Natalia Danilina The Zapovedniks of Russia

“Occupying a huge territory spreading out into two continents of the world, we in Russia are the possessors of unique natural treasures. They are as unique as, say, the paintings of Raphael—and they are as easy to be destroyed, but it is not possible to recreate them.” — Ivan G. Borodin, Russian academician, 1914

bout 1.5% of the land area of Russia, or 33.2 million ha, consists of zapovedniks—strict nature preserves, comparable to designated wilderness areas. There are currently 99 zapovedniks. They are the most traditional and, arguably, the most important form of natural protectedA area in Russia. Thanks to zapovedniks, many species of animals and plants, such as sable, European bison, or Siberian crane, as well as the last little islands of virgin steppe and the most valuable forest massifs, have been conserved. There are more than 5,000 people staffing zapovedniks; they not only protect and study these islands, but conduct extensive environmental education among the population, especially schoolchildren.

On 29 December 1916, the hevnikov, Ivan G. Borodin, Andrej document “On Establishing a P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky, V.I. Hunting Zapovednik in Zabaikalsky Taliev, G.F. Morozov, and others. Region” was presented by Russia’s Unexpectedly, their ideas and words minister of agriculture to the gov- appear to be quite in tune with our erning Senate. That date can be con- time. Listen to Dokuchaev in 1895: sidered the beginning of the state-run “We are sorry to say that our virgin system of zapovedniks. Now, at the black-earth steppes with their origi- turn of the new millennium, when nal charm, boundless expanses, one’s thoughts naturally turn both to feather grass, unique dwellers like looking back and looking forward, babacs, great bustards, wolfberry, the need to summarize the achieve- etc., are surprisingly quickly disap- ments of zapovedniks has arisen. We pearing from the face of the Russian are recalling all those who pioneered land.” Today, virgin steppes are, the cause of nature conservation in alas, virtually non-existent. Russia at the end of the 19th and the Russia’s first scientific zapovednik beginning of the 20th century: pro- was founded by Dokuchaev in the fessors and academicians such as Luganskie steppes in 1892. Scien- V.V. Dokuchaev, Grigori A. Koz- tists had raised the alarm: forests

48 The George Wright FORUM were being cut down, steppes were whole, would represent a number of in danger, populations of the most the most characteristic and the sci- valuable fur-bearing animals were entifically valuable types of vegeta- catastrophically decreasing — the tion. It was this principle that was natural resources of Russia were, it employed in the Soviet Union, and was realized, not infinite. Semyonov- continues to be today in post-Soviet Tyan-Shansky’s papers and talks Russia, when forming the network of developed an understanding of these zapovedniks. problems among the enlightened In a 1913 article titled “Protect part of the Russian society. He Nature!,” Taliev wrote that “the wrote: “Large areas of undamaged beauty of nature is the highest value forest must be transformed, as has of its own, and it must be protected been done in many places in North irrespective of narrow practical America, into zapovednik areas to tasks—a beautiful landscape, a scenic conserve the taiga intact forever.” In road, a precipice associated with a 1908 paper (which has come to be recollections, etc., are the national regarded as a classic), Kozhevnikov heritage in the spiritual area just the enunciated the principles of estab- same as minerals and so forth are our lishing natural areas as zapovedniks: heritage in the area of material cul- “These areas must be ‘zapovedniks’ ture.” These ideas did not become in the full sense of the word.... Here, popular in Soviet Russia; the rational any actions violating the natural con- and utilitarian attitudes toward na- ditions of the struggle for existence ture, including its protection, took are not permissible and nothing the upper hand. Today, the nature- should be eliminated, nothing should conserving community begins to re- be added or improved, nature should turn to those remarkable ideas. be left as it is and we shall watch the In 1914, the first proposals for results. The areas within zapoved- founding zapovedniks in the Baikal niks are of enormous significance, so area were put forward by Franz F. their establishment must be primarily Shillinger. This passionate traveler, the concern of the state; though it an enthusiastic and gifted man, was can, of course, be a matter of a public directly involved in the establishment and private initiative, the state must of almost twenty zapovedniks, be ahead here.” How up-to-date among them Altaisky, Pechoro- these words sound now. Ilychsky, and Kondo-Sosvinsky, Morozov, a well-known specialist both in Russia and in other parts of in forestry, said in 1910 that the se- the Soviet Union. In 1929, Shillinger lection of areas for zapovedniks conducted investigations in the area should be carried out according to a between the Pechora and the Ilych plan so that each botanical-geo- rivers. He wrote then that “the graphical region had wild protected beauty of the park we are working at natural areas which, taken as a does not yield in many ways to the

Volume 18 • Number 1 2001 49 renowned Yellowstone Park in the All three approaches were employed North American United States; as for during the creation of the first its economic aspect and its contribu- zapovedniks. But subsequently Rus- tion to the growth of well-being of sian society’s attitude toward living the local people, it will exceed that nature started changing, and the at- park in many ways.” In 1930, titude toward zapovedniks changed Pechoro-Ilychsky Zapovednik was as well. In the 1930s, zapovedniks founded; it has since been added to were influenced by activities aimed at the list of World Heritage Sites. “improving” nature. Authorities However, few people, whether in promoted the introduction and ac- Russia or beyond, know about the climatization of species of plants and beauty of Pechoro-Ilychsky, and it animals alien to the country; for ex- should be noted that its contribution ample, raccoon-like dogs and to the growth of the well-being of the skunks, which are now ubiquitous. region has been very insignificant so Such predators as wolves, lynx, birds far. The ideas and plans developed of prey, and so on were considered by Shillinger have not yet been put harmful and were destroyed. into practice. The history of estab- The rise to power in the 1930s lishing zapovedniks in Russia, as ex- and 1940s of the heterodox geneti- emplified by Pechoro-Ilychsky, has cist and agronomist Trofim D. been contradictory and far from easy. Lysenko proved disastrous to the Approaches to the purposes and zapovednik movement. Lysenko’s objectives of zapovedniks have views—he believed that ecology and changed many times over the dec- genetics were hostile to the Soviet ades. During the formative years dis- regime—received enthusiastic official cussed above, three main competing support. Unfortunately, Lysenko’s ideas were put forward: beliefs were based upon the sup- · Some felt that a network of posed necessity of radically altering zapovedniks patterned upon nature in favor of the material inter- North American national parks ests of human beings. The impact on should be created in order to the zapovednik system was tragic: in conserve wild nature and to the 1950s and early 1960s according show its beauty to people. to the “highest” verdicts, zapoved- · Others believed that a network of niks and the science dealing with zapovedniks must serve scientific them were branded as useless. Many investigations exclusively. zapovedniks were liquidated, and the · Still others promoted a strictly area of surviving ones was consid- practical approach: zapovedniks erably cut down. Beginning in 1951, must become hunting reserves in 21 of the 37 zapovedniks in Russia order to conserve and increase proper were liquidated; in the Soviet populations of valuable commer- Union as a whole the number was cial species. 88. The area of the remaining ones

50 The George Wright FORUM was reduced catastrophically. For alone, 31 new zapovedniks were es- example, Pechoro-Ilychsky Zapov- tablished. At the same time, up-to- ednik was cut to just 7% of its former date legislation was passed. In 1991, area, while that of Sikhote-Alinsky a new Statute of State Nature Zapovednik went from 1.8 million ha Zapovedniks in Russia was approved to 100,000 ha. in which attempts were made to take In the 1970s, the network of into consideration the interests of zapovedniks began to be restored, nature protection and people as well and good progress was made in de- as to phrase the rights and duties of veloping new ones. One might say the zapovedniks’ law enforcement that the scientists “took revenge” for (ranger) service. In 1995, a federal the persecution of zapovedniks dur- law on protected areas, including ing the previous period! In 1981, the zapovedniks, entered into force. One General Statute of National provision was the creation of a con- Zapovedniks was approved. It estab- servation, research, and environ- lished a strict nature conservation mental education body to serve regime for the entire area of zapovedniks. Zapovedniks are now zapovedniks, prohibited any inter- federal properties, and are com- ference in natural processes, and pletely exempt from any economic stated the priority of scientific activi- use. Today, when Russian protected ties. The statute reflected the inter- areas are mentioned, it is the state ests of nature conservation in detail nature zapovedniks that are mostly and rather completely, and has un- meant. Zapovedniks comprise the doubtedly played a very constructive foundation of the Russian network of role. Nevertheless, many of its as- protected natural areas. pects were idealistic. Unfortunately, it did not take into account the inter- ests of people living within zapoved- niks or nearby, nor did it account for Up to the beginning of the 1990s, the peculiarities of each protected villages and other settlements were area, local traditions, and the variety often included in the areas of desig- of purposes and objectives that arose nated zapovedniks. Sometimes the during different periods of the central office of a zapovednik was zapovedniks’ history. located directly in such a settlement. At the end of the 1980s and the As in most remote places in Russia, beginning of the 1990s, the changes people continue to live in some iso- in the society led many activists to go lation from the rest of the world and to work for the nature conservation mostly earn their living directly from organizations that were then being the natural economy. They cultivate formed. Thanks to their efforts, the the earth, keep cattle, and use wood network of zapovedniks began to to fire stoves, and it is often only grow very rapidly. In the 1990s within the zapovednik’s forest that it

Volume 18 • Number 1 2001 51 is possible to gather sufficient stocks zapovednik tried to use these facts in of that firewood, collect berries and their favor. Among them there were mushrooms, etc. Other zapovedniks notorious poachers, but they were are in the immediate vicinity of towns poachers invested with power. They and villages, which causes certain launched a massive anti-zapovednik inconveniences for the people living campaign, demanding that it should there. For years the question of rela- be closed down. They involved some tions between local people and representatives of the federal zapovedniks was not dealt with authorities in the conflict. Sustained properly. Zapovedniks, separated efforts were required of the zapoved- from the outside world, lived ac- nik’s managers, its staff, and the cording to their own laws. The hard Board of Zapovedniks to stop illegal period that Voroninsky Zapovednik actions associated with the cam- in Tambovsky Region went through paign. It became obvious that illustrates the problem. Founded in zapovedniks will not be able to con- 1994 to save the last surviving is- serve nature if they do not bear in lands of forests, the zapovednik is mind the interests of local people and almost completely surrounded by do not win their understanding and numerous settlements. Most of the support. The problem is, of course, local people, who had watched with not exclusively Russian. In many a heavy heart the contamination of countries of the world, protected the rivers and lakes, mass poaching, area specialists try to find like- and the destruction of forests, at first minded people in local communi- enthusiastically supported the estab- ties—representatives of the public lishment of the zapovednik. Then who unite in supportive non-gov- questions began to arise. Where to ernmental organizations (NGOs). take firewood from? How about They help national parks and other gathering berries and mushrooms? protected areas conduct a dialogue What about fishing? Can all the with people, carry out environmental problems connected with the tradi- education work with children, and tional use of natural resources by lo- draw extra funding for nature con- cal people be solved in the areas ad- servation projects. jacent to the zapovednik? The ad- ministration of the zapovednik car- ried out numerous negotiations, clarified the boundaries of the pro- Until 1994, NGOs dedicated to tected area, tried to take into account promoting protected areas and en- local peculiarities when preparing suring their public support were the “particular statute,” the main le- virtually non-existent in Russia, gal document governing each indi- though some nature conservation vidual zapovednik. An uneasy proc- organizations included protected ess it was. Antagonists of the areas in the sphere of their interests.

52 The George Wright FORUM That December, a seminar held at they enlist true public support. Here the Caucasian Zapovednik became a is a graphic example. In 1993, two landmark in Russian protected area years after the founding of Katunsky management. It was devoted to the Zapovednik, an opinion poll was problems of environmental educa- conducted to find out the attitude of tion activities of zapovedniks and people living in the adjacent Ust- national parks. The question of Koksinsky Region. The region is in making the work more active, as well the mountains, far away from any as the importance of winning na- large settlements. The immediate tionwide support, were discussed for interests of the people would not the first time at the seminar. It gave seem to have been infringed upon. an impulse to the formation of a Nevertheless, 19% of those ques- public movement in support of pro- tioned expressed a negative attitude tected areas, and the process of or- toward the existence of the zapoved- ganizing associations began. For the nik, and a further 22% had heard last several years, associations of nothing about it. Intensive work, first zapovedniks and national parks in of all with schoolchildren, teachers, northwestern Russia, along the Mid- and the mass media, has led to a dle Volga, and in the Far East change of opinion. According to a (among others) have been actively new poll taken in 1995, more than working. A number of zapovedniks 94% of the people now knew about began to issue their own newspapers, the zapovednik, and 81% found its and many have been intensively co- activities useful. Today, Katunsky operating with mass media. Since Zapovednik has firm support in the 1994, the professional newspaper region and the wider republic, and Zapovedy Vestnik has been issued to has acquired additional financial conduct an exchange of information possibilities. between specialists of protected ar- In the 1990s, the attention of for- eas. In 1997, the first national eign charitable foundations and other monthly popular newspaper on organizations, such as the MacArthur zapovedniks and national parks, Foundation, the Eurasia Foundation, called Zapovednye Ostrova (“Pro- the World Wide Fund for Nature tected Islands”) appeared in Russia. (WWF), and the U.S. Agency for The newspaper is being published International Development, was by the EcoCenter “Zapovedniks.” drawn to the system of zapovedniks Specialists working in zapoved- as a whole. Of great importance was niks have realized that only by the development of The Portfolio of working in contact with local people, Investment Proposals for Conserving informing the public of the activities Biodiversity in Russia, a publication of zapovedniks, and helping to re- supported by WWF, which then set solve the nature conservation prob- up a Russian program office. Further lems of the surrounding region, can drawing the public’s attention to

Volume 18 • Number 1 2001 53 Russian zapovedniks and other pro- tory and culture of Russia are closely tected areas was the formation of the connected with natural features. A EcoCenter “Zapovedniks,” estab- striking example is the relationship lished by WWF in 1996. between the Raifsky Monastery of The EcoCenter “Zapovedniks” the Holy Lady and Volzhsko-Kam- created a network of 40 small NGOs sky State Zapovednik. For many aimed at ensuring public support for years, the monastery protected the particular zapovedniks (much like beautiful forest massif that was in its Friends’ Groups). The main mem- possession. Then the 1917 revolu- bers of such groups are teachers in tion broke out and the monastery local schools. The director of Bure- was closed down. Many years later, insky Zapovednik, Albert Dumikyan the zapovednik was founded and has (who was drawn away from sunny been conserving the valuable forests Armenia to Khabarovsky Territory ever since. The monastery has now to manage the zapovednik), spear- been renewed and its architectural headed a Bureia Center, which is ensemble reconstructed. The actively working with schoolchildren zapovednik and the monastery com- and the mass media of the region. bine their efforts to conserve the The EcoFund “Chazy,” established beautiful natural environment. Mu- under the initiative of Khakassky tual understanding and friendly rela- Zapovednik, issues the Zapovedano tions unite Archimandrite Vsevolod newspaper, and works with libraries and Yuri Gorshkov, director of the of the republic getting readers (espe- zapovednik. Many other zapovedniks cially children) acquainted with the incidentally conserve cultural and work of the zapovednik. The historical sites and monuments, but EcoCenter of Voroninsky Zapoved- do not have the means to give them nik, created by the talented and en- proper attention. A preliminary in- thusiastic Alexander Yegorov, who vestigation carried out by the heads the zapovednik’s department EcoCenter “Zapovedniks” has of environmental education, con- shown that Russian zapovedniks ducts interesting regional studies and contain over 6,000 historical and arranges for children’s Olympiads cultural sites. They include the fa- related to the zapovednik. mous Kapova Cave with prehistoric petroglyphs (Shulgan-Tash Zapov- ednik, South Urals), 18th-century hermitages (Visimsky Zapovednik, Traditionally, zapovedniks were North Urals), medieval settlements intended only to conserve wild na- (Sikhote-Alinsky Zapovednik, Far ture. At any rate, neither in the theo- East), churches of the 11th-13th retical statements nor in the law is the centuries (Severo-Osetinsky Zapov- protection of monuments of history ednik, Caucasus), ancient burial and culture mentioned. But the his- grounds, monuments of the Second

54 The George Wright FORUM World War era, and on and on. Today’s legislation allows These monuments and sites need zapovedniks to develop tourism fa- legislative protection and special cilities in specially assigned areas, studies. and to create trails. At the same time, zapovedniks remain nature re- serves—strictly protected areas. The Can tourism be developed in tourist routes and areas assigned to zapovedniks? The issue has been traditional uses by local people ac- discussed for many years. In the be- count for only 0.3 to 5% of the ginning of the century, “nature zapovedniks’ total area. On the rest, zapovedniks” and “national parks” nature proceeds according to its own were taken as synonyms. After the laws. In most areas of zapovedniks, issuance of the statute of 1981, the hunting, the felling of trees, the col- point of view implying the impossi- lection of windfallen trees and bility of tourism in zapovedniks pre- branches, or any other interference dominated. But a number of in natural processes are prohibited. zapovedniks were established in places that traditionally have at- tracted many tourists. These Thanks to the unique historical zapovedniks conserve unique nature conditions of Russia, a geographical features that arouse great interest in network of zapovedniks has been many people, such as the valley of created which represents virtually all geysers in Kronotsky Zapovednik the diversity of nature throughout (Kamchatka); Kivach, the biggest the country: the northern tundra, the waterfall in Europe; and other mountains of the Caucasus, the Urals unique or beautiful landscapes. and the Altai, the black-earth steppes There are also traditional tourist and Siberian taiga, the Far East and spots such as the Dombai within Te- Kolsky Peninsula. The potentialities berdinsky Zapovednik (Caucasus), are unique, and today it is necessary Krasnoyarsk stolby (peculiarly to continue strengthening the net- shaped rocks—a Mecca for climbers) work that has resulted from almost a in Stolby Zapovednik (Siberia), and century of zapovedniks. others.

Natalia Danilina, EcoCenter “Zapovedniks,” Institute of Economics, 15th Floor, Nakhimovsky Pr. 32, Moscow 117218, Russia; chip- [email protected]

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