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MAGIC Rollston, Writing and Literacy in the World of Ancient Israel (2010); S 200 Dictionary of Daily Life in Biblical and Post-Biblical Antiquity (2000); A. R. Millard, "Zechariah Wrote (Luke 1:63);' in TheNew Testament in its First Century Setting, ed. P. J. Williams et al. (2004), 46-55; L. Myky­ tiuk, IdentifyingBiblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200- 539 B.C.E. (2004); E. R. Richards, "Reading, Writing and Manuscripts;' in The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social and Historical Contexts, ed. J. B. Green and L. M. McDonald (2013), 345-66; C. H. Roberts, "Books in the Graeco-Roman World and in the New Testament;' in TheCambridge History of the Bible, ed.P.R. Ackroyd and C. F. Evans (1970), 1.48-66; C. A. MAGIC Rollston, Writing and Literacy in the World of Ancient Israel (2010); S. L. Sanders, "Writing and Early Iron Age Israel;' in Literate Culture and Tenth­ Century Canaan: The Tel ZayitAbecedary in Context, ed. R. E. Tappy and P. K. McCarter, Jr. (2008), 97-112; C. Schams, Jewish Scribes in the Second­ Thereis serious difficultyin definingthe limits of what constitutes mag­ Temple Period (1998); WM. Schniedewind, How the Bible Became a Book ical practice in the ancient world and the concept of magic had culturally (2004); W. M. Senner, ed., The Origins of Writing (1989); J.P.Small, Wax specificinterpretations that varied across time and place. In general, magic Tablets of the Mind: Cognitive Studies of Memory and Literacy in Classical has been understood as the attempt to influencea course of events through Antiquity (1997); R. E. Tappy and P. K. McCarter, Jr., ed., Literate Culture intentional actions beyond direct physical cause, typicallyof a ritual nature, and Tenth-Century Canaan: The Tel Zayit Abecedary in Context (2008); R. performed by gods, skilled practitioners, and laity alike. Even this general Thomas,Literacy and Orality in Ancient Greece (1992); M. Weitenmeyer, description poses certain difficulties and the broad nature of magic may "Archive and Library Technique in Ancient Mesopotamia;' Libri 6 (1956), necessitate dispensing with any universal definitions in favor of interpre­ 217-38; C. Wilcke, Wer las und schrieb in Babylonien und Assyrien (2000); tations sensitive to their cultural and temporal contexts. Judgment of le­ D. J. Wiseman, "Books in the Ancient Near East and in the Old Testament;' gitimacy was a matter of perspective, as practices considered "magical" by in The Cambridge History of the Bible, ed. P. R. Ackroyd and C. F. Evans modern Western standards permeated ancient societies and had potential (1970), 1.30-48; H. C. Youtie, "UPOGRAPHEOS: The Social Impact of Il­ legitimacy according to accepted social norms. Considerations of black (i.e., literacy in Greco-Roman Egypt;' ZPE 17 (1975), 201-21. harmful)and white (i.e., beneficial) magic often depended entirely on who was the intended target, with magic directed against royalty punishable by STC death throughout antiquity, not necessarily because of the practice of magic See also ARCHIVES, COMMUNICATIONS & MESSENGERS, per se, but because the practice was aimed at those in positions of power. EDUCATION, and LIBRARIES & BOOKS. The term "magic" derives from Greek magikos (Lat. magicus), itself a derivative of Greek magos, which refers to a Persian priestly class known for their knowledge of astrology, divination, medicine, sacrifice, science, and sorcery (Herodotus, Hist. 7.37). Depending on the time, place, or per­ spective of the author, this terminology was used both with and without pejorative connotations. For many cultures in antiquity there was no dif­ ferentiation between religion and magic, a distinction that became more apparent in the writings of classical authors and in later eras. A. THE OLD TESTAMENT Referencesto magic are prevalent throughout the OT corpus and occur in a variety of contexts, including those relating to daily life, religious rit­ ual, royal consultations, prophetic calling, legal prohibitions, curses, divine 202 Dictionary of Daily Life in Biblical and Post-Biblical Antiquity MAGIC 203 protection, healing, oracles, and the general presence of magicians, both Pharaoh's magicians. Aaron, heeding the command of the Lord, throws native and foreign. The presentation of magic and magicians is not static his staffdown beforePharaoh and it is transformedinto a snake. Pharaoh within the Hebrew Bible, but differs by context or according to authorial summons his magician�, who easily perform the same feat, but then Aar­ intention. As a general principle, Egypt and Babylonia are presented as the on's serpent summarily eats the others. Evidence forthe Egyptian cultural quintessential homelands of magicians and magical lore. The prominence background of this tale is attested in the archaeological record. Actual in the OT of prohibitions against magical practices suggests that they were bronze and wooden wands in the form of serpents have been discovered widespread in ancient Israel and that their potency was a matter of real in Egyptian tombs from the Middle Kingdom to the Late .Period. These concern. Despite various proscriptions, activity fallingwithin this category wands would have acted as ritual implements used to ward offsnakes. The remained a customary part of life. forked end represented in the w3s-scepter had the practical advantage of Prohibitions against magical practices are found throughout the bib­ being used to restrain snakes against the ground. Such material remains lical books. Deuteronomy 18: 10-14 specifically forbids the sacrifice of a demonstrate the biblical authors' familiarity with the practices of snake child by fire, divination, omen consultation, witchcraft, sorcery, and nec­ charmers (see also Ps 58:4-5; Eccl 10:11; Jer 8:17). romancy (cf. Lev 19:26-28, 20:27; Num 22:17; 2 Kgs 21:6; Isa 47:9). The The magicians of the pharaohs in OT texts are referred to by the Heb. specificpunishments fordisobeying such prohibitions are not always spec­ term hartom (pl. hartummfm; Gen 41:8; 24; Exod 7:11; 8:3, 14, 15; 9:11), a ified, although consulting a spirit was punishable by stoning. borrowing and shortening of the Egyptian title "chief lector priest" (bry­ On the other hand, many actions in the OT that appear to resemble h3b. t hry-tp, lit., "one who carries the festival scroll"). The OT also pre­ popular magical practices do not appear to be condemned by the bibli­ serves a bewildering array of other terminology used to identifymagicians, cal writers, such as Jacob's success in breeding streaked flocks by placing including "man of God" (Heb. >is (ha]>elohfm: e.g., 1 Kgs 17:18, 24; 2 Kgs streaked branches beforethe flocks when they mated (Gen 30:37-43). 5:20; 8:7-8), "exorcist" (Heb. >assap: Dan 1:20; 2:2; Aram. >asap: Dan 2:10; Based on the common occurrence of acts by OT prophets and priests 4:4; < Akk. asipu), "one who binds a spell" (Heb. hober heber: Deut 18:11; that might be described as magical in nature, it seems clear that the re­ cf. Isa 47:9; Ps 58:6), and "enchanter (of snakes)" (Heb. melahes: Ps 58:6; cf. strictions against magic are not universal, but are meant for the non­ Ug. mlbs). professional who must seek the help of chosen intermediaries with the Another magical episode involving serpents and a possible Egyptian knowledge, skill, and relationship to God that allowed them to perform in­ cultural background occurs in Num 21:4-9. When the people of Israel credible feats. Perhaps the best example of this is the test for an unfaithful speak out against the Lord and Moses on account of their conditions in the wife(Heb. sata) in Num 5, where a priest (Heb. kohen) tests the suspicions desert, the Lord sends among them venomous snakes, the bites of which of a husband by having his wife drink a potion of holy water into which kill many. Upon repenting, Moses is instructed by the Lord to fashion a were dissolved the ink text froma written curse and dust offthe tabernacle bronze serpent and to erect it on a pole upon which those who had been floor. If guilty, the wife will suffer a number of ailments, the exact nature bitten by the snakes could gaze in order to be cured (via the concept of sym­ of which is debated and uncertain, but which include an distended abdo­ pathetic magic). According to 2 Kgs 18:4, in a campaign against idolatry men. The practice of ingesting texts was not limited to curses, for Ezekiel Hezekiah destroyed the bronze snake (Heb. nehas hannehoset) constructed answered his prophetic calling by eating a scroll presented to him by God by Moses, because the people had continually been making incense offer­ (Ezek 2:1-3:3). Unlike in the case of the adultery curse, whose potent liq­ ings to it. Actual examples of bronze serpents have been excavated in or uid was described as bitter (Num 5:18-19, 23-24, 27), Ezekiel's scroll tastes near the cultic areas of Megiddo, Gezer, Hazor, Shechem, Tel Mevorakh, sweet (Ezek 3:3; cf. Rev 10:8-11). and Tirona. Snake cults would have given people an opportunity to pro­ Several protagonists in the OT narratives figure prominently as au­ pitiate the patron deities of serpents in an effortto reduce biting incidents. thoritative "magicians" in their own right, with the power of dream in­ In 1979 extraordinary archaeological evidence for the use of magical terpretation being foremost in the cases of Joseph and Daniel. Daniel, in amulets in ancient Israel was found at the site of Ketef Hinnom in Jeru­ particular, was considered by Nebuchadnezzar to be "ten times better than salem. Among deposits from a group of chambers in a cave tomb were all the magicians and enchanters in his whole kingdom" (Dan 1:20).
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