysis of water samples from selected Key wells in Pathanamthitta District is Presented in Appendix 1. Table 4.2: Quality of water in the weathered zone (April 2016)

Location pH EC in TH as Ca Mg Na K CO3 HCO3 SO4 Cl F NO3 us/cm at ------mg/l------o # 25 C CaCO3 1 Angadikkal 6.8 51 12 4 0.49 3.6 1.1 0 17 0.32 5.7 0 3.4 2 Aranmula 7.13 220 62 14 6.8 13 1.1 0 68 12 21 0.12 9.3 3 Enathu 7.35 610 90 22 8.5 66 18 0 55 25 107 0.7 53 4 Konni 6.33 330 68 12 9.2 23 6.4 0 9.8 0.32 71 0.14 31 5 Kottanadu 6.5 126 18 6.4 0.49 9.5 4 0 12 0.86 16 0.1 18 6 Mallapally 6.4 71 12 4 0.49 7.1 1.2 0 4.9 0 13 0.32 9.7 7 Naduvathumuzhi 6.92 78 20 7.2 0.49 3.7 1.5 0 24 0.32 5.7 0.02 6.9 8 Nilakkal 6.71 108 22 7.2 0.97 9 1.8 0 9.8 0 21 0 11 9 Pandalam I 6.73 74 14 4 0.97 7.1 0.4 0 20 0 11 0 4.9 10 Pathanamthitta 7.01 194 50 17 1.9 13 8.9 0 44 20 16 0.12 11 11 Thelliyur 7.03 91 24 8 0.97 7.2 2.1 0 39 0.21 7.1 0.12 4.3 12 Ullannur 6.75 45 10 2.4 0.97 4 2.6 0 9.8 0 7.1 0.09 6.6 13 Vadasserikkara 6.93 101 38 14 0.8 1.8 2.1 0 27 6.1 5.7 0.24 21

It is deduced from the above data that the groundwater in this area is good and can be used for drinking, domestic and irrigation purposes. The minimum and maximum values suggest that the groundwater in most of the area is very fresh and potable. The fluoride content is <0.1 ppm. The pH of groundwater varies from 6.33 to 7.3 indicating slightly acidic to neutral character of water in most samples. The electrical conductivity values of the water samples range from 45 to 610 µs/cm at 250C, indicative of low mineral content of water. All the chemical constituents fall within the permissible limits as per the drinking water standards of WHO (1971) and ISI (1983).

Hydro chemical facies

Plotting of the percentage of epm values of cations and anions in Hill-Piper diagram (Fig. 4.9) falls mostly either in the field where chemical properties are dominated by alkaline earths and weak acids (Ca-Mg-HCO3 type) or in the field where chemical properties are dominated by alkalis and strong acids (Na+K Cl type). Weathering and ion exchange under alkaline hydrochemical environment favours release of fluoride into the water from the aquifer material.

Fig 4.9: Hill-Piper diagram showing Geochemical Classification of Shallow Aquifer

4.7 Groundwater potential of weathered zone

Based on the weathered thickness, aquifer geometry, water levels, groundwater yield and hydraulic properties the groundwater potential map and aquifer map of the phreatic aquifer system are prepared (Fig.4.10 & 4.11). The middle and western part of the study area is having relatively high groundwater potential with yield of wells ranging up 9.0 lps and sustains 2 to 4 hours of pumping.

4.8 Fracture Aquifer Geometry

The information on weathered thickness and fracture zones from 9 exploratory wells have been used for the preparation of panel diagrams (Fig.4.12 and 4.13). It shows relatively deep weathering in the eastern part of the area. The hard rock below the weathered zone consists of massive formation with fracture zones at varying depths. The fracture zones are encountered in the depth range of 37-193.3 m in the exploratory wells representing different rock formations with significant changes in yield and aquifer characteristics. They are confined to Semi-confined in nature with a high frequency of occurrence of potential fractures within 100 m depth. Deep fractures are also encountered in the area such as the one encountered in the exploratory well at Mudiyoorkonam at the depth of 230 m bgl. Dry fractures are encountered in the most of the places at these locations dry fractures are encountered at 30to 190 m bgl. Salient features of bore wells drilled in the district is given in appendix-2.

Fig. 4.10: Groundwater potential map of phreatic aquifer system in the weathered zone

Fig. 4.11: Aquifer Map of Phreatic Aquifer system

Fig. 4.12: Panel diagram displaying lateral and vertical variations in weathered thickness and depth of occurrence of fractures

Fig.4.13: Panel diagram displaying lateral and vertical variations in weathered thickness

4.9 Geophysical Investigations

Resistivity and Electromagnetic surveys

Resistivity profiling with the combination of Slingram and VLF techniques was tried at many locations. The aim of electromagnetic surveys was to get information about the disposition of the fracture zones so as to restrict the resistivity spreads. Since the transmitter direction in VLF techniques is favourable for detecting the NW-SE, NNW-SSE E-W and N-S trending lineaments and its utility has been found at Konni, Perumbatti, Podimattom, Kadavallur and Varavoor sites. It has been followed by resistivity profiling with depth probes and Slingram measurements. In Slingram it is possible to estimate approximately the dip of the fracture zones also. Very narrow fracture zone dipping to the north and wide fractures zones of more than 150 m width with steep dips were located in Pamba basin. Apparent resistivity contour map and geo electric sections at Konni revealed a large number of narrowly spaced parallel fractures or homogeneously crushed rock throughout the width of the zone (Fig. 4.14). The drilling of Perumbatti (discharge 16.5 lps.) while at Konni the bore wells were dry as the fracture zones were filled with clay and conducting minerals Fig. 4.15 In almost all the sites investigated in the project area the combination electrical resistivity survey and electromagnetic techniques is found to be the most for demarcating favourable fracture zones in hard rock area.

Fig. 4.14: Apparent resistivity contour map of Konni

Fig.4.15: Geoelectrical Sections along Achenkovil fracture - Konni The recent geophysical investigation in Pathanamthitta district a total of 42 Vertical Electrical Soundings (VES) were carried out in order to know the subsurface conditions such as variation of soil layer, extent of weathering and fracturing etc. for aquifer mapping and management study purposes and ground water exploration purposes. The surveys were 63

conducted by employing Schlumberger electrode configuration up to a maximum spread length (AB) of 360 m. The obtained VES data was interpreted by computer interpretational technique

Geophysical surveys consisting of resistivity profiling and Vertical Electrical Soundings were carried out in Pathanamthitta district for recommending sites for ground water exploration. The VES were conducted by employing Schlumberger configuration with a maximum spread length AB/2 of 300 m. The survey was conducted across the inferred lineaments. Some of the sites are falling in Achenkovil shear zone. The geophysical interpretation was done by curve matching and inverse slope methods. Interpreted results of VES carried out from 2010-16 is presented in Table.4.5. The interpreted results of the recommended sites were presented in Table 4.6. The sites were recommended up to a depth of 100 m. The representation of different field curves in Pathanamthitta district has been shown in Fig. 4.16 below.

Akkulangara Kadambanad curve curve ρ ρ

A A Fig. 4.16: Representation of different field curves in Pathanamthitta district Table 4.3: Interpreted results of VES in Kallada basin # Location VES Interpreted results Total Remarks

no 1 2 3 4 5 h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 depth in m 1 Kalanjur 9 1400 200 244 720 - 1.2 28.8 135 - - 165 Recommended CI 1753 170 240 913 - 1.4 25 92 - - 128.4 2 Puduval 10 230 124 33 250 VH 7 5.6 117 - - 129.6 3 Marur 11 520 75 240 171 50 1.25 10 15 19.6 - 45.85 Recommended CI 620 67 256 158 100 1.2 7.15 15.17 22.43 - 45.95 4 Pandithitta 12 600 250 180 300 - 0.5 11.5 48 - - 60 5 Inchekkadu 13 1100 28 210 - - 3 36 - - - 39 6 Mailam 14 600 67 100 300 - 2 12 56 - - 70 Recommended CI 691 59 106 351 - 2.02 3.34 71.92 77.28 7 Puvattupadinjara 15 540 108 600 188 - 2.2 13.2 40 - - 55.2 16 1800 200 1900 197 - 1.65 9.9 7.2 - - 18.75 CI 2230 308 143 239 - 1.4 49.2 44.6 - - 95.2 Recommended 8 Kadambanadu 17 1400 74 45 119 - 1.5 10.5 37 - - 49 18 400 100 220 51 - 0.9 13 128 - - 141.9 Recommended

Table 4.4: Interpreted results of VES in Pamba basin # Location VES Interpreted results Total depth, Remarks No m

1 2 3 4 5 6 h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 10 250 135 980 - - - 7 56 - - - 63 Recommended 1 Vadaserikara 11 900 100 300 129 - - 14.5 3.5 50 - - 68 Recommended CI 959 156 460 143 - - 13 14 27 - - 54 2 Konny 12 115 230 700 - - - 20 180 - - - 200 Recommended 3 CI 159 240 2340 - - - 14.3 241. - - - 256 7 13 144 366 2878 - - - 85.6 74.6 - - - 160.2 Recommended 4 Pantalam 14 400 120 188 54 105 V 6.5 16.9 12 26.6 96 158 H 5 Mudiyurukona 15 300 45 300 288 - - 11.5 36.2 17.6 - - 61.3 Recommended m CI 86.5 31.7 452 222 - - 8.1 19.8 21.1 - - 49 6 Vettiyar 16 210 137 120 - - - 15 105 - - - 120 Recommended CI 145 131 152 - - - 12 108. - - - 120.1 1 7 Kattod 17 180 19 300 18 VH - 3.2 14.4 48 60 - 125.4 8 Vellara 18 600 90 350 40 - - 6.2 34.1 45.6 - - 85.7 9 Perumbatti 19 500 250 70 245 VH - 1.4 2.8 16.4 75.6 - 96.2 Recommended CI 532 341 41 216 129 - 1 3.4 9.1 136 - 149.5 1 10 Tyadikkal 20 800 400 162 68 275 - 1.6 8.4 36 60 - 106 Recommended 11 CI 649 301 275 74 543 - 2.2 6 33 43 - 84.2 12 Puliyur 21 22 154 VH - - - 1.3 5.2 - - - 6.5 22 1000 200 40 - - - 2 8.4 - - - 10.4 22 700 280 1050 180 - - 1.1 105 16.5 - - 28.1

Table 4.5: Interpreted results of VES carried out in Pathanamthitta district from 2010-16 Total Interpreted Results # Location Depth

1 2 3 4 5 6 h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 1 Kadambanad 540 63 29 792 1.57 13.15 26.57 41.29 2 AKKulangara 165 522 64 216 0.59 1.25 22.72 24.56 3 Adoor 268 5341 486 150 295 0.23 0.61 12.93 29.51 43.29 4 Enathu 404 1205 189 372 123 2031 1.02 2.69 8.29 11.28 22.86 46.15 5 Thumpanam 5353 1305 167 56 1145 1.63 3.75 24.04 24.31 53.74 6 Pandalam 518 945 23 47 374 0.97 1.76 4.53 23.97 31.23

 1 - First layer resistivity in ohm.m h1 - First layer thickness in m

Table 4.6: Interpreted results of VES carried out in Pathanamthitta district, (recommended sites) # Location VES Interpreted results Total depth no in m

1 2 3 4 5 h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 1 Mannambakam 1 147 100 280 - - 15 12 - - - 27 2 Ilankallur Vettur 1 120 50 - - - 3 - - - - 3 3 Mamood 1 280 200 - - - 10 - - - - 10 4 Vettapara 1 190 90 - - - 12 - - - - 12 5 Iravan 1 140 50 100 - - 2 12 - - - 14 6 Vikas junction 1 160 50 130 - - 6 26 - - - 32 7 Paruthumuzhy 1 180 90 260 - - 1.8 10.4 - - - 12.2 8 Elamkavu 1 240 470 220 - - 6 26 - - - 32 9 Pulinchani junction 1 310 63 330 - - 6 21 - - - 27 10 Anakalingal 1 17 50 - - - 12 - - - - 12 11 Thanni thodu 1 120 50 130 - - 10 17 - - - 27 12 Perunad 1 400 200 VH - - 6 21 - - - 27 13 Kunnamkara 1 400 150 430 - - 5 29 - - - 34 14 Kolamala junction 1 310 40 - - - 20 - - - - 20 15 Sabarimala 1 60 95 - - - 8 - - - - 8 16 Valiya kalingu 1 40 69 130 - - 6 13 - - - 19 17 Narayan Moozhy 1 220 700 290 - - 11 5 - - - 16 18 Ranny 1 50 165 - - - 13 - - - - 13 2 400 17 180 - - 4 7 - - - 11

The interpreted results indicated 2 to 3- layered geoelectric section in which the last layer was extending with depth except at one site Perunad. The first layer resistivity value was varying in the range of 17-400 ohm.m with thickness in the range of 1.8-15 m which is soil. At one site the thickness of this layer was 20 m. The second layer resistivity was varying in the range of 17-700 ohm.m with thickness in the range of 5-29 m. At two sites this layer was extending with depth. In this range at 13 sites the resistivity was 100 ohm.m or less which was considered as weathered formation. At the remaining sites the resistivity was in the range of 150-700 ohm.m which was fractured formation. At 10 sites the third layer resistivity was varying in the range of 130-430 ohm.m which is expected to be hard formation with fractures.

The geophysical survey results at some of the non-recommended sites were presented in Table 4.7. The interpreted results here indicated 3 to 5 layered geo electric section. The first layer resistivity was varying in the range of 194-2020 ohm.m which is soil. The second- and third-layer resistivity was varying in the range of 262-1865 ohm.m except at one site where it was 70 ohm.m. The thickness of this formation was varying in the range of 10-47 m. At few sites this layer was extending with depth. At about three sites the fourth- and fifth-layer resistivity was varying in the range of 262-5671 ohm.m with thickness of 5-19 m. which is expected to be hard formation.

Table 4.7: Interpreted results of VES carried out in Pathanamthitta district (Not recommended) # Location VES Interpreted results Total Remarks

no 1 2 3 4 5 h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 depth in m 1 Pichandi kulam 1 689 VH 1678 - - 30 44 - - - 74 2 689 1865 VH - - 34 37 - - - 71 2 Kummannur 1 325 466 532 - - 7 33 - - - 40 3 Kalanjur 1 404 VH 1072 268 VH 32 26 43 19 - 120 2 268 600 VH 5671 577 29 26 46 19 - 120 3 2020 262 VH 262 VH 5 10 10 5 - 30 4 554 404 1327 - - 5 51 - - - 57 5 277 70 450 VH - 10 14 46 - - 70 4 Paruthumuzhi 1 700 325 - - - 70 - - - - 70 2 933 ------5 Konni 1 483 1072 319 - - 30 23 - - - 53 2 194 1540 600 - - 28 47 - - - 75 6 Vallikode 1 337 ------2 202 714 312 - - 33 36 - - - 69

 1 - First layer resistivity in ohm.m h1 - First layer thickness in m VH - Very High

Subsurface Geophysical Surveys

In crystalline rocks geophysical well logging was carried out by using electrical, gamma, caliper and temperature probes. Analysis of various logs in conjunction with related borehole data could reveal different physical and nuclear characteristics of the rock formation encountered in these boreholes. The fracture zones could be deciphered from the SP-PR and 16" and 64" normal resistivity logs, caliper and gamma logs. The pegmatite and quartz veins are picked up in gamma log.

Geophysical logging in Kallada river basin In Kallada river basin at Kalinjur of Pathanamthitta district, the geophysical logging carried out consists of Self potential, Resistivity, natural gamma, caliper and temperature logging. The major part of the study area is underlain by crystalline rocks of Archaean age. The crystalline rocks were extensively laterised. The crystalline rocks are composed predominantly of Khondalites followed by garnet-biotite gneiss and charnockite. Dolerite, gabbro and pegmatites are the major intrusive in to these crystalline. The lithological log along with the geophysical logs obtained at Kalanjur of Kallada river basin was presented in Fig. 4.17

The analysis of the resistivity logs indicated that at various depth ranges different resistivities were recorded which corresponds to the clayey formation, fractured/less fractured and massive formations. In general, the resistivity ranges were 100-500 ohm.m for fractured formations and above 500 to 2000 ohm.m for massive formation. At Kadika study of the log indicated the rock formations in the depth range of 15-148, 29-30, 49-51, 65-66, 69-74, 74-76, 76-85 and 85-90 mbgl have resistivity less than 400 ohm.m and the same may be due to fractured nature of the rock. In the depth range of 12-15, 18-29, 30-49, 51-57, 57-59, 59-65 and 66-69 mbgl the resistivity values are more than 500 ohm.m which may be due to less massive/massive rock. Similarly, at Marur study of the log indicated the rock formations in the depth range of 14-21.5, 25-26, 29.5-32, 35-39.5, 40-41, 43-44.5 and 49.5-56 mbgl have resistivity less than 350 ohm.m and the same may be due to fractured/more fractured nature of the rock. In the depth range of 21.5-25, 26-29.5, 32-35, 35.5-37, 38-40, 41-43, and 44.5-49 mbgl the resistivity values are more than 450 ohm.m which may be due to less massive/massive rock. The analysis of the resistivity log at Kalanjur indicated that in the depth ranges of 25.5-28, 43.5-46.5, and 49-50. 57-63.5, 73-75.5, 87-94, 138-139 and 141-150 mbgl and below 161 mbgl the resistivity value was more than 500 ohm.m corresponding to massive formation.

The natural gamma logging indicated background radiation of 34-120 cps. The count rate was varying in the range of 30-400 cps at Kalinjur in the depth range of 77-82,177-1800 and 195- 201 mbgl the count rate was higher due to increase in radioactive content in gneissic rock. In general, in caliper logs indicated slight increase to increase in borehole diameter against the fracture zones. at Kalinjuru in the range of 26.2 and 26.4º C the temperature was varying at the time of logging.

Fig. 4.17: Composite log of Lithology, electrical, gamma and caliper logs of Kalanjur bore well

Geophysical logging in Pamba river basin

About 11 bore wells in Pamba river basin logged by electrical logging by MLS logging system. The bore wells were logged in the depth range of 78-213 m. The three parameters viz self-potential, 16˝&64˝ normal resistivity and gamma logging was recorded. The basin comprises of three distinct topographical units viz the hilly terrains of the Western Ghats on the east, the sloping midland regions in the middle and the coastal plains on the west. Of the above the coastal plain is mainly underlain by sedimentary formation of tertiary age and recent alluvium. Most of the bore wells were located in the midland area which is underlain by Charnockite, hornblende, biotite gneiss and garnetiferous gneiss intruded by basic dykes, pegmatite and quartz veins and are capped by a zone of residual laterite. The bore wells were in Konni, Vadaserikkera, Theodical, Valiakavu, Parumpatti and Mudiyarukonam villages of Pathanamthitta district. A critical analysis of the electrical log recorded gives the following information regarding the resistivity characteristics of the formations encountered. At Mudiyurkonam the formation encountered was gneiss, Khondalite and Kondalite gneiss. The resistivity ranges encountered for highly fractured formation was 75-150 ohm.m, fractured formation 100-275 ohm.m and less fractured formation 250-425 ohm.m. For massive formation the resistivity was in the range of 300-950 ohm.m.

In Parumpatti charnockites gneiss formation was encountered. The resistivity ranges encountered for highly fractured formation was 50-150 ohm.m, fractured formation 70-300 ohm.m and less fractured formation 190-375 ohm.m. For massive formation the resistivity was

in the range of 300-750 ohm.m. At six wells namely Konni, Vadasserekkara, Theodical, Valiakavu, Podimattom and Anakkallu charnockites formation was encountered. The resistivity ranges encountered for highly fractured formation was 50-190 ohm.m, fractured formation 170-240 ohm.m and less fractured formation 190-400 ohm.m. For massive formation the resistivity was in the range of 250-950 ohm.m. At one well namely Chenganuru granite formation was encountered. By leaving the fractured layers the resistivity was more than 500 ohm.m (maximum of 2300 ohm.m) there by indicating massive nature of the formation. The natural gamma counts in the bore holes were recorded and it was against the back ground of 24-80 cps at the surface. The gamma response in the bore wells varied in the range of 32-300 cps. Higher count values were observed against fractures, biotite gneiss formation, Felds pathetic veins.

4.10 Piezometric head in the fracture zone

The water level data from the piezometers during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons show high water level fluctuations compared to the phreatic aquifers. The maximum and minimum depth to water levels during pre-monsoon is 2.50 and 18.50 respectively and that during post monsoon is 0.57 and 15.60 mbgl. The water levels from the fracture systems during pre-post monsoon periods are given in table 4.8. The piezometric head during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon periods is given in Fig.4.18 and 4.19. The difference in water levels indicates that vertical recharge from the phreatic aquifers to the fracture system is a slow process and the fracture systems are extensive and interconnected so that the aquifer matrix which contributes water to the fracture conduits takes time for getting fully saturated. The piezometric head fluctuation is shown in Fig. 4.20. The water level trend analysed shows 50 % location shows rising during the pre-monsoon period and details are presented in Table 4.9 and representative hydrographs are shown in Fig. 4.21.

Table 4.8: Piezometric head of the fractured aquifer system # Location X Y Pre post Fluctuation 1 Chetheckal 76.81512 9.419926 2.95 1.19 1.76 2 Elanthoor 76.72994 9.300907 2.5 1.56 0.94 3 Ezhamkulam-pz 76.77216 9.15278 6.75 0 0 4 Kadumeenchira 76.85416 9.396404 16.5 15 1.5 5 Kalleli 76.87301 9.208725 4.7 0.57 4.13 6 Koipuram 76.65642 9.345059 10.4 11.5 -1.1 7 Kottangal 76.74531 9.452415 2.66 2.29 0.37 8 Kunnamthanam 76.60772 9.435457 3.55 2.8 0.75 9 Malayalapuzha 76.82313 9.286775 18.5 15.56 2.94 10 Pandalam 76.67679 9.22489 4.25 3.6 0.65 11 Thoyattumala 76.67652 9.406912 9.45 8.79 0.66 12 Vallicode 76.77341 9.224396 3.25 3.2 0.05

Fig. 4.18: Pre-monsoon Piezometric Head in the study area

Fig. 4.19: Post-monsoon Piezometric Head in the study area

Fig. 4.20: Water Level Fluctuation of Piezometric Head in the study area

Table 4.9: Ground water Trend in Fractured Aquifer # PZ Premonsoon Post monsoon Location Rise (m/year) Fall (m/year) Rise (m/year) Fall (m/year) 1 Chetheckal 0.0634 0.0113 2 Elanthur 0.0233 0.2022 3 Ezhamkulam 0.0818 0.1807 4 Pandalam 0.1919 0.047 5 Vallicode 0.1374 0.1109 6 Thayattumala 0.0123 0.0111

Fig. 4.21: Water level Trend of Hydrographs of Piezometers

4.11 Groundwater and its relation to Geological Structures

Geological structures like fractures, lineaments, faults, joints, intrusive rocks etc. influence the occurrence and movement of groundwater. Such information extracted from field 74

investigations as well as from the study of topo-sheets and imagery were utilized to identify potential lineaments and fractures in the area. The lineaments identified in the basin trend various directions such as N-S, NNE-SSW, ENE-WSW, E-W, ESE-WNW, and NW-SE. The prominent lineaments in the area mainly trend in NW-SE, NE-SW and E-W direction.

The crystalline rocks have undergone several phases of deformation and have suffered intensive fracturing and dislocation. The earliest phase appears to be folding and metamorphism on a regional scale. The regional metamorphism is of high grade granulitic facies resulting in formation of charnockites, pyroxene granulite, sillimanite gneisses and biotite gneisses. They show regional isoclinal folding on NW-SE direction. The regional strike of foliation in charnockites and gneisses is generally NW-SE.

The lofty hill ranges at Pamba Malai and the steep escarpments associated with it suggest that this area may have been uplifted. Ranni sector, northern part of Pathanamthitta district shows shearing parallel to the foliation of banded charnockite associated with sudden rise in topography resulting in high relief and escarpments. This suggests possibility of the area being subjected to block faulting. There is one major shear zone. The Achenkovil shear trending in NW-SE direction along which the Achenkovil River flows. This shear zone has not only formed weak plane for the intrusion of dykes but they have also become weak planes for weathering and erosion to form drainage channels for most of the tributaries and streams.

Prominent sets of joints are seen in most of the rocks. Strike joints and dip joints are very common in charnockites and gneisses Fig 4.22 and 4.23.

Fig. 4.22: Multiple direction Joints in country rock Near Ranni

However, the shear/tensile relation of fractures may play a significant role in the yield characteristics of wells. Most of the dykes in the area are trending NE-SW or NNE-SSW direction and dipping vertical. The lineaments/fractures parallel to these dykes are considered as tensile and the wells located on these fractures have relatively high yield. 75

Fig.4.23: Joints and fractures observed in a quarry Near Naranganam

4.12 Aquifer characteristics The hydraulic properties of fracture systems are evaluated from pumping tests and the results of which are given in Appendix-3. The Transmissivity value varies from 0.50 to 106.23 m2/day and the Storativity values varies from 0.00044 to 0.00068. The aquifer characteristics of the newly constructed 29 exploratory wells are given in table 4.10.

Table 4.10: Data of Aquifer Performance Test conducted

I APT in Crystalline #. Location SWL Durati Disch Draw Transmi Storativity Lineament Hydraulic (m bgl) on of arge dow ssivity Direction condition APT (lps) n (m) (m2/day (min) ) 1 Kadika 1.54 500 0.65 16.7 1.27 - - 2 2 Kalanjur 1.1 1000 1.29 14.1 7.3 - - 4 3 Mudiyurkonam 3.84 500 0.76 25.0 1.11 - Confined 5 4 Theodical 1.90 1000 2.130 19.8 7.47 2.4 x 10-4 Confined 8 5 Valiakavu 3.67 500 1.180 29.8 0.50 - - 3 6 Perumpatti 1.62 1000 7.88 24.1 10.0 - Leaky 6 confined 7 Vadasserikkara 2.72 500 3.00 23.4 Unconfined 0 .000479 21.97 8 Kadamanchira 8.31 300 4.4 7.5 Unconfined 16.2 .00044 9 Pathanamthitt 1.6 500 5.90 29.8 106.23 Unconfined a 50 0.0068 10 Koipuram 12.78 500 12.70 13.0 Unconfined 4 48.78 - 76

II Dug well tests in Laterite 1. Mannadi 651 25 0.33 0.86 - - Unconfined 5 2. Mudiyurkonam 6.34 20 0.46 0.54 - - -do- 6 3. Kirukuzhi 7.0 16 1.91 1.74 - - -do- 5

4.13 Groundwater potential of fracture aquifer system The yield from bore wells varies highly in the area irrespective of the geological formations. Within the same geological formation, the spatial variations in yield is very common and it does not show any relation with the spatial variations in weathered thickness. The fracture systems have major influence on the yield. The percentage of wells having yield in varying ranges is given in table 4.11.

Table 4.11: Yield of bore wells in different ranges and their percentage

Yield of Expl.Wells No of wells % Wells 10 to 20 lps 2 16.46 5 to 10 lps 4 17.72 3 to 5 lps 6 12.66 1 to 3 lps 10 13.92 < 1 lPS to dry 34 39.24

The yield map of fracture aquifer system shows high groundwater potential areas in the central and western part of the area where successful wells yield upto 16 lps. The groundwater potential of the area is depicted in Fig. 4.24.

The Deeper Fracture zone is very potential as the area is tectonically disturbed and groundwater exists there under semi-confined conditions. Since the area experienced several episodes of tectonic deformations, a large number of interconnected fractures developed which offer very good conduits and storage space for groundwater. The Central Ground Water Board has drilled 56 numbers of exploratory wells in the study area, the depth of the bore wells ranges from 50 m to 250 mbgl. The depth to fracture zones ranges from 22 m to 190 m bgl and the discharge ranges from 0.5 to 16 lps. However, most of the potential fracture zones occur within the depth of 80 mbgl. Bore wells located along the lineaments are yielding high compared to the wells located away from the lineaments. The area of Koduman, Vadaserrikara, Konni, Ranni, Kadamanchira area having the high yielding bore wells in the deeper fracture too. The aquifer map of the fracture system is given in Fig 4.25.

Fig.4.24: Ground water potential map of fracture aquifer system

Fig.4.25: Aquifer map of fracture aquifer system

4.14 Water quality of Deep Aquifers

The water samples collected from the exploratory bore wells were analysed. The chemical data indicate that the pH ranges between 6.98 and 8.56 indicating that at places it is slightly acidic and some places indicating the water is alkaline. EC values ranges between 90 to 670 micro simen’s per cm at 250C. All other parameters fall under the permissible limit. Thus, water from all the bore wells tapping fractured aquifer in the hard rocks of the district is suitable for domestic and agricultural uses. The chemical quality of fractured aquifers is presented in table 4.12 and the Electrical conductivity map is presented in Fig. 4.26.

Table 4.12: Ground Water quality of Deeper Aquifers Location pH EC TH Ca Mg Na K CO3 HCO3 SO4 Cl F NO3

1 Kadiga 7.43 380 130 36 9.8 45 1.7 0 250 Traces 13.0 0.1 - 2 Kalanjur 6.98 230 84 28 3.4 15 2.2 0 134 Traces 8.5 0.11 - 3 Mudiyurkonam 8.21 670 35 8 3.7 146 2.8 0 287 Traces 78.5 0.4 - 4 Konni 6.40 90 18 4 1.9 9.8 3.2 0 19 Traces 18.0 - - 5 Theodical 7.73 300 50 11 5.5 47 Traces 0 183 Traces 1.0 0.2 - 6 Valliakavu 7.10 340 22 8 .5 71 3.5 0 195 Traces 16.0 - - 7 Perumpatti 7.18 200 85 12 13 12 3.5 0 117 Traces 9.9 0.4 - 8 Chetackal8.2 8.28 335 134 24 18 11 0.6 0 212 0 4.3 0.4 0 9 Pamba7.94 7.94 224 82 20 7.8 11 0.4 0 149 0 5.7 0.12 0 10 plapally 7.78 283 90 18 11 13 12 0 156 0 5.7 0.42 4.10 11 Angamoozhy 7.69 363 118 32 9.2 24 3 0 224 0 5.7 0.4 1.30 12 Kodumon 8.25 236 85 26 4.9 11 2 0 152 1.5 4.3 0.16 2.40 13 Konni 8.56 298 125 26 15 13 1.1 24 146 t 5.7 0.111 2.10 14 Adur 7.92 179 36 5.6 5.4 14 4.6 0 71 13 5.7 0.25 7.0 15 Vadaserikara 7.85 211 64 17 5.4 12 1.8 0 90 4.5 9.9 0.02 6.20 16 Vennikulam 8.41 334 130 34 11 11 1.9 30 122 1.5 8.5 0 0.66[ 17 Kadumancheera 7.9 277 120 18 18 8 1.7 0 173 2.5 9.9 0.3 1.3 18 Kottangal 8.4 278 72 23 3.4 26 3.9 12 79 8.5 20 0.11 22 19 Koipuram 7.87 221 70 20 4.9 16 3 0 134 2.5 5.7 0 4.3 20 Pathanamthitta 7.35 133 34 8.8 2.9 9.9 2.1 0 68 7.5 5.7 0.2 8

Fig. 4.26: Electrical Conductivity map of Deeper Aquifer in the study area

Hydrochemical Facies

The available variables plotted inHill- Piper diagram and it shows that the most of water samples are falling carbonate and bicarbonate type of waters. The samples of eastern part of the area such as Kadumeenchira, chethakal, vennikulam, Perumpatti and kottangal falls in the Magnesium rich and sodium +potassium less water quality. The Hill piper Diagram presented in Fig. 4.27.

Fig. 4. 27: Hill-Piper diagram showing Geochemical Classification of fractured Aquifer

5.0 GROUND WATER RESOURCES

The groundwater availability in an area is governed by various factors like rainfall, geomorphological feature, geological set up and hydrogeological conditions. The withdrawal component from storage and recharge components from irrigation also affects the groundwater balance. Rainfall is the major source of recharge for groundwater. The average rainfall is greater than the potential evapotranspiration during seven months in a year from May to November, indicating water surplus for effective recharge to the groundwater regime during these months. The block wise details of ground water resource estimation presented in Table 5.1

5.1 Dynamic groundwater Resources in the weathered zone The dynamic groundwater resources in the area are estimated based on the methodology proposed by Groundwater Estimation Committee (GEC 1997 methodology). In this study the area under command and non-command could not be separated mainly due to non-availability of data pertaining to canal command areas of the State. Due to the highly undulating topography of the mid land area where most of the canals exist, it is quite difficult to accurately demarcate the areas under command and non-command. In view of the factors mentioned above, the computations have been made by taking all assessment units as non- canal command area. The recharge from canal segments and return seepage from irrigation due to surface water in the command area have, however, been incorporated into the computations and given in Table 5.1.

5.2 Groundwater recharge

The recharge to groundwater has been computed based on specific yield and water table fluctuations of different geological units available in the district. The water level fluctuation data was taken from the ground water monitoring wells. The specific yield values taken for the recharge calculation is as follows:

Valley fills - 10% Laterite - 4.66% Crystalline rocks - 1.2 to 3%

The recharge thus calculated were checked with those of the ad-hoc norms based on rainfall infiltration and whenever the difference is more than 20% ad-hoc norms were chosen as per the recommendations by the ground water estimation committee. The return seepage from the paddy fields was computed as per the data on cropping pattern obtained from the State Agricultural Department. The seepage factor was taken as 6 mm as worked out by Kerala Agricultural University.

The water requirement for domestic needs was subtracted to arrive at the utilisable ground water resource for irrigation. Around 15% of the total ground water resource is kept for drinking and industrial use. The present domestic draft is computed taking a per capita consumption of 100 litres per head per day for the rural population as per the 2001census. The blocks were the domestic requirement was below 15% of the total resource 15% was taken as the present domestic and industrial consumption.

Table 5.1: Block wise groundwater resources in Pathanamthitta District as on 31st March 2013

Water

All All uses

Draft Draft for Draft for

14)

Draft Draft for

Availability

Assessment Unit/ Block Unit/ Assessment Net Annual Water Ground Existing Gross Ground Water irrigation Existing Gross Ground Water domestic and industrial supply water Existing Gross Ground Water (11+12) Provision for domestic to up use and industrial 2025. Net Ground Availability for future irrigation development (10 Stage of Ground Water Development {(13/10) (%) * 100} 1 2 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1 Elanthoor 2284.41 373.88 454.88 828.76 437.74 1472.79 36.28 2 Koipuram 2143.86 396.34 591.19 987.53 568.91 1178.60 46.06 3 Konni 4950.76 384.18 780.06 1164.24 750.67 3815.91 23.52 4 Mallappally 2690.17 318.82 578.81 897.63 557.00 1814.35 33.37 5 Pandalam 2678.20 686.14 657.64 1343.78 632.86 1359.20 50.17 6 Parakode 6256.81 859.52 1089.30 1948.82 1048.26 4349.02 31.15 7 Pulikeezh 2208.10 292.10 688.00 980.10 662.08 1253.91 44.39 8 Ranni 4060.26 335.80 805.34 1141.14 774.99 2949.47 28.11 Total (ha.m) 27272.56 3646.78 5645.21 9291.99 5432.53 18193.25 34.07

Total (MCM) 272.73 36.47 56.45 92.92 54.33 181.93 34.07

5.3 Groundwater Draft Groundwater withdrawal is taking place for irrigation, domestic and industrial purposes. The domestic and industrial requirements were computed as per the norms considering the population of 2001 and also based on the projected population for the year 2025. The irrigation draft was calculated based on the number of groundwater abstraction structures and the number of hours the well is in use per day and average number of days of irrigation in a year. Existing groundwater draft for irrigation and domestic and industrial are calculated separately. In the Pandalam block there is a significant rise in the draft since 1999. Groundwater draft for 8 blocks based on 1999 data and 2004 data is given in Table 5.2 and the bar diagrams based on the comparison of gross draft and irrigation draft are shown in the chart.

Table 5.2: Groundwater Draft (MCM) in Pathanamthitta District as on 2013 # Block Net Groundwater Groundwater for Groundwater draft Groundwater draft availability as on irrigation for domestic, for all uses 2004 industrial 2004 2013 2004 2013 2004 2013 1 Elanthoor 22.8441 5.57 3.7388 4.0 4.5488 9.57 8.2876 2 Koipuram 21.4386 5.28 3.9634 4.63 5.9119 9.91 9.8753 3 Konni 49.5076 7.30 3.8418 5.53 7.8006 12.83 11.6424 4 Mallappally 26.9017 5.60 3.1882 4.44 5.7881 10.04 8.9763 5 Pandalam 26.782 9.66 6.8614 2.48 6.5764 12.14 13.4378 6 Parakode 62.5681 10.17 8.5952 7.73 10.893 17.89 19.4882 7 Pulikeezh 22.081 4.68 2.921 3.39 6.88 8.07 9.801 8 Ranni 40.6026 5.85 3.358 6.37 8.0534 12.22 11.4114 272.73 36.4678 56.4521 92.9199

The stage of development was computed based on the following formula 20 NCG S.D. = B/A x 100 S.D. is the stage of development B is the gross groundwater draft for all uses A is the annual net groundwater available. Based on this stage of groundwater development, the blocks are categorized as safe, semi-critical, critical and over-exploited. The stage of development in Pathanamthitta district is 34.07 %. Maximum development is seen in Pandalam block (50 %) and minimum in Konni block (23.52 %). All the blocks in the district fall under safe category and the block wise stage of development of the district is given in Table 5.3. The groundwater draft at present and the resource available for future irrigation is depicted in Fig. 5.1.

Table 5.3: Stage of Development in Pathanamthitta district # Name of block Net Groundwater Total gross draft Stage of Categorization of available in (MCM) (MCM) Groundwater block development (%)

2004 2013 2004 2013 2004 2013 2004 2013 1 Elanthoor 25.79 22.8441 9.57 8.2876 37.09 36.28 Safe Safe 2 Koipuram 22.38 21.4386 9.91 9.8753 44.28 46.06 Safe Safe 3 Konni 57.61 49.5076 12.83 11.6424 22.26 23.52 Safe Safe 4 Mallappally 22.63 26.9017 10.04 8.9763 44.37 33.37 Safe Safe 5 Pandalam 22.48 26.782 12.14 13.4378 54.00 50.17 Safe Safe 6 Parakode 54.75 62.5681 17.89 19.4882 32.68 31.15 Safe Safe 7 Pulikeezh 23.23 22.081 8.07 9.801 30.77 44.39 Safe Safe 8 Ranni 64.01 40.6026 12.22 11.4114 19.09 28.11 Safe Safe

Fig 5.1: Present Ground water Draft and Availability 5.4 Number of ground water structure for future development Keeping in view of the present data on the unit draft per structure is computed that by developing 70% of the balance resource available for irrigation about 40,000 structures can be constructed and 90% development, about 52,000 structures can be constructed. Since all the

blocks fall under safe category abstraction structures can be constructed keeping in view the groundwater sustainability of the region.

5.5 Instorage in the weathered zone Instorage is the water resource available below the water level fluctuation zone. The groundwater development in the dynamic zone is mainly through dug wells. The instorage is not affected under sustainable groundwater development in the phreatic zone. The resource from instorage is extracted under over exploitation of groundwater. Total in storage in the weathered zone is worked out based on the total rechargeable area of 1500 sq km, total thickness of 20m and specific yield of 0.007. The in-storage in this zone is estimated as 130 MCM. The total groundwater availability in the weathered zone is the sum of dynamic resources and the in-storage which comes about 234 MCM. However, the instorage is not accounted for future utilization for irrigation. 5.6 Instorage in the Fracture zone

The groundwater resources in the fracture aquifer system are estimated as instorage in the fracture system. It is estimated based on the depth of occurrence of fracture and on the assumption that the storativity/ Sp. yield of the fracture and associated matrix which is about .003 to .0009 for the area. The total water resources in the fracture system are about 175 MCM.

6.0 GROUND WATER PROBLEMS AND SPECIAL STUDIES

6.1 Vulnerable area

The sloping nature of the ground accelerates the fast-subsurface out flow of the ground water. The dug wells located along the high lands and hill slopes in the district dried up in summer months and the ground water will be available only in the low-lying area and valley portion. As the study area is dissected by innumerable hills and valleys of different magnitude, problems and vulnerable area are also scattered and alternates with potential zones. The problems of water scarcity during summer months can be solved by implementing /constructing proper artificial recharge structures.

Factors affecting the groundwater environment The groundwater environment in the area is affected by mining activities such as granite quarrying (Fig. 6.1 & 6.2). Indiscriminate mining activities for Building materials like Charnockites and granites quarries are occupying the highland and midland region of the study area are affecting the ground water movements and storage capacity.

Fig. Fig.6.1: Quarrying near Ranni

Fig. 6.2: Indiscriminate quarrying in Parakuttam and Ranni

Groundwater pollution

Along the Pamba river from Pamba Triveni to Erumeli section most of dug wells and shallow bore wells affected by fecal pollution. During the pilgrimage season due to bathing and throwing of waste materials to the river and bank of the river (Fig. 6.3), the river water gets polluted finally in has reached nearby dug wells and shallow bore wells. It can be rectified proper construction of facilities to the pilgrimage and making awareness to the people.

Fig. 6.3 Waste materials dumped on the river and bank Urban Hydrogeology Pathanamthitta is having four municipalities namely Pathanamthitta, Pandalam, Adoor and Thiruvalla. Hydrogeolgically these area falls in the vicinity of laterites and it yield good amount of water to the available dug wells for domestic purposes. In general, the laterites are followed by weathered crystalline rocks which is also yielding sufficient amount of water for

domestic uses. All the municipalities are getting good amount of water supply by Kerala water Authority from nearby rivers. (Appendix-1)

7.0 AQUIFER MANAGEMENT PLAN

The net available groundwater resource in the district is about 284.11 MCM of which the present draft is about 94.24 MCM and the stage of groundwater development is about 34 %. In mid land, large diameter dug wells down to 8-12 m can be constructed. Bore wells of 100 to 152mm diameter) down to 200 m can be constructed along potential lineaments. The challenging part in management of groundwater resource in Pathanamthitta district is to utilize the huge resource available for agricultural as well as the overall development of the district. As the phreatic aquifer thickness is less than 10 m in most of the area, large number of abstraction structures spatially spread over is most suitable for the district for further groundwater development. Another issue is the water scarcity problem in high gradient and hilly areas which is not accounted as part of the aquifer system mapped. Rainfall harvesting is traditionally practised in these areas and further encouragement support is required for promoting such practices in this area.

The alternating hills and valleys present ideal sites for construction of subsurface dams for conservation of groundwater, which will mitigate the water scarcity of the upstream side. Several such structures can be constructed. Artificial recharge measures like check dams, contour bunding, trenching, gulley plugging, terracing etc should be constructed in the mid land area of Parakode, Kulanada, Elanthoor, Pandalam, parts of Ranni, Konni blocks, Adoor and Pathanamthitta Municipality, which will improve groundwater availability in summer. For isolated habitation in the eastern hilly parts of the district roof water harvesting can be the assured source of drinking water. Community irrigation schemes using groundwater resources have to be given a thrust backed up by scientific investigations.

The available spring can be developed and can be used for drinking purpose where ever possible. The detailed hydrogeological map should be prepared in Panchayat or block level to guide the local people for ground water developments. Groundwater legislation should be enacted and the abstraction and usage of ground water should be monitored properly by panchayat or block level groundwater committee.

7.1 Phreatic aquifer - Present Scenario

In the study area the groundwater is mostly developed through dug wells and bore wells for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes. In the crystalline terrain the groundwater is developed through dug wells, dug cum bore wells and bore wells. Along the valleys and laterite terrain groundwater is developed through dug wells.

There is vast potential for groundwater development in the district. The stage of groundwater development is very low in Konni (23.52 %), Ranni (28.11 %), and Parakode (31.15 %) blocks. More land can be brought under irrigated agriculture by constructing an additional 20000 abstraction structures spatially spread over so as to ensure sustainability. Also, the future groundwater development of these blocks can be maintained around 70-80%.

The groundwater development in the district is feasible through different abstraction structures tapping the shallow phreatic aquifers in the hard rocks, laterite, and alluvium and deep fractured crystalline rocks. Depending upon the hydrogeological set up and requirement, the development can be planned with suitable structures.

7.2 Fractured aquifer system

Around 56 exploratory bore holes were drilled in Pathanamthitta district, the yield of the wells goes up to 14.51 lps. The well in the northeast lineament at Vadasserikara on the banks of the river did not yields water. The places like Plapally, Vallicode, Kummannur, Chadanapally, Ottethekku, Munudumuzhy, Thannithode, Malayapuzha, Manajadi and vennikulam are low yielding wells.

The bore well along the NNW lineament had the highest yield of 990 lpm. The bore holes located along NW lineament also yielded little water. The successful bore wells with yields 3 to 10 lps, are located at Kodumon, Konni, Pathanamthitta, Vadeserikkara, Koipuram and Kadamanchira. The southern parts of the district covered by the khondalites rocks are predominant and very potential around koduman and kalanjur. In general, where ever the lithological changes are observed during the drilling the yielding of water gradually increased.

In general, the lineaments are the conduitsl of ground water, but the ground exploration data reveals that the groundwater potential zones are encountered away from the lineaments in most of the cases. The best example is the ground water exploration carried out in and around Pathanamthitta where the Achankoil lineament passing through southern part of the district.

7.3 Springs

Springs play a major role in solving drinking and domestic water supply demands to the rural population, particularly eastern part of the hilly area. Most of the eastern part are undulating or steep sloping geomorphic features which are favorable for spring to occur. So, several springs are seen along the valley slopes. In general springs are seen Nilackal, Attatodu, Laha, Perumon, Pampa, Seethatodu, Thannitodu and Peruntharuvi.The salient features of springs are compiled in Table 7.1 and field photos of springs are given in Fig 7.1 and 7.2.

Table 7.1: Details of spring in Pathanamthitta district # Location Name Discharge (lph) Quality By observation/uses

1 Nilackal 100 Good/ Drinking 2 Attathodu 100 Good/ Drinking 3 Laha perumon 140 Good/ Drinking 4 Seethatodu 90 Good/ Drinking 5 Thannitodu 80 Good/ Drinking 6 Perutharuvi 180 Good/ Drinking

Fig. 7.1: Spring at Nilackal

Fig. 7.2: Spring at Arrekakavu 7.4 Sustainable development of Groundwater in hard rock area Groundwater potential maps on a micro water shed or Panchayat basis should be generated for managing groundwater resources. The maps should contain all hydrogeological information like groundwater availability, present abstraction practices, surface irrigation details, water budget, including groundwater balance, socio-economic details, cropping pattern etc. Rainwater harvesting and artificial recharge structures should be implemented at feasible sites. Rainwater harvesting is being practiced widely in the high land areas and one photo of such a structure is given in Fig 7.3.

7.5 Scope of Artificial Recharge

Artificial recharge / conservation structures and roof top rain water harvesting for domestic use are applicable in this area even though there is high rainfall and low groundwater development. This paradoxical situation arised out of the undulating topography and thin aquifer systems which got limited water storage capacity. Because of this, delay in on set of monsoon even for a couple of weeks leads to drought situation in high land areas.

The geomorphological features and sufficient rainfall are advantage for implementing artificial recharge schemes in this area. The Artificial recharge structure like sub surface dam, contour bunding, trenching, gully plugging, terracing, check dams etc will help in impounding part of the rainfall and allow gradual percolation into the ground water. The following sites are recommending for to implementing the above artificial recharge structures. Block wise artificial recharge feasible in the district is given in Table 7.2.

1. Udimoodu –Right side of road leading to Ranni. (check dam and subsurface dike) 2. Naranganam _ Valley near ALP school. (check dam and subsurface dike) 3. Thannithode across river Karaumanthode suitable for chain of Check dam 4. Nilackal - Contour bounding Check dam, Gabbion structure, Sub surface dykes. 5. Pampa (across the stream) _Check dam 6. Kodumon Estate- sub surface dam, contour bunding, trenching, gully plugging, terracing, check dams. 7. Atirumkal, Vakayar, Chanadanapally, Koduman and Neduman kauv - Valleys are suitable for check dam and subsurface dike 8. Laha estate – Suitable for Contour bounding, Check dam, Gabbion structure, Sub surface dykes. 9. The roof top rain water harvesting should be implemented all the schools, colleges, hospitals, lodges and government buildings consult with the field of experts in all the blocks except some parts of Pulikeezh blocks where the water levels are very shallow even during summer periods. 10. Pathanamthitta, Adur, Pandalam and Thiruvalla municipalities areas are suitable for roof top rain water harvesting.

Table 7.2: Block-wise feasible methods of Artificial recharge structures

Artificialrechargestructuresfeasible*andtheir numbers

e e

ge ge

s s

t t

charge charge

y y

km e

r rpl

e for for e

ber)

d d (

er er

m) s

f f

s s

ures ures

s t

o s)

es es

l l

dfor dfor

.No. of .No.

e c e

) ) s agenci

Name l ures l

i k

ble forr ble

f u

dy dy u

Cost

c nu x akh)

meofwater meofwater meof

lco

M M ib

o L

stru L

fi i Capacity t t

u t

u u a

i s

i i C i

C C u

l l

pro

n s

a pe

ea ea (sq. ea

asib a

ock

cal/distant sou cal/distant

ructu

r r o o p

r v y

M e e

B A A a Recharge, V r ( V l a ( T Un (M Number s f A Str al co Net Num v of str f Un (Rs To co (Rs.

1 2 3 5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1 Elanthoor 105 33 5 110 C 0.033 11 1 10 20 203 P 0.033 9 2 7 20 149 SSD 0.003 3 0 3 15 38 GP 0.0001 1567 126 1441 0.15 216 NB 0.00225 161 13 148 2 297 CB 0.00075 402 13 390 2 780 2 Koipuram 121 62 9 209 C 0.033 22 2 20 20 400 P 0.033 17 3 14 20 280 SSD 0.003 5 0 5 15 75 GP 0.0001 2967 237 2729 0.15 409 NB 0.00225 304 24 280 2 560 CB 0.00075 760 24 736 2 1472 3 Konni 804 42 6 141 C 0.033 15 1 13 20 260 P 0.033 12 2 10 20 200 SSD 0.003 3 0 3 15 45 GP 0.0001 2000 160 1840 0.15 276 NB 0.00225 205 16 189 2 378 CB 0.00075 512 16 496 2 992 4 Malapally 134 49 7 164 C 0.033 17 1 16 20 320 P 0.033 14 2 11 20 220 SSD 0.003 4 0 4 15 60 GP 0.0001 2333 186 2147 0.15 322 NB 0.00225 238 19 220 2 440 CB 0.00075 596 19 577 2 1154 5 Pandalam 300 130 18 439 C 0.033 45 3 42 20 840 P 0.033 36 7 30 20 600 SSD 0.003 10 0 10 15 150

GP 0.0001 6267 499 5768 0.15 865 NB 0.00225 639 50 589 2 1178 CB 0.00075 1597 50 1547 2 3094 6 Parakode 4 29 4 98 C 0.033 10 1 9 20 180 6 P 0.033 8 1 7 20 140 SSD 0.003 2 0 2 15 30 GP 0.0001 1400 112 1288 0.15 193 NB 0.00225 143 11 132 2 264 CB 0.00075 358 11 347 2 694 7 Pulikeezh 9 20 3 68 C 0.033 7 1 7 20 140 2 P 0.033 6 1 5 20 100 SSD 0.003 2 0 2 15 30 GP 0.0001 967 78 889 0.15 133 NB 0.00225 100 8 92 2 184 CB 0.00075 249 8 241 2 482 8 Ranni 105 27 4 89 C 0.033 9 1 9 20 180 2 P 0.033 7 1 6 20 120 SSD 0.003 2 0 2 15 30 GP 0.000 1267 102 1165 0.15 175 NB 10 .002 130 10 120 2 240 CB 250.000 326 10 315 2 630 District Total 2654 392 54 1318 C 75 126 20 2523 P 90 20 1809 SSD 31 15 458 GP 17267 0.15 2590 NB 1770 2 3541 CB 4649 2 9298 20220 C-Check dam, P -Pond, SSD – Sub-Surface Dyke, GP - Gully plug, NB – Nallah Bund, CB -Contour Bund

Fig. 7.3: The roof top rain water harvesting practises near Maniyar

7.6 Recommendations

➢ 288 MCM water is available in the area for irrigation. Utilization of this resource for horticulture and agricultural development through optimal utilization of groundwater using Water Use Efficient methods such as Drip & sprinkler irrigation will increase the agriculture productivity as well as optimal utilization of groundwater resource.

➢ 10000 to 15000 shallow bore wells or irrigation dug wells are feasible in the area and about 25000 to 37000 hectares of land can be put in to irrigation in the area, taking into consideration of the water available in the area for irrigation.

➢ Artificial recharge measures like check dams, contour bunding, trenching, gulley plugging, terracing etc should be constructed in the mid land area of Parakode, Kulanada, Elanthoor, Pandalam, parts of Ranni, Konni blocks, Adoor and Pathanamthitta Municipality, which will improve groundwater availability in summer.

➢ For isolated habitation in the eastern parts roof top rain water harvesting can be the assured source of drinking waterand that may be promoted.

Acknowledgements

Author expresses his sincere thanks to Sri V. Kunhambhu, Regional Director, CGWB, KR, Thiruvananthapuram, for his support in finalizing the report. Author also expresses his sincere thanks to Dr N. Vinaya Chandran Sc D (Nodal Officer) and Smt T.S. Anitha Shyam Sc D (Supervisory Officer) under whose guidance the work was successfully carried out. Author is also thankful to Sri. C.Rajkumar Sc C, Sri Tony Eapen, Chief Drafts Man and all colleagues for their valuable suggestions during the preparation of this report.

References

1. Central Ground Water Board (1992) : Final technical report of SIDA Assisted Coastal Kerala Ground Water Project (1983-88) GW Resources of the Project area. Report by CGWB, Tvm.

2. Central Ground Water Board (1992) : Report of the group on the estimation of Ground Water Resources and irrigation Potential from ground water in Kerala state

3.Department of Economics And statistics (2006) : Panchayat level statics of Pathanamthitta district

4. Smt. Mini Chandran (2010) : Ground water development potential of Pathanamthitta District

5. Todd, T.K. (1959) : Ground Water Hydrology, Willey International Edison.

6 Kerala Water Authority : Water supply schemes in Pathanamthitta District.

Appendix 1: Heavy metals in different source in Pathanamthitta District (Sample collected during Management studies in 2012)

# Location Source Cu Cd Fe Zn Li Ni Mn Cr Pb <------mg/L------> 1 Pazhakulam Dug Well 0.009 ND 0.136 0.266 ND 0.037 0.013 ND ND 2 Nellumukal Dug Well 0.034 ND 0.433 1.7 ND 0.015 0.015 ND ND 3 Churakod Dug Well ND ND 1.8 0.033 0.004 0.006 0.03 ND ND 4 Vayattupuzha Dug Well ND ND ND 0.126 ND 0.002 0.005 0.036 ND 5 Pamba Dug Well 0.008 0 0.254 5.7 ND ND 0.012 ND ND 6 Kadamuruthi Dug Well 0.001 0 0.236 1.1 0.008 0.007 0.038 ND ND 7 Manthanam Dug Well 0.022 0 0.243 0.69 0.005 0.031 0.007 ND 0 8 Kadappra Dug Well ND 0 0.195 0.27 0.012 ND 0.053 ND 0.012 9 Manguttom Dug Well ND ND 1.55 0.172 0.001 0.006 0.042 ND ND 10 Kodumon Dug Well 0.003 0 0.222 0.09 0.01 ND 0.015 ND ND 11 Kalanjur Dug Well ND ND 0.497 0.525 ND 0.013 0.04 ND ND 12 V.Kottayam Dug Well 0.009 0 2.1 0.377 0.002 0.016 0.033 ND 0.021 13 Kochiyarakal Dug Well 0.01 0 0.115 0.04 0.006 ND 0.006 ND 0.022 14 Areekadavu Dug Well 0.006 0 0.39 0.103 0.001 ND 0.036 ND 0.026 15 Mannaramala Dug Well ND ND 0.295 0.124 0.014 0.009 0.045 ND ND Pudusseri 16 Bhagham Dug Well ND 0 0.363 0.71 0.004 ND 0.094 ND 0.002 17 Chethackal Dug Well ND 0 0.35 0.356 ND ND 0.001 ND 0.017 18 chittar Dug Well ND 0 0.874 0.533 0 ND 0.034 0.015 0.002 19 Malayalapuzha HandPump ND 0 6.3 1.4 0.006 0.003 0.327 0.006 ND 20 Kadamuruthi KWA-Water 0.006 0 1.8 3.1 0.018 ND 0.062 ND ND 21 Kadamuruthi spring 0 0 0.331 0.03 ND ND 0.012 ND 0.012 22 Kochiyarakal Bore well ND ND ND 0.319 0.014 ND 0.003 ND ND 23 Angamuzhi River 0.002 ND 2.6 0.017 ND 0.001 0.049 ND ND 24 Kochiyarakal Bore well ND ND ND 0.319 0.014 ND 0.003 ND ND 25 Attathodu HandPump ND ND 11 0.57 0.011 ND 0.21 ND ND 26 Unnathanam HandPump ND ND 13 1.5 0.015 0.01 0.11 0.021 ND 27 Makkapuzha HandPump ND ND 2.75 0.141 0.028 ND 0.103 ND ND 28 Tonikuzhi HandPump ND ND 16 2.2 0.019 ND 0.096 ND ND 29 Aruvikara Bore well ND ND 0.42 3.9 0.007 0.001 0.047 ND 0.104 30 Vadasserikara RiverPampa ND ND 1.36 0.276 0.005 0.017 0.02 ND ND 31 Nallor HandPump 0.006 ND 19 0.358 0.018 0.01 0.417 ND ND 32 Pamba River River 0.008 0 1 0.034 ND ND 0.035 ND 0.013 33 Aranmula RiverPampa ND 0 0.64 0.032 0.007 0.006 0.012 ND ND 34 Triveni RiverPampa ND ND 1.9 0.065 0 0.042 0.03 ND ND 35 Sitatodu KakadaRiver 0.009 0 1.4 ND 0.005 ND 0.051 ND ND 36 Ranni River ND 0 0.814 1.7 ND 0.009 0.025 ND ND 37 Kanamala RiverPampa 0.002 0 1 0.11 ND ND 0.048 ND 0.02 38 Athikayam RiverPampa ND 0 1.1 0.023 0.009 ND 0.323 ND 0.024 39 Cherkolpuzha RiverPampa 0.002 0 0.505 0.081 ND ND 0.015 ND ND 40 Arattupuzha RiverPampa ND 0 1.1 0.09 0.004 0.001 0.042 ND ND 41 Thuvoor KWA Water ND 0 0.436 0.003 0.002 ND ND 0.005 ND 42 Nilakkal spring ND 0 0.062 0.01 0.003 0.003 0.016 0.01 0.006 43 Laha spring 0.02 0 3.4 0.024 0.009 ND 0.37 ND 0.006 44 Pathanamthitta Bore well ND 0 1.8 0.097 ND 0.015 0.16 ND ND 45 chittar spring 0.003 0 0.001 ND 0.01 ND ND ND ND 46 Pudukada Bore well ND 0.043 17 2.8 0.006 ND 0.254 ND ND Max. 0.034 0.043 19 5.7 0.028 0.042 0.417 0.036 0.104 Min. 0 0 0.001 0.003 0 0.001 0.001 0.005 0 Ave. 0.010261 0.002606 2.850625 0.813388 0.008486 0.012308 0.079327 0.01675 0.023611

100

Appendix 2: Salient features of Bore wells (EW) drilled in Pathanamthitta

# Location Depth Depth Lineam SWL, Fracture zones, Discha Rock type Latitude drilled, of ent m bgl m bgl rge, Longitude m bgl casing, Directio lps mbgl n 1 Kadika 200.53 14.09 NNE- 1.09 65.37 1.5 Garnet biotite gneiss 9006’10”, 76045’55” SSW 2 Marur 200.53 12.0 Dry Nil Nil Garnet biotite gneiss NW-SE 9007’0”, 76049’15” 3 Kalanjur 221.39 4.8 1.10 16.0-38.5 3 Garnet biotite gneiss N-S 9007’15”, 76051’10” 4 Mudiyurkonam 244.22 16.5 3.90 122-140 4 Khondalite NS 9013’50”, 76038’55” 165-180 5 Konni 206.15 15.4 5.38 Nil .5 Charnockite NW-SE 9013’55”, 76051’25” 6 Vadaserikkara 248.25 3.50 4.92 Nil Nil Charnockite NE-SW 9023’10”, 76044’00” 7 Theodical 175.7 2.50 1.90 39,115,175-240 4 Charnockite N-S 9023’10”, 76044’00” 8 Perumpatti 129.95 8.9 1.62 20-50, 16 Charnockite NNW- 9º25’05’, 76 º 54-61, SSE 44’15” 76-84 9 Nilackal 100 - - 30-32 1 Charnockite 9021’54”, 76051’28” Nil 10 Angamoozhi 101.15 10.25 N-S 6.1 26.95 0.33 Charnockite 9021’33”, 76059’20” 11 Plapally 100.0 - Nil - - Dry Charnockite 9023’25”, 76058’00” 12 Elakallur 101.0 100.0 - - 1 Charnockite 9023’25”, 76050’20” 13 Vallicode 101.0 - - - - Charnockite 9013’00”, 76046’50” 14 Ranni 100.0 7.25 NE-SW - - 0.2 - 15 Vechoochira 101.0 8.50 N-S 7.52 40-59, 64-78 0.6 - 16 Kummannur 101.0 8.35 - 32-49 Dry Charnockite 17 Konni 64.75 11.85 14.51 30-38, 38-40, 2.0 Fractured 9019’50”, 76051’50” 58-60 charnockite 18 Padam 101.35 8.9 10.25 47-48, 62-63 0.078 Fractured charnockite 19 Perinad 101.00 8.6 12.72 56-78, 71-72 0.02 Charnockite 9021’54”, 76051’28” E-W 20 Chethekkal EW I 92 5.48 3.5 91.92 2 Charnockite 9025’07, 76049’30” NW-SE 21 Chethekkal EW II 101 4.0 3.25 45-46 0.02 Charnockite 9024’35, 76049’30” NW-SE 22 Pothipad 101 7.0 5.28 47.25-48.25, 0.02 Charnockite 9017’40, 70049’43” 64.55-65.55 23 Edamuri 101.15 6.1 3.20 34-35 0.02 Charnockite 9024’18, 76050’05” N-S 24 Pamba (KSEB) 101.0 6.3 9.75 - 0.1 Charnockite 9024’50, 77003’58” N-S 25 Pamba (KSRTC) 101.0 8.5 N-S 2.14 11-13, 80-82 1 Charnockite 9024’18, 77004’08” 26 Pamba 44 11.0 10.0 - 0.02 Charnockite 9024’40, 77004’03”

101

27 Vettur 101 - N-S - 68-69 Negligi Charnockite 9015’05, 76049’29” ble 28 Kallelli 101 - 5.20 - 0.02 Charnockite 9011’47”, 76052’59” 29 Naduvathamuzhi 101.15 7.50 8.84 58-62,70-82 0.5 Charnockite 9010’50, 76055’00” NW-SE Arikkavu 101.5 6.60 7.10 40-44, 60-92 0.6 Charnockite 30 9019’50, 76055’00” NW-SE 31 Mekkazhur 100.0 7.0 - 9.81 30-38, 52-61, 0.6 Charnockite 70-81 32 Kalleli 200 7.50 2.00 0.50 Charnockite 33 Koduman 200 19.00 NW-SE 5.18 22.50- 6.80 Khondalite 25.60,144.50- 143.60 34 Chandanapally 200 4.50 - 2.30 25-28 0.50 Charnockite 35 Ottethekku 200 4.50 - 4.00 0.50 Charnockite 36 Konni 190 8.50 NW-SE 3.50 34.70- 4.50 Charnockite 37.80,89.60- 92.70,129.30- 132.30 37 Mundumuzhy 200 7.50 - Dry 43.90-46.90 Dry Charnockite 38 Thannithodu 200 11.00 - 5.00 - 0.50 Charnockite (Medappara 39 Adur 22 5 123 NW-SE 18 35 -37 Garnet biotite gneiss 40 Mamood 12 below 0.20 200 50 20 -21 Garnet biotite gneiss NW-SE mbgl 41 Pampa 6 below 0.20 200 50 140 -141 Charnockite NW-SE mbgl 42 Vadasserikkara EW 9 3.00 200 NW-SE 2.72 7 -8 Charnockite 43 Vennikkulam 6 - 0.50 200 8.5 15 - 16 Hornblende biotite gneiss 44 Kadumeenchira EW 6 12.5 – 13.5 4.40 200 8.31 Charnockite NW-SE 175 - 176 45 Kottangal 6 S-E 0.50 200 2.65 10 - 11 Hornblende biotite gneiss 46 Kozhancheri 15 S-E 1.20 200 3.75 15 -16 Garnet biotite gneiss 47 Koipuram 13.5 NW-SE 14 108.1 12.78 107 - 108 Hornblende biotitic gneiss 48 Mandan am 6 - 200 23 23 - 24 negligi Hornblende biotitic ble gneiss 49 Manjadi 6 - 200 10.65 10 - 11 0.50 Hornblende biotitic gneiss 50 Malayalappuzha 4 - below 200 100 132 -133 negligi Charnockite mbgl ble 51 Pathanamthitta EW 12 NW-SE 153 1.6 36 -38 5.00 Hornblende biotitic gneiss

102

52 Pandalam 19.5 NW-SE Marginal 23.5 2.5 19.5 0.50 Alluvium

103

Appendix 3: Water related data from Village Panchyaths

Aruvapulam Grama Panchayat (Under Jalkranthi Abayan) Vikasana Padhathi 2016-17 # 1 Area 277.70 Sq.Km 2 Block Aruvapulam 3 No of Wards 15 4 Population 24812 (2001) 5 Sc/St 14.5% 6 Density 89 Border N-Konni pt, S- Kanjhur pt W- Konni pt, Pramadom pt 7 E-Western Ghats 8 Forest Vast forest cover 9 Rainfall cm Soil Soil conservation measures required to control loss of fertile soil 10 in hilly area 11 Occupation Farming and related works Agriculture 3912 ha cultivation Paddy, Tapioca, Banana, Rubber, coconut 12 Pepper, Coffee, Cocoa, ginger, Turmeric 13 Landform High land area with rock exposures 14 Valley - Medium slope Rubber, Tapioca, Yam, 15 Banana, Pepper, Coconut 16 Source of water Achankovil River Water Supply Schemes Konni-Aruvapulam WSS, erakuzhy mini Pipelines 35 years old Irrigation under KWA, GWD worn out. Coverage 17 Scheme_Kummanur 1-acre Murupp mini wss limited to small area. Watershed Development Projects Master plan on watershed development, check dam, bunds. completion of new 18 drinking water scheme. Drinking water schemes Additional new schemes of drinking water Scarcity in hilly area RWH 19 required. required in hilly areas. 20 Water issues Scarcity of water

Ayroor Grama Panchayat Vikasana Rekha 2012-13

# 1 Area 26.5 Sq. Km 2 No of Wards 13 3 Population 22596(2001) 4 Sc/St 1007 /15 Border E- Pazhavangadi N Valiakavu, Manimala, S- Pamba river W-Ayroor, Kottanadu 5 Soil Soil conservation measures required to control loss of fertile soil in hilly 6 area 7 Occupation Farming and related works 104

Agriculture 1830.42 ha Rubber, coconut Pepper, Coffee, Nellikaman watershed plan done cultivation Cocoa, Banana, ginger, Turmeric, succussfully 8 Vanilla Landform 79 % sloping High land area Mainly Rubber Plantation 1500 ha 9 Valley - Medium slope Rubber, Tapioca, Yam, Banana, 10 Pepper, Coconut 11 Domestic animals Cattle, goat, 12 No of Wells 510 publi wells 13 Source of water Wells, 14 Water Supply Schemes 90 % houses with wells Watershed Development Master plan on watershed Projects development, check dam, bunds . completion of new drinking water 15 scheme. Drinking water schemes Additional new schemes of drinking RWH required in hilly areas. Supply of water required. tanker lorry water in summer during 16 scarcity 17 Sanitation Water issues Scarcity in high areas In summer 18 months 19 Irrigation NIl

Cherukole Grama Panchayat Vikasana Rekha 2012-13

# Soil Soil conservation measures required to control loss of fertile soil in hilly 1 area 2 Occupation Farming and related works Agriculture 1830.42 ha Rubber, coconut Pepper, Coffee, Cocoa, 3 cultivation Banana, ginger, Turmeric, Vanilla 4 Landform High land area 5 Valley - Medium slope Rubber, Tapioca, Yam, Banana, 6 Pepper, Coconut 7 8 Domestic animals Cattle, goat, No of Wells 31 public wells, 14 bore wells 70 % population own wells but most dry up in summer. PIP serving 9 domestic purposes 10 Source of water 11 Water Supply Schemes 90 % houses with wells Watershed Development Cherukole-Naranganam DWS in 1992. Master plan on watershed Projects development, check dam, bunds. completion of new drinking water 12 scheme. Drinking water schemes RWH required in hilly areas. Supply of tanker lorry water in summer during 13 scarcity 14 Sanitation Scarcity in high areas In summer months 15 Water issues NIl

105

Irrigation Kikozhur, kunamthadam, bhoothathan para, lakshamveedu colony, kinattungal bhagam, C.M.S thadam, Adupuparakavu, nellichuvadubhagam, thenguthadambhagam, puraidathil kochuvellarayathu bhagam, thalakottubagam, manjpra pradesham, arikinethu bhagam, panthalam mukk bhagam, varikollolil bhagam, parangima thadam, anthyalam kavu, chakkupara, konnakamala, arikimala, kottanellur 16 thannimudu. Water scarce areas Solutions suggested: contour bunding, plant grass, ramacham, kaitha, bambaoo, eera etc RWH to recharge Improve the well attached to cherukole library Improve the PIP well close to pullikatt dig well in vayathara canal Jaundice in many places

Chittar Grama Panchayat Padhathi Rekhga 2015-16

# 1 Area Sq. Km 2 No of Wards 13 3 Population 17336 (2001) 4 Sc/St 2621 5 Border E- seethathodu N-Vadasserikkara S-thannithodu N-Ranni Perunad Rainfall 325 cm Soil Black soil, Red Soil 6 Occupation Farming and related works 7 Agriculture Rubber 56% coconut 3.7 % Pepper 4.05 %, Banana 4.63 %, Tapioca betel ginger, Turmeric 8 Landform High land area 49 Danger from Wild animals Valley 11% Steep slope 19 % Medium slope 52 % Wet land 2 % 9 Domestic animals Cattle, goat, No of Wells 2517 Source of water Ponds 215 Thodu 18 Km Kakad River 9 Km 10 Water Supply Schemes Chittar Wss and Kodumudi Wsss covering 11 wards partially. Meenkuzhy scheme under implementation 11 Watershed Development Western ghat Projects development project 12 Drinking water schemes Cleaning of wells. 13 Sanitation Nirmal puraskar receipant 14 Water issues Scarcity in high areas 106

in summer months

Elanjur Grama Panchayat Padhathi Rekha 2016-17 # 1 Area 15.09 Sq.Km 2 Village Elanjur 3 No of Wards 13 4 Population 15344 (2011) 5 Sc/St 2560 6 Density Border E- Naranganam N& W Mallapuzhasherry S- Chennirkara, Pathanamthitta 7 muncipality 8 Rainfall cm Soil Soil conservation measures required to 9 control loss of fertile soil in hilly area 10 Occupation Farming and related works Agriculture 1830.42 ha Paddy Rubber, coconut Pepper, cultivation Coffee, Cocoa, Banana, ginger, 11 Turmeric, Vanilla Landform 79 % sloping High land area Valley - 12 Medium slope Water issues Scarcity in high areas In summer 13 months

Enathi mangalam Grama Panchayat Padhati Rekha (Janakiya Asuthranam) 2016-17 # 1 Area 30.77 Sq.Km 2 Block Parakode 3 No of Wards 15 4 Population 15803 (2001) Soil Soil conservation measures required to 5 control loss of fertile soil in hilly area 6 Occupation Farming and related works 7 Agriculture 8 Landform 79 % sloping High land area with rock exposures 9 Valley - 10 Medium slope 11 Domestic animals Cattle, goat, Source of water Valiya Thodu, Mannil thodu, pond, 12 well, springs Drinking water schemes Additional new schemes of drinking 13 water required. Water issues 4 months Scarcity of water Lowering of water level, reclamation of paddy fields, over exploitataion, deficient rainfall leading to drying up of 14 water sources. 15 Irrigation NIl

107

Erath Grama Panchayat Padhathi Rekha 2016-17

1 Area 21.74 Sq. Km 2 Block Parakode 3 No of Wards 17 4 Population 24880 (2001) 5 Sc/St 4564 Density 6 Border S-Ezhamkulam, Kadambanad pt, N-Pallikal pt, Adoor Muncipality, E- Ezhamkulam pt, Adur Muncipality, W- Kadambanad, Pallikal pt

7 Rainfall cm 8 Soil Soil conservation measures required to control loss of fertile soil in hilly area 9 Occupation Farming and related works 10 Agriculture Paddy, Rubber, coconut Pepper, 11 Landform High land area with rock exposures 12 Valley - 14 Medium slope Rubber, Tapioca, Yam, Banana, Pepper, Coconut 16 Domestic animals 17 No of Wells 36 public wells, 13 bore-well, 380 public taps 18 Source of water Valiya Thodu, Mannil thodu, pond, well, springs 19 Water Supply 110 km length wss line Schemes 20 Watershed Master plan on watershed development, Development check dam, bunds . completion of new Projects drinking water scheme. 21 Drinking water Additional new schemes of drinking water RWH required in hilly areas. Supply of tanker schemes required. lorry water in summer during scarcity 22 Sanitation Receipant of Nirmal Puraskar 23 Water issues 4 months Scarcity of water 24 Irrigation NIl

Kadambanad Grama Panchayat Vikasana Rekha 2012-17

# 1 Area 23.95 Sq. Km 2 Block Parakode 3 No of Wards 17 4 Population 26839 (2001) 5 Sc/St 4814 6 Border N- Erath, Pallikal pt S- Kallada river, Kunnathur pt, W- Poruvazhy pt, E-erath, Ezhamkulam pt. 7 Rainfall cm 8 Soil Soil conservation measures required to control loss of fertile soil in hilly area 9 Occupation Farming and related works 10 Agriculture 1830.42 ha cultivation Paddy - 70 ha, Rubber, coconut 22 Paddy in padashekharangal ha, Tapioca 15 ha, Banana 10 ha, which lack proper irrigation and Ginger, Mangustin, Rambutan, road faciliity. Nutmeg 11 Landform 79 % sloping High land area with rock exposures 12 Valley - 13 Medium slope Rubber, Tapioca, Yam, Banana, Pepper, Coconut 108

15 Domestic animals Cattle, goat, 16 No of Wells 260 public tap, 50 public DW, Pond 25, 3 water Tank, Water Treatment plant -1, RW Tank 10 17 Source of water Kallada River and KIP canal GW main source of Drinking water 18 Water Supply Schemes Kadmbanad DWSS 90 % houses with wells 19 Watershed Development Projects More domestic connections, watershed development-check dam, bunds 20 Drinking water schemes Additional new schemes of drinking water required. 21 Sanitation 22 Water issues 4 months Scarcity of water 23 Irrigation KIP

Kalnjur Grama Panchayat Vikasana Rekha 2012-17

# 1 Area 66 Sq. Km 2 No of Wards 20 3 Soil Quarrying is important activity 4 Occupation Farming and related works 5 Agriculture cultivation Landform High land area with rock exposures Valley - 6 Medium slope 7 Domestic animals Cattle, goat, 8 No of Wells Source of water Valiya Thodu, Mannil 9 thodu, pond, well, springs Watershed Development Projects Check dams, bunds, embankment of canals, Protection of Kaavu, 10 ponds and Paddy fields. Drinking water schemes Kanjhur-Enathimangalam BW required in most wards. Ward- WSS wise list of areas requiring renovation of ponds, wss etc given 11 in detail in padhati. 12 Sanitation Water issues 4 months Scarcity of Lack of canal 7 pond maitenance water- Athirungal, Padapara, pothupara, Kadambankattu patcha, Chelaman, Pumarithikuzhi, Vattamala, Melamon, Irukuzhi, Kulathuman, 13 Karakuzhy 14 Irrigation KIP

Kodumon Grama Panchayat Vikasana Padathi 2014-15

# 1 Area 36.36 Sq.Km 2 No of Wards 18 3 Population 27714(2001) Soil Soil conservation measures required to control loss of 4 fertile soil in hilly area 5 Occupation Farming and related works 6 Agriculture 1272-acre Rubber, coconut Pepper, Coffee, Nellikaman watershed plan 109

cultivation Cocoa, Banana, Ginger, Turmeric, done succussfully Vanilla 7 Landform High land area with rock exposures 8 Valley - Medium slope Rubber, Tapioca, Yam, Banana, 9 Pepper, Coconut 10 Domestic animals Cattle, goat, 11 No of Wells Source of water Streams 4Ponds 17, Stream lets 9, 12 Public wells 32, Bore well 43 13 Water Supply Schemes Vallikode WSSS, Jalanidhi scheme Rain pits, bunds Watershed Development Kallelithodu watershed plan Projects implementedMaster plan on watershed development, check dam, bunds. completion of new 14 drinking water scheme. Drinking water schemes Additional new schemes of Pt program for well renovation 15 drinking water required. 16 Sanitation Complete, Nirmal Gram Puraskar 17 Water issues 6 months Scarcity of water 18 Irrigation NIl

Koipuram Grama Panchayat Vikasana Rekha 2012-17

# 1 Area 22.23 Sq. Km 2 Village Koipuram 3 No of Wards 17 4 Population 17089 (2011) 5 Sc/St 2560 Border E- Thottapuzhasharry N Puramittam, Ezhumattur & W Eraviperur S- Pamba River 6 7 Rainfall cm Soil Soil conservation measures required to control loss of 8 fertile soil in hilly area 9 Occupation Farming and related works Agriculture 1830.42 ha Paddy Rubber, coconut Pepper, cultivation Coffee, Cocoa, Banana, Ginger, 10 Turmeric, Vanilla Landform 79 % sloping High land area State highway dividing pt into Valley - highland on one side and low Medium slope land on other side. 11 Low land 12 Source of water 17 streams existing. 35 ponds 13 Water Supply Schemes 264 public taps Watershed Development 14 Projects Water issues Scarcity in high areas In summer 15 months in kanjirampara-vellikara

The pamba river flowing through the southern tip was believed to have been flowing once upon a time through pullad. But due to tectonic disturbance the pramadam rock near kuriannur paved the diversion of pamba further south. Arikuzhy pond 100 m south of athamavu junction receives baseflow from east. Hence the pond is perennial. Changing land use pattern due to 1969 landlord act resulted in small and marginal farmers who gradually shifted from paddy to others. Water logging situation due to non-maintenance of the numerous streams and lack of water in PIP canal is resulting in difficulty of cultivation.

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Konni Grama Panchayat Vikasana Rekha 2012-13

# 1 Area Sq. Km Village 4- Konni, Konni thazham, 2 Malayalapuzha, Eravan 3 No of Wards 18 4 Population 26755 (2001) 5 Sc/St 762/1 family Soil Soil conservation measures required to control loss of fertile 6 soil in hilly area 7 Occupation Farming and related works Agriculture 1830.42 ha cultivation Rubber coconut Pepper, Nellikaman watershed plan done Coffee, Cocoa, Banana, Ginger, succussfully 8 Turmeric, Vanilla Landform 79 % sloping High land area with rock exposures Valley - 9 Medium slope Rubber, Tapioca, Yam, Banana, 10 Pepper, Coconut 11 Domestic animals Cattle, goat 12 No of Wells 14 13 Source of water 14 Water Supply Schemes 90 % houses with wells Watershed Development Projects Master plan on watershed development, check dam, bunds . completion of new drinking water 15 scheme. Drinking water schemes DWss of Jalanidhi, 22 Deepeining of thodu to clear Community WSS, 24 RWSS, water logging, Check dam at Konni-Thazham DWSS supply 1 Payyanam. 16 to 10 wards Sanitation Complete sanitation, Nirmal 17 puraskar Water issues Water logging in Marurthodu, Addachackal thodu, 18 Kuppakarathodu, 19 Irrigation NIl

Kottungal Grama Panchayat Vikasana Padhati 2012-17

# 1 Area Sq. Km 2 Village Kottungal 3 No of Wards 13 4 Population 21500 (2001) 5 Sc/St 6 % Border E-Mallapali, N-Manimala River, S- Mallapalli, W-Manimala PT 6 Soil Soil conservation measures adopted Rain pits, Vegetable 7 fencing, bunds 8 Occupation Farming and related works Agriculture 1830.42 ha cultivation Paddy, coconut Pepper, Promote paddy by supplying Arecanut, Yam, Banana, Ginger, seeds at subsidized rate 9 Sweet Potatao, Sugar Cane, 111

Honey bee.

Landform 80 % High Range High land area with rock exposures Valley - 10 Medium slope 11 Domestic animals Cattle, Duck 12 No of Wells 144 Water Supply Schemes Malabar DWSS, Perumbara 90 % houses with wells 13 DWSS, Vanchikapara DWS Watershed Development Projects Bunds, Vegetable fencing completion of new drinking 14 water scheme. Drinking water schemes Piped wss existing in all 13 Improve pipe line in ward wards. Additional new schemes 5,7,1,2,6,3,11,9,12. 15 of drinking water required. Renovation of existing WSS 16 Sanitation complete Water issues 4 months Scarcity of water Scarcity in Muzhayur 17 Muttam ward 4

Kozhencherry Grama Panchayat Vikasana Rekha 2012-17 # 1 Area 8 Sq. Km 2 Village Kozhencherry 3 No of Wards 13 4 Population 12539 (2001) 5 Sc/St 2560 6 Rainfall 3211mm Soil Lateritic red soil, alluvial soi Soil conservation measures required to control loss of 7 fertile soil in hilly area 8 Occupation Farming and related works Agriculture 1830.42 ha cultivation Paddy, Rubber 250 ha coconut, 62 ha low land Pepper, Cocoa, Banana Ginger, 9 vegetables, tapioca Landform 79 % sloping High land area 20% Valley - 10% Flood plain 10% Medium slope 25 % 10 Low land 25 % No of Wells 15 public well 5 water bodies, 15 ponds, 11 bore wells 12 Watershed Development Projects Completed in 2011 Drinking water schemes Comprehensive kozhencherry Wss Maintenance of existing 13 scheme underway pipeline. Cleaning of wells 14 Sanitation Water issues Scarcity in high areas in summer Check dams, vegetable hedge, 15 months bunds etc required

Ranni Angadi Grama Panchayat Vikasana Rekha 2012-17 # 1 Area 21.5 Sq. Km 17 hills 2 No of Wards 16 3 Population 19119 (2001) 4 Border S- Achankovil river Tanks/ponds 16 No Polachira, Ramnchira, 5 Kamukanchira 6 Occupation Farming and related works

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Agriculture 1830.42 ha Paddy, coconut, Tapioca, Banana, ginger, Paddy fields. Bricks factory taking 7 cultivation Rubber, cashew, beetle leaves clay. Paddy-Irripu, Punja Landform 79 % sloping High land area Valley - Medium slope Water logged areas Njettur, elanthatt, vettuveil, 8 panangad, Thumbamon 9 No of Wells 57 public wells, Private 8328 16 ponds, 8 streams, Source of water 2 perennial sources Mangalam chuvattana irappan para 10 & Poalchira pond Watershed Development 8 kavu. 11 Projects 12 Water issues Scarcity in high areas In summer months

Mallapalli Grama Panchayat Vikasan Rekha 2012-17 # 1 Area 12.42 Sq. Km 2 No of Wards 14 3 No of Houses 6898 4 Population 20524 (2001) 5 Sc/St 1315/104 Border Anikad, Kottangal, Ezhumattur, Puramattam, Kallupara, Kunnamthanam and Karkachal in 6 Kottayam 7 Rainfall 3312 mm Soil Soil conservation measures required to control loss of fertile soil in hilly 8 area 9 Occupation Farming and related works Agriculture Rubber, Banana, coconut Pepper, Tapioca Vegetable cultivation, Paddy, yam, nutmeg, 10 Pepper Landform 79 % High land area, Valley, Medium slope, hill 11 sloping mounts Domestic Cattle, goat, 12 animals 13 No of Wells 14 Source of water Manimalayar, Payambala Thodu Water Supply Construction of Treatment Plant for 15 Schemes treating Manimala water underway Watershed Mallapalli WS, Puthukulam Ws, Padiman WS, Can go for contour bund , Check Development Kizvaippur WS dams in Parathodu, Cultivation of 16 Projects Shima Konna Drinking water Cleaning of wells.construction of wells 17 schemes 18 Sanitation Receiptant of Nirmal Puraskar award in2007 19 Water issues Scarcity in high areas In summer months 20 Irrigation No schemes

Mylapra Grama Panchayat Padhathi Rekha 2013-14

# 1 Area 10.38 Sq. Km 2 No of Wards 13 3 Population 11370 (2001) 4 Sc/St 243 families 5 Density 1095 Border E- Malayalapuzha N Ranni, Vadasserikara S- Pathanamthitta Muncipality 6 W-Cherukole, Naranganam 113

Soil Laterite locally called Naduchinka Soil conservation measures required to control loss of 7 soil, Red Soil fertile soil in hilly area 8 Occupation Farming and related works Agriculture Rubber, coconut, Pepper, Banana 9 Tapioca betel ginger, Turmeric Landform 79 High land area wards 5,6,10,13 Mainly Rubber Plantation % sloping Valley - 5,7,8,9,10,11 western side of GP is fertile with lesser Water Problem Medium slope hill mounts 10 1,2,3,12,6 11 Rubber, Tapioca, Yam, Banana, Pepper, Coconut Domestic Cattle, goat, 12 animals Water 90 % houses with wells Supply 13 Schemes Drinking Cleaning of wells. construction of Maintenance of Public Panchayat well in Ward 11 water wells 14 schemes Water issues Scarcity in high areas in summer 15 months

Narayanamozhy Grama PanchayatVikasana Rekha 2002-07 # Soil Soil conservation measures required to control loss of 1 fertile soil in hilly area 2 Occupation 80 % Farming and related works Agriculture ha cultivation Cash crops- Rubber, coconut Pepper, Coffee, Cocoa, cashew, Arecanut, Banana, ginger, Turmeric, Cinnamon, Nutmeg.

Tapioca, Banana, Vegetables, Pine apple 3 4 Landform High land area Mainly Rubber Plantation 5 Valley - 6 Medium slope Rubber, Tapioca, Yam, 7 Banana, Pepper, Coconut 8 9 Domestic animals Cattle, goat, 10 No of Wells 11 Source of water Wells, 12 Water Supply Schemes houses with wells Watershed Development Master plan on watershed Projects development, check dam, bunds . completion of new 13 drinking water scheme. Drinking water schemes Additional new schemes of drinking water RWH required in hilly areas. required. Completion of cleaning up of Supply of tanker lorry water Kombipaika Kulam. in summer during scarcity Extension of pipe lines to cover more households – 1.pipeline in narayanamozhy, 2.kakkamalachembanoli kattikal pipeline 3.Alimukku Maniyar Padi Pipeline 5.Idamuri Laksham veedu public well 14 renovation 114

6.Araiykaman mandiram public well renovation

Water issues Scarcity in high areas In 15 summer months 16 Irrigation NIl

Piramadom Grama Panchayat Agriculture and Irrigation 2012-13 # Soil Soil conservation measures required to control loss of 1 fertile soil in hilly area 2 Occupation 80 %Farming and related works Agriculture 1cultivation Paddy, Pulse, gingelly, Rubber, coconut Pepper, Cashew, Tapioca, cocoa, Beetle leaves, Banana ginger, Turmeric, Beetle leaves 3 Landform High land area Valley - 4 Medium slope Drinking water schemes Pramadam wSS existing. WSS existing in all RWH required in hilly areas. wards but Additional new schemes of drinking Water source more than 2 km water required. away. Existing bore wells are 5 low yield. 6 Sanitation Water issues Scarcity in high areas In summer months Remedy removal of clay. 7 Closing well mouth with net 8 Irrigation

Scarcity in - Ward 7 Thalaramurup, Chuthapara, Kallelikuzhy, Kanjirampara, mesharimuruku Ward 8 Charakuzhikal, Thannikuzhy, Kulikunna Para, Nedumpara colony, chembukunnin colony Ward 6 Check dam for ward 3,4,5. Ward 1 and ward 2 extension of Pipe line required.

Puramattom Grama Panchayat Padhati Rekha 2016-17

# Border E-Ezhumattur, S- Koipuram W Eraviperur, N- Kallopara. Manimala river 1 flowing through 2 Rainfall cm 3 Soil 4 Occupation Farming and related works Agriculture Paddy, coconut Mango, Banana, tuber crops Padashekarangal – existing Arecanut, cashew, vegetable lesser areas of Nilavathukal, Palavayal. Increase in Pepper, nutmeg, flowers, mushroom, Coffee, paddy production. 2.72 lakh ha paddy. Cocoa, Banana Model pt for agriculture 5 Honey Landform High land area Valley - Medium slope 6 Low lands Rubber, Tapioca, Yam, Banana, Pepper, 7 Coconut 115

Paliakal Kadadu and many other 8 kadavu present Source of River Manimala 9 water Water Supply Piped schemes of KWA existing. Old outdated pipelines should be Schemes umakunnumala drinking water scheme of replaced GWD. Pichatikal, Cheruthadam schemes also 10 completed. Kallimala DWSS Watershed watershed development projects Development required. 11 Projects Drinking Additional new schemes of drinking water water required. 12 schemes 13 Water issues Scarcity of water 14 Irrigation NIl

Ranni Angadi Grama Panchayat Vikasana Rekha 2012-13

# 1 Area 30.72 Sq. Km 2 Village Angadi 3 No of Wards 13 4 Population 15873 (2001) 5 Sc/St 762/1 family Density 6 Border E- Plakamon, thengukal thodu, kanjittukara and pamba river

7 Rainfall cm 8 Soil Soil conservation measures required to control loss of fertile soil in hilly area 9 Occupation Farming and related works 10 Agriculture 1830.42 Rubber, coconut Pepper, Coffee, Nellikaman watershed plan done successfully ha cultivation Cocoa, Banana, ginger, Turmeric, Vanilla 11 Landform 79 % High land area with rock exposures sloping Valley Medium slope 12 Rubber, Tapioca, Yam, Banana, Pepper, Coconut 13 14 Domestic animals Cattle, goat, 15 No of Wells 16 Source of water Valiya Thodu, Mannil thodu, pond, well, springs 17 Water Supply 90 % houses with wells Schemes 18 Watershed Master plan on watershed development, check Development dam, bunds. completion of new drinking water Projects scheme. 19 Drinking water Additional new schemes of drinking RWH required in hilly areas. Supply of tanker lorry schemes water required. water in summer during scarcity 20 Sanitation 21 Water issues 4 months Scarcity of water 22 Irrigation NIl

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Seethathode Grama Panchayat Vikasana Rekha 2017-18 # 1 Soil Soil conservation measures required to control loss of fertile soil in hilly area 2 Occupation 3 Agriculture 1830.42 ha cultivation 4 Landform 79 % sloping 5 Water Supply Schemes Puvelikunnu DWS, Minar-Kochupamba DWS, Bhayankaramudi DWS 6 Irrigation Kochandi irrigation scheme Tanker water supply during summer months

Thumpamon Grama Panchayat Vikasana Rekha 2012-17 1 Soil Soil conservation measures required to control loss of fertile soil in hilly area 2 Occupation Farming and related works 3 Agriculture 1830.42 ha Paddy 25 ha, coconut 85 ha, Pepper 20 ha, 125 ha paddy field available but cultivation Coffee, Cocoa, Banana 150 ha, Tapioca 15 paddy only in 25 ha ha ginger 5 ha, vegetables 15 ha, Rambutan 4 Landform 79 % sloping High land area, Medium slope 5 Water Supply Schemes Thumpamon WSS existing but insufficient 6 Water issues Scarcity in high areas In summer months Rampant sand mining leading to turbid river and lowering of water level.

Sand mining in Achankovil river on the basis of CESS Report. River water getting spoiled due washing of vehicles, waste disposal, slaughtering of animals etc. Development activities have enabled solving of drinking water issues to a limited extent. But supply is only for 15 days.

Vallikode Grama Panchayat Vikasana Rekha 2012-17

# 1 Soil Soil conservation measures required to control loss of fertile soil in hilly area 2 Occupation Farming and related works 3 Agriculture 1830.42 ha Maximum paddy field 158 ha cultivation 4 Landform 79 % sloping High land area, Mainly Rubber Plantation Valley, 1500 ha Medium slope 5 Water Supply Schemes Vallicode-angadikal-Kodumon WSS Maximum coverage 6 Watershed Development Require head tanks to be Projects renovated, bunds and check dams to be constructed. 7 Drinking water schemes Scarcity of Drinking water. RWH required in hilly areas. Supply of tanker lorry water in summer during scarcity 8 Sanitation 9 Water issues Inadequate water supply for cultivation 10 Irrigation

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Appendix 4: Data of Aquifer Performance Test Conducted I APT in Crystalline #. Location SWL Duration of Discharge Draw Transmissivity Storativity Hydraulic (m APT (lps) down (m) (m2/day) condition bgl) (min) 1 Kadika 1.54 500 0.65 16.72 1.27 - - 2 Kalanjur 1.1 1000 1.29 14.14 7.3 - - 3 Mudiyurkonam 3.84 500 0.76 25.05 1.11 - Confined 4 Theodical 1.90 1000 2.130 19.88 7.47 2.4 x 10-4 Confined 5 Valiakavu 3.67 500 1.180 29.83 0.50 - - 6 Perumpatti 1.62 1000 7.88 24.16 10.0 - Leaky confined 7 Vadasserikkara 2.72 500 3.00 23.40 Unconfined 21.97 .000479 8 Kadamanchira 8.31 300 4.4 7.5 Unconfined 16.2 .00044 9 Pathanamthitta 1.6 500 5.90 29.850 Unconfined 106.23 0.0068 10 Koipuram 12.78 500 12.70 13.04 Unconfined 48.78 -

11 kodumon 3.65 300 2.66 24.75 0.0004276 Unconfined 12 Konni 2.83 300 3.25 25.39 7.34 0.000275 Unconfined II Dug well tests in Laterite 1. Mannadi 651 25 0.33 0.865 - - Unconfined 2. Mudiyurkonam 6.34 20 0.46 0.546 - - -do- 3. Kirukuzhi 7.0 16 1.91 1.745 - - -do-

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Appendix 5: Monitoring wells in phreatic aquifer

Pre-monsoon, Post-monsoon, # Location Long. Latt. mbgl mbgl Fluctuation, m Type of well

1 Adoor 76.72 9.161 9.25 12.11 0 GWMW GWMW 2 Adoor Bypass 9.229 76.75 3.75 5.2 0 GWMW 3 Airoor (Cherukolpuzha) 76.66 9.41 6.1 5.63 0.47 GWMW 4 Angadikkal 76.8 9.217 9 7.76 1.24 GWMW 5 Ankamuzhi 77 9.367 5.54 5.66 0 GWMW 6 Aranmula 76.84 9.333 6.25 6.09 0.16 GWMW 7 Aruvappulam 9.209 76.87 5.6 2.77 2.83 GWMW 8 Athiringal 76.92 8.529 8.7 6.32 2.38 GWMW 9 Athumbukulam 9.261 76.88 4.35 2.7 1.65 GWMW 10 Chalapally 76.73 9.5 2.1 1.65 0.45 GWMW 11 Chethakkal 76.83 9.413 5.55 5.12 0.43 GWMW 12 Chittar 76.93 9.331 9 8.43 0.57 GWMW 13 Churakkod 76.72 9.1 6.55 6.28 0.27 GWMW 14 Edakkulam 76.8 9.35 5.55 5.05 0.5 GWMW 15 Enathu 76.75 9.08 9.2 5.15 4.05 GWMW 16 Eraviperoor 76.64 9.383 2.25 2.71 0 GWMW 17 Evalumthitta 76.7 9.25 8.15 0 0 GWMW 18 Ezhamkulam 76.77 9.15 7 7.2 0 GWMW 19 Ezhumattoor 76.7 9.425 6.6 3.83 2.77 GWMW 20 Ilanthur 76.78 9.333 3.8 2.07 1.73 GWMW 21 Kadambanad 76.68 9.08 3.55 6.96 0 GWMW 22 Kadammanitta 76.76 9.3 6.55 5.99 0.56 GWMW 23 Kadumeenchira 76.85 9.398 9.4 7.16 2.24 GWMW 24 Kaipattoor 9.229 76.75 6.9 6.35 0.55 GWMW 25 Kalanjoor 76.85 9.11 4.5 5.71 0 GWMW 26 Kallooppara 9.413 76.64 5.37 2.21 3.16 GWMW 27 Karikulam 76.82 9.4 0 2.14 0 GWMW 28 Kaviyur 76.6 9.4 6.15 8.12 0 GWMW 29 Kidangannur 76.7 9.3 5 7.64 0 GWMW 30 Kodumon 76.76 9.18 0 6.68 0 GWMW 31 Koipuram - R1 76.65 9.334 8.1 6.9 1.2 GWMW 32 Konni 76.85 9.233 6.23 4.13 2.1 GWMW 33 Koodal 76.86 9.153 5.27 6.55 0 GWMW 34 Kottanadu 76.73 9.4 4.1 3.54 0.56 GWMW 35 Kottangal 76.75 9.451 1.9 1.57 0.33 GWMW 36 Kozhenchery 76.83 9.413 2.5 1.22 1.28 GWMW 37 Kudutha 9.128 76.84 7.85 6.97 0.88 119

GWMW 38 Kulanada 76.66 9.23 5.6 8.27 0 GWMW 39 Kumbanad 76.66 9.368 6.73 6.37 0.36 GWMW 40 Kumplampoika 76.81 9.319 2.25 1.68 0.57 GWMW 41 Kunnamthanam 76.61 9.435 11.9 9.8 2.1 GWMW 42 Kuttoor 76.34 9.473 3.4 3.46 0 GWMW 43 Laha Balawadi 76.92 9.367 2.7 1.75 0.95 GWMW 44 Laha Peruman 76.89 9.364 10.25 9.58 0.67 GWMW 45 Malayalapuzha 76.82 9.287 6.65 4.72 1.93 GWMW 46 Mallapally 76.65 9.453 4.2 4.02 0.18 GWMW 47 Maniyar 76.88 9.325 5.3 4.62 0.68 GWMW 48 Mannadi 76.72 9.08 3.9 0 0 GWMW 49 Murani 76.67 9.443 0 2.25 0 GWMW 50 Naduvathumuzhi 76.92 9.2 7.35 4.19 3.16 GWMW 51 Naranganam 73.73 9.31 2.85 2.65 0.2 GWMW 52 Nilakkal 77.01 9.388 5.3 5.23 0.07 GWMW 53 Omallur 76.65 9.23 8.4 8.01 0.39 GWMW 54 Pandalam Town 76.66 9.2 1.1 0.83 0.27 GWMW 55 Pandalam-1 76.65 9.232 4.15 3.81 0.34 GWMW 56 Paranthal 76.7 9.18 5.1 5.15 0 GWMW 57 Pathanamthitta 76.79 9.264 3.48 3.01 0.47 GWMW 58 Plappally 76.97 9.392 2.66 2.01 0.65 GWMW 59 Poothangara 9.135 76.82 5.6 5.25 0.35 GWMW 60 Prakkanam 76.76 9.261 0 5.45 0 GWMW 61 Pullad 76.68 9.354 6 5.39 0.61 GWMW 62 Ranni I 76.78 9.37 4.6 1.39 3.21 GWMW 63 Ranni Perunad 76.86 9.367 0 6.23 0 GWMW 64 Thadiyur 76.7 9.37 7.65 6.77 0.88 GWMW 65 Thannithodu 76.91 9.26 6.5 6.12 0.38 GWMW 66 Thatta 76.73 9.18 1.7 1.23 0.47 GWMW 67 Thelliyur 76.69 9.394 8.4 7.28 1.12 GWMW 68 Thumpamon 76.7 9.22 8.45 7.65 0.8 GWMW 69 Ullannur 76.69 9.275 6.65 7.22 0 GWMW 70 V.Kottyam 76.81 9.214 8.7 7.27 1.43 GWMW 71 Vadasserikara 76.84 9.342 4.51 2.06 2.45 GWMW 72 Vaipur 76.68 9.43 1.92 1.23 0.69 GWMW 73 Vakayar (Valiyakavu) 9.201 76.85 2.2 1.97 0.23 GWMW 74 Vallamkulam 76.62 9.384 5.05 4.49 0.56 GWMW 75 Vallikkodu 76.76 9.21 4.25 4.2 0.05 GWMW 76 Vechoochira 76.85 9.434 4.53 4.39 0.14 GWMW 77 Vennikulam 76.67 9.403 5.7 3.1 2.6 120

78 Nellimugal 76.7 9.114 10.8 10.32 9.47 KEY WELLS

79 Parakulam 76.68 9.164 4.4 3.2 1.2 KEY WELLS

80 Mundapally 76.69 9.125 6.55 3.6 2.95 KEY WELLS

81 Kodumon 76.83 9.155 4.5 3.8 0.7 KEY WELLS

82 Chadanapally 76.77 9.209 9.33 9.17 0.16 KEY WELLS

83 Vazhamuttom 76.8 9.231 5.65 5.38 0.27 KEY WELLS

84 Edakulam 76.81 9.346 7.2 5.93 1.27 KEY WELLS

85 Padiyinnepara 76.89 9.328 2.75 4.35 0 KEY WELLS

86 Anappara 76.94 9.315 4.5 3.84 0.66 KEY WELLS

87 Areekakauv 76.87 9.328 5.49 2.06 3.43 KEY WELLS

88 Vayattupuzha 76.96 9.314 2.7 1.7 1 KEY WELLS

89 Pampa 77.07 9.41 2.4 0.75 1.65 KEY WELLS

90 Valiakauv 76.78 9.435 6.6 2.75 3.85 KEY WELLS

91 Kalleli 76.95 9.2 2 0.84 1.16 KEY WELLS

92 Elakollur 76.84 9.244 3.65 2.81 0.84 KEY WELLS

93 Manthuga 76.67 9.249 6.15 6 0.15 KEY WELLS

94 Perumon 76.77 9.347 5.16 4.76 0.4 KEY WELLS

95 Thekkuthodu 76.95 9.247 3.75 3.5 0.25 KEY WELLS

96 Edatiramon 76.73 9.374 2.3 1.8 0.5 KEY WELLS

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Appendix 6: Pre and Post monsoon Depth to the water level in fractured aquifer system (Piezometers)

# Location long latt April, 2016 Nov.2016 Fluctuation 1 Chetheckal 76.8125 9.430556 2.95 1.19 1.76 2 Elanthoor 76.73472 9.298611 2.5 1.56 0.94 3 Ezhamkulam 76.77222 9.152778 6.75 0 0 4 Kadumeenchira Pz 76.85111 9.401389 16.5 15 1.5 5 Kalleli Pz 76.88111 9.202222 4.7 0.57 4.13 6 Koipuram Pz 76.655 9.208333 10.4 11.5 -1.1 7 Kottangal Pz 76.74667 9.450833 2.66 2.29 0.37 8 Kunnamthanam 76.61111 9.433333 3.55 2.8 0.75 9 Malayalapuzha Pz 76.82167 9.286111 18.5 15.56 2.94 10 Pandalam 76.70722 9.2375 4.25 3.6 0.65 11 Thayattumala 76.67222 9.409722 9.45 8.79 0.66 12 Vallicode 76.77444 9.219444 3.2 3.2 0.05

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Minutes

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Minutes of the Fourth meeting of the National Level Expert Committee held under the Chairmanship of Chairman, CGWB 29th May 2018, 1st June 2018& 6th June 2018 at Faridabad/ New Delhi.

List of participants is annexed. (Annexure-I)

Fourth meeting of the National Level Expert Committee for review and finalization of aquifer maps and management plans was held during 29th May 2018, 1st June 2018 & 6th June 2018 at CGWB Faridabad/ New Delhi under the Chairmanship of the Chairman, CGWB. Presentations were made in respect of area covered in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Puduchchery, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, North Eastern States and Odisha. Major decisions that emerged during the presentations/deliberations are summarized hereinafter.

Uttar Pradesh (16892 sqkm) The work carried out under NAQUIM by NR Lucknow was reviewed. Major modifications were recommended in respect of data, maps and management plans. Committee suggested to restrict the presentation as per the prevailing guidelines and focus more on the outcomes of Management Plans. Various other improvements and modifications as suggested by the Committee is to be incorporated and duly appraised to concern administrative Member before representing all presentations to the committee again. – Action: Member (N&W) / RD, NR, Lucknow.

Uttarakhand (3000 sqkm) Presentations in respect of areas covered under Aquifer mapping by the UR, Dehradun were made by the respective RD/HOO. Presentations on Uttarkashi and Doiwala (Dehradun), is approved by the Committee with minor modifications and suggestion in management plans. Committee suggested that management plans should be made more comprehensive including area specific management options.

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– Action: RD/HOO, UR Dehradun/Member(N&W)

Madhya Pradesh (12769 sqkm)

Presentations in respect of area of Panna districts (6631 sqkm) covered under Aquifer mapping by the NCR, Bhopal were made by the officer of NCR CGWB in presence of RD. The committee suggested to include ground water development measures and expansion of agriculture and horticulture in proposed management plan apart from several minor suggestions. Committee approved presentation after inclusion of modification suggested and duly vetted by concerned Member. – Action: Member(N&W) / RD, NCR, Bhopal

Himachal Pradesh (2400 sqkm)

Presentation on Nalagarh valley, Himachal Pradesh was made by Officers representing RD, NHR Dharamshala. Expert Committee suggested inclusion of existing data of exploratory drilling, and ground water quality studies carried out in past to ascertain ground water quality scenario in the area. Committee recommended to include area specific measures in quantitative terms in management plan instead of recommending generic suggestions. Committee approved study with rider to revise Management Plan and inclusions of suggestions of the committee and duly vetted by the concerned administrative Member. - Action: Member(N&W) / RD, NHR, Dharamshala

Tamil Nadu (14154 sqkm)

Presentation of Lower Cauvery basin made by RD SECR, Chennai was also approved by the Committee with rider to include suggestions of NLEC in Consultation with concern Administrative Member. – Action: Member(S)/RD, SECR, Chennai

Maharashtra (14626 sqkm)

Presentation of aquifer mapping areas of parts of Pune, Sangli, Satara and Dhule was made by RD CR, Nagpur. The presentation was accepted by NLEC. – Action: RD, CR, Nagpur

Andhra Pradesh (6950 sqkm)

Presentations in respect of area of East Godavari & West Godavari districts covered under Aquifer mapping by the SR Hyderabad were made by RD, SR, Hyderabad. The committee suggested to include creek regulators in management plan to manage tidal water to 124

prevent saline water ingress. Committee approved presentation after inclusion of modification suggested and duly vetted by concerned Member. - Action: Member(S)/RD, SR, Hyderabad

Kerala (6400 sqkm)

Presentation on Pattenamittha district, Kerala was made by RD, KR, Trivendrum. Expert Committee suggested that ground water resources to be estimated as per aquifer dispositions and their resource potentials. Incorporating resources estimation as per GEC-2015 can be restricted depict the extent of variance from GEC-2015 and Aquifer-wise resources under NAQUIM. Committee recommended to modify the management plan and duly vetted from respective administrative Member, CGWB. Presentation deemed approved by Committee. - Action: Member(S)/RD, KR, Trivendrum

North Eastern States (8679 sqkm)

Presentation of East Sing district was made by officer from NER, Guwahati. The aquifer maps and management plan. In the similar line, the aquifer maps and management plans of 8679 sqkm of NE states was prepared and submitted. The committee also suggested that detail data on springs particularly in and around Shillong city may be incorporated in this report.

-Action: RD, NER, Guwahati /SOU, Shillon Odisha (3101 sqkm)

Presentation of Kendrapada district was made by officer from SER, Bhubaneshwar. Thorough revision is required for aquifer maps and management plan for the areas of 3101sqkm as recommended by committee. Revised presentation should made as the circulated template.

-Action: Member (East)/RD, SER, Bhubaneshwar

West Bengal (2261 sqkm)

The officer from ER, Kolkata has presented the aquifer maps and management plan for parts of Nadia, district. Committee suggested that the ground water resources should be estimated as per the finding of Aquifer Mapping. The revised aquifer maps and management plans may be prepared as suggested and duly approved by Member In- charge. With these modification and revision committee approved the aquifer maps and management plans.

-Action: Member (East)/ RD, ER, Kolkata Bihar (4627sqkm)

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Officer from MER, Patna was presented the aquifer maps and management plan for Bhojpur, Patna, Buxar, Bhagalpur and Kathiar districts. The sections and maps may be modified and the exploration & water quality data interpretation may be carried out by better methods as suggested by committee. With these modifications, the aquifer maps andmanagement plan was approved by committee.

-Action: Member (East)/ RD, MER, Patn Jharkhand (1702 sqkm)

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Presentation was made by officer from SUO, Ranchi for Sahebganj district (1702 sqkm). The committee suggested to consult GSI geological maps for better understanding of disposition of lava flows and Rajmahal Traps. The management plan can be improvised by incorporating the feasibility of ground water development through wells with pumps (Solar/Diesel/Electric). The revised aquifer maps and management plans may be prepared as suggested and duly approved by Member In-charge. With these modification and revision committee approved the aquifer maps and management plans. -Action: Member (East)/ RD, MER, Patna/SUO,Ranchi

Chhattisgarh (8906 sqkm)

For an area of 8906 sqkm, the aquifer maps and management plans was presentation by officer form NCCR, Raipur. Committee suggested that the ground water resources should be estimated as per the finding of Aquifer Mapping. Through aquifer management plan, the state government may be suggested for better management option instead of presentpractice used by Chhattisgarh state of withdrawing the ground water to fill the ponds/lakes. The committee approved the aquifer Maps and management plan for areas presented during the meeting. Action: Member (East)/ RD, NCCR, Raipur

The Expert Committee once again emphasized that during aquifer mapping studies ground water estimations should be made on aquifer –wise resources. Reflecting ground water resources estimation as per GEC 2015 methodology is not objective of Aquifer mapping. Further, the objective of NAQUIM should always be kept in mind by all the Regional Directorates. Presentations should be focused on objectives and desired outputs and possible outcomes. It is not appropriate to incorporate artificial recharge measures in all management plans as a thumb rule for ground water management. Areas with low development of ground water should suggest ground water development plans with area to be developed appropriately demarcated on maps based on agriculture demand. - Action: All Regional Directors National Level Expert Committee recommended major revision and repeat presentation for the states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha.

Meeting ended with thanks to the Chair.

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Annexure-I: List of participants

1 Shri K C Naik, Chairman, CGWB - in Chair 2 Dr G.C. Pati, Member (East) 3 Dr. E Sampath Kumar, Member (South) 4 Shri Alok Dubey, Member (North and West), CGWB 5 Dr. D K Chadha, Ex-Chairman, CGWB 6 Shri Sushil Gupta, Ex-Chairman, CGWB 7 Dr. A. K. Keshari, Professor, IIT, Delhi 8 Dr. S. Mukherjee, Professor, JNU, New Delhi 9 Dr. Bharat Sharma, Scientist Emeritus (WR), IWMI 10 Dr. P.K. Purchure, Regional Director, CR, Nagpur 11 Shri Sunil Kumar, Regional Director, RGI 12 Shri S Marwaha, Regional Director, CGWB, Faridabad 13 Shri C Paul Prabhakar, RD, SECR, Chennai 14 Shri. Subba Rao, Regional Director, SR, Nagpur 15 Shri Parvinder Singh, RD, NCR, Bhopal 16 Shri. Y.B. Kaushik, Regional Director, NR, Lucknow 17 Shri. V. Kunhambu, Regional Director, KR, Thiruvananthapuram 18 Shri. M. Muttukkannan, Suptdg. Hydrogeologist, SWR, Bangalore 19 Shri Sujeet Sinha, Scientist-D, CHQ, Faridabad 20 Shri. S. K. Junejha, Scientist-D, CGWA, New Delhi 21 Shri. Anurag Khanna, HOO, UR, Dehradun 22 Shri. A. Ashokan, Scientist-D, SECR, Chennai 23 Shri. Devendra Joshi, Scientist D, NCR, Bhopal 24 Shri. M.K.Garg, Scientist-D, CHQ, Faridabad 25 Shri Vidhya Nand Negi, Scientist D, NHR, Dharamshala 26 Shri. Ratikant Nayak, Scientist-D, CHQ, Faridabad 27 Shri. T. B.N. Singh, Scientist-D, SUO, Ranchi 28 Dr. S. Brahma, Scientist-D, ER, Kolkata 29 Shri. Tapan Chakroborty, Scientist-D, SUO, Shillong 30 Shri. P. K. Tripathi, Scientist-D, NR, Lucknow 31 Dr. S. K. Srivastava, Scientist-D, CHQ, Faridabad 32 Shri Gulab Prasad, Scientist D, CGWB, SER, Bhubaneswar 33 Shri S.N. Dewivedi, Scientist-C, CHQ, Faridabad 34 Smt. Rumi Mukherjee, Scientist-C, CHQ, Faridabad 35 Shri. Ravikalyan Bussa, Scientist-C, UR, Dehradun 36 Shri. Dr. Vikas Ranjan, Scientist-C, NR, Lucknow 37 Shri, Vidya Bhooshan, STA, NHR, Dharamshala 38 Shri S.K.Swaroop, Scientist B (JHG), CHQ, Faridabad 39 Shri. Debashish Bagchi, Asst. Hydrogeologist, CGWB, UR, Dehradun 40 Ms. Shilpi Gupta, Scientist B (JHG), CHQ, Faridabad 41 Shri. T. Madhav, Scientist-B, CHQ, Faridabad 42 Smt. Ritu K. Oraon, Scientist-B,NCR, Bhopal 43 Shri. P Yadaiah, AHG,CGWB, NewDelhi

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Contributors’ page

Principal Authors Dr.S. Sakthi Murugan, Asst. Hydrogeologist

Supervision & Guidance V.Kunhambu, Regional Director Dr.N. Vinayachandran, Scientist-D (Nodal officer) Anitha Shyam, Scientist-D (Team Leader)

Scrutiny Dr.N. Vinayachandran, Scientist-D (Nodal officer) Dr V S Joji, Scientist-D

Hydrogeology Dr.S. Sakthi Murugan, Asst. Hydrogeologist Anitha Shyam, Scientist-D (Team Leader) Mohammad Rafi STA (HG)

Geophysics N Veera Babu, STA (Geophysics) A Ramadevi, STA (Geophysics)

Hydrometeorology C.Rajkumar, Scientist-C

Hydrochemistry V.N. Sreelatha, Scientist-D Bindu.J. Viju, Scientist-B

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