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Not for Citation Without Persmission of Author NOT FOR CITATION WITHOUT PERSMISSION OF AUTHOR #213 CINEMA AND THE RUSSIAN AVANT-GARDE: AESTHETICS AND POLITICS Anna Lawton Associate Professor of Russian Literature and Film Purdue University / This paper was prepared for and presented at a colloquium held at the Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies on November 21, 1985. Copyright 1986 by the Wilson Center Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars The following essay was prepared and distributed by the Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies as part of its Occasional Paper series. The series aims to extend Kennan Institute Occasional Papers to all those interested in Russian and Soviet studies and to help authors obtain timely feedback on their work. Occasional Papers are written by Kennan Institute scholars and visiting speakers. They are working papers presented at, or resulting from, seminars, colloquia, and conferences held under the auspices of the Kennan Institute. Copies of Occasional Papers and a list of Occasional Papers currently available can be obtained free of charge by writing to: Occasional Papers Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars Smithsonian Institution 955 L'Enfant Plaza, Suite 7400 Washington, D.C. 20560 The Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies was established in 1975 as a program of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. The Kennan Institute was created to provide a center in Washington, D.C., where advanced research on Russia and the USSR could be pursued by qualified U.S. and foreign scholars, where encouragement and support could be given to the cultivation of Russian and Soviet studies throughout the United States, and where contact could be maintained with similar institutions abroad. The Kennan Institute also seeks to provide a meeting place for scholars, government officials and analysts, and other specialists on Russia and the Soviet Union. This effort to bridge the gap between academic and public affairs has resulted in novel and stimulating approaches to a wide range of topics. The Kennan Institute is supported by contributions from foundations, corporations, individuals, and the United States government. This paper is the preview of a more extensive study which intends to explore the development of Soviet cinema within the artistic avant-garde. The first section begins with a definition of the avant-garde and its political implications. While the idea of an artistic avant-garde originally appeared in the writings of the French utopian socialist Henri de Saint-Simon, its full manifestation is a phenomenon of the 20th century. This paper focuses on the years 1910-1930. Those two decades witnessed the emergence of the historical avant-garde, followed by the birth and development of Soviet cinema. The second section discusses the Russian avant-garde, particularly cinema, in the context of the October Revolution. The Soviet government recognized the tremendous potential of cinema as a means of communication with the mostly illiterate masses and as an invaluable propaganda tool. Therefore, cinema enjoyed a great deal of support. Filmmakers on their part supported the revolutionary ideals, but were mostly concerned with cinema as an art form. Experimentation and the search for new forms of expression occurred in all of the arts. Consequently, a great deal of cross-fertilization took place between cinema, literature, painting, music, and theater. The third section considers how Soviet filmmakers engaged in the search for cinema's unique expressive medium--the language of cinema--and analyzes both the theories and cinematic techniques of Soviet filmmakers. It analyzes Sergei Eisenstein's idea of "montage as collision," Dziga Vertov's notion of "poetic documentary," and Vsevolod Pudovkin' s use of ''plastic objects." The contribution of the Russian Formalists to cinema studies is also discussed. The Formalists' work in this field is of fundamental importance because it is the basis for the most recent theories of the semiotics of cinema. 1 The fourth section explores the relationship between art and political ideology from a structural point of view. Given the conflicting nature and functions of art and ideology, this section discusses the consequences evident in the Soviet case, which include the demise of the avant-garde and a general loss of creativity in filmmaking for a period of approximately thirty years. The Avant-Garde For a discussion of the avant-garde and its impact on the Soviet cinema of the 1920s it is necessary to follow two lines. One has to do with the nature of the movement, its inner dynamics, and the principles inherent in its ontology, the other concerns its historical development and the circumstantial causes that brought it into being. Therefore, I will start with a brief overview of Futurism, as the movement that marks the inception of the historical avant-garde and which epitomizes its features, and will proceed with an exploration of the avant-garde's origins. Vladimir Mayakovsky synthesized the task of Futurism in the following way: "In the name of the art of the future, the Futurist art, we have started the grand destruction of all areas of beauty. " 1 In this declaration, Mayakovsky pointed to the "revolutionary" role of the avant-garde and revealed one of the basic dichotomies inherent in its nature. He characterized Futurism as a renovating force with two inseparable functions: the positive function of creating the art of the future; and the destructive function of annihilating existing aesthetics. Renata Poggioli in his seminal work The Theory of the Avant-Garde, identified these two functions as two moments--the "nihilistic" and the "futuristic"--in the life span of an avant-garde 2 movement. 2 Poggioli observed that those who called themselves Futurists had only crystallized in their name a feature that is common to all avant-gardes. Poggioli also pointed out that while the nihilistic moment is generally realized, the futuristic moment remains unfulfilled. According to Poggioli, "in the psychology and ideology of avant-garde art, historically considered the futurist manifestation represents, so to speak, a prophetic and utopian phase, the arena of agitation and preparation for the announced revolution, if not the revolution itself."3 Such was the messianic role of the many of avant-garde groups that emerged in Europe starting with the second decade of this century. Futurism, born almost simultaneously in Italy and Russia, was the first avant-garde movement in the modern sense of the word. The appearance of Futurism in the literary and artistic arena started an era of radicalism in the relationship between artists and society and brought to the fore with unprecedented virulence the essential traits of avant-gardism. With Futurism, the avant­ garde' s indirect challenge to the public's aesthetic sensibility became a direct and violent attack on society as a whole. The Futurists aimed at establishing a radically new relationship between art and society, a relationship that was intended to change the role of art in its social function. Therefore, their action exceeded the boundaries of aesthetics as they became politically involved. Furthermore, their strategy had much in common with political agitation. The Futurists displayed a militant stance and an aggressive attitude, relied on organized collective action, and engaged in skillful publicity campaigns making use of the most sensational techniques, from the publication of vociferous manifestoes in major newspapers to the orchestration of provocative public demonstrations. 3 It is impossible, and unnecessary, here to provide a comprehensive picture of Futurism in its two main national modes. 4 While there are technical differences between Italian and Russian Futurism in matters of aesthetics and politics, their life patterns followed a similar course. In the years immediately preceding World War I and the October Revolution, Futurism enthusiastically lived its nihilistic moment and carried out its "barbaric" mission of destruction. In Italy the Futurists "burned museums and academies," at least metaphorically, and in Russia they threw "Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, et al., overboard from the Ship of Modernity."5 The "public taste" got ••slapped in the face," and the values and customs of the bourgeoisie were shaken. 6 All that was not in step with the Futurist march was given the label of "passeist," and was disdainfully relegated to the attic of obsolete ages and civilizations. At the same time, through a great deal of ingenuity and experimentation in all art fields, the Futurists pointed the way toward the art of the future--an art inspired by the technological world in its themes and formal structures, and by new scientific theories in its world view. The futuristic moment, however, remained unfulfilled as the avant-garde followed its natural course. The movements that followed relied in many ways on the Futurist legacy, as Futurism itself had in turn relied on the previous experience of Symbolism and Cubism but not in the classical sense of a master/disciple relationship. In the spirit of the avant-garde, new groups denied the achievements of their predecessors, went through their own nihilistic moment, and envisioned an art of the future that they considered to be a radical breakthrough in the history of civilization. The golden years of Futurism were rather short, and by the end of the 1910s we can no longer talk 4 of Futurism in a strict sense. In the Soviet Union, the movement failed to adjust to the requirements of the new government. In Italy, Futurism was coopted by the fascist government and turned from avant-garde into academy. The circumstantial resons for the death of Futurism, therefore, differ according to the national political situation. Nevertheless, there is a deeper cause these two modes share, which lies at the very basis of their being. An avant-garde movement, because of its dynamic nature, can exist only in a precarious condition, in a state of transition and perpetual change.
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