Det Nye Rwanda

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Det Nye Rwanda II Forord Rwanda er det vakreste landet jeg noen gang har besøkt. Jeg er heldig. Jeg har fått sett og opplevd så mye spennende, så mye nytt og så mye interessant. Jeg ønsket å se det Afrika som lever, med sine sorger og gleder. Nå har jeg fått oppleve det. Det går ikke an å reise til Rwanda uten at det gjør inntrykk, uten å bry seg. For meg har det blitt en mastergradsoppgave ut av det. Aller først takk til Sandrine, et enestående bevis på at det finnes engler fra Rwanda. Så vil jeg takke informantene som gjorde dette prosjektet mulig. Jeg har gjort mitt beste i forhold til alt dere har fortalt meg. Dere er helt fantastiske. En stor takk til min veileder Tone Bleie som har bidratt med gode innspill og faglige råd. Det må jeg si har vært lærerikt. Takk også til Nils Aarsæther som jeg anser som en usedvanlig lun og flink motivator. Takk også til alle dere andre som har bidratt. ------------------------ Så til slutt, en viktig erfaring. Ved å bli kjent med andre samfunn blir man også bedre kjent med sitt eget og seg selv. Tromsø, 22 mai 2017 Atle Reiersen III Innhold 1.0 Introduksjon ....................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Rwanda............................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Veien til fred..................................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Tema og problemstilling .................................................................................................. 5 1.4 Begrunnelse for teoretisk rammeverk og oppgavens disposisjon og avgrensning........... 6 2.0 Folkegrupper i Rwanda i et historisk perspektiv............................................................ 8 2.1 Fra mobilitet til innelukking............................................................................................. 8 2.2 Avkolonialisering og eskalering av konflikt .................................................................. 14 2.3 Folkemordet i 1994 ........................................................................................................ 17 2.4 Rettsoppgjørene og forsoningsarbeidet.......................................................................... 21 3.0 Metodevalg og etiske dilemmaer..................................................................................... 25 3.1 Posisjonering og egen bakgrunn .................................................................................... 26 3.2 Tilgang til felten ............................................................................................................. 27 3.3 Mine informanter............................................................................................................ 28 3.4 Forskningsetiske hensyn ................................................................................................ 30 4.0 Aktuelle teoretiske diskusjoner og analytiske ståsteder ............................................... 31 4.1 Utvalgte teoretiske argumenter og perspektiver fra fredsforskningen ........................... 33 4.2 Nasjonsbygging i flerkulturelle samfunn ....................................................................... 38 4.3 Konflikters integrerende potensiale .............................................................................. 48 4.4 Maktbegrepets relevans i rwandisk kontekst ................................................................. 50 5.0 Analysekapitlet – Det nye Rwanda................................................................................. 53 5.1 Å se det nye Rwanda utenfra.......................................................................................... 54 5.2 Fra klasserommet til konflikt ......................................................................................... 62 5.3 Økonomisk utvikling og en sterk arbeidskultur ............................................................. 67 5.4 Ytringsfrihet og sterk kontroll........................................................................................ 72 5.5 Det går ikke an å hoppe over døden............................................................................... 78 5.6 Overgriper og offer som nye kollektive kategorier? ...................................................... 81 5.7 Hvem vil Rwandere være? ............................................................................................. 87 5.8 Konflikt som integrasjon og utvikling ........................................................................... 91 5.9 Mulige bidrag til forskning og samfunnsdebatt ............................................................. 94 6.0 Noen konkluderende betraktninger ............................................................................... 97 7.0 Litteraturliste, nettkilder og vedlegg............................................................................ 101 IV Image: Google Maps 1.0 Introduksjon 1.1 Rwanda Rwanda ligger i Afrika, like sør for ekvator. Landet er kjent for grønne åser, majestetiske fjell og for et av de mørkeste kapitlene i det 20-århundrets historie, det omfattende folkemordet i 1994. Denne oppgaven handler om Rwanda i dag, men også hvordan historien setter sine dype spor. Rwanda er et lite land, med et areal på bare 26 338 km², på størrelse med Troms fylke. Samtidig er det et av verdens mest befolkningstette land med 11.900.000 innbyggere. Rwanda grenser til Kongo (DRC) mot vest, Tanzania mot øst, Uganda mot nord og Burundi mot sør. Landet er gammelt i den forstand at det er de samme gruppene som har bodd innen de samme grensene over lang tid. Twa er et pygméfolk og utgjør under 2 prosent av befolkningen. Hutuene har tradisjonelt etablert seg med bofast jordbruk og utgjør den største gruppen (85%). Tutsiene er opprinnelig et kvegfolk som utviklet et kongedømme med ”føydalt” styresett. Hutuene ble avkrevd skatter av tutsikongen, og senere av koloni- myndighetene (Newbury 1991, Njallson 2009). Mens nabolandet Kongo i siste halvdel av 1800-tallet ble utbyttet på det groveste, var Rwanda lenge uberørt av Europas kolonialisme og imperialisme. Rwanda lå relativt utilgjengelig til, samtidig som landet ikke var rik på gull, diamanter og olje. 1 I 1899 ble Rwanda og Burundi lagt inn under tysk Øst-Afrika. Etter første verdenskrig ble Rwanda og Burundi lagt under Belgia som et mandatområde under Folkeforbundet. Dette forsterket motsetningene mellom gruppene. Tutsiene ble favorisert, noe som førte til stor misnøye blant hutuer. Konflikten mellom de to gruppene brøt ut i voldelige aksjoner mot tutsier fra 1959 (Njalsson 2009). Voldshandlingene fremskyndet at Belgia trakk seg ut fra Rwanda. Landet ble selvstendig republikk i 1962. Republikken ble da totalt dominert av den største folkegruppen, hutu. Perioden etter frigjøringen (60- og 70-tallet) var preget av uro og vold mot tutsier. Mange tutsier ble fordrevet både internt og ut av landet (Prunier 1999). Med base i Uganda stiftet tutsier i eksil i 1979 Rwandese Alliance for National Unity (RANU), som senere (1987) endret navn til Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF), og invaderte Rwanda i 1990, uten at de klarte å ta over landet. Borgerkrigen som oppsto førte til reformer og flerpartisystem, men tiden var preget av uro og fiendtlig retorikk (Kapuscinski 2001, Prunier 2009, Njalsson 2009). Tidlig på året i 1994 ble det gjort en avtale om at RPF skulle innlemmes i regjeringen og hæren. Etter at avtalen ble signert i Tanzania ble den rwandiske presidenten Juvénal Habyarimana (hutu) drept da flyet hans ble skutt ned 6.april 1994. Samme kveld startet folkemordet i Rwanda. Aksjonen var godt forberedt (Des Forges 1999, Prunier 1999, Dallaire 2004). De første som ble drept, var politiske motstandere i hovedstaden Kigali, deriblant både hutuer og tutsier. Snart rammet mordene tutsier flest, uten hensyn til synspunktene deres. Massedrapene spredte seg til resten av landet med ulik hastighet. I noen områder i nord startet drapsaksjonene omtrent på samme tid som i Kigali. Andre steder tok det flere dager. Først etter tre måneder tok det slutt. Da var mellom 800 000 og 1 000 000 mennesker drept (Brehm 2017, Folkemord.no). Folkemordet la Rwanda fullstendig i ruiner og ble i løpet av året et av verdens absolutte fattigste land. Nasjonen har imidlertid etter folkemordet hatt overraskende høy økonomisk vekst. Målrettet bistand, oppbygging av infrastruktur, aktiv satsing på næringsvirksomhet og handel, lav korrupsjon og myndighetenes prioriteringer av programmer for å få bukt med fattigdommen har ført til positive endringer. Lav kriminalitet, god infrastruktur og stabilitet i perioden fra og med begynnelsen av 2000-tallet har ført til at mange nasjonale og utenlandske selskaper vil investere i Rwanda. Gjennomsnittsinntekten er mer enn fordoblet de siste 20 årene, og landet har nådd flere av FNs tusenårsmål (http://www.undp.org/). Andelen under fattigdomsgrensen er betraktelig redusert, samtidig som myndighetene prioriterer både ordinær infrastruktur og ny teknologi som fiberoptiske kabler og 4G-nett. Bistanden, særlig i 2 gjenoppbyggingsfasen, har vært viktig for Rwanda. Men myndighetene forsøker å gjøre seg mindre avhengig av den (det har også blitt kutt i bilateral bistand etter FN-rapporten om Rwandas deltakelse i konflikten i Kongo). Regjeringen i Rwanda har som mål at Rwanda skal bli et midtinntektsland innen 2020 og har blant annet nevnt bystaten Singapore som modell. Økonomien har vokst i snitt med åtte prosent de siste 4-5 årene og verdensbankrapporten
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