Preserving Marine Life While Increasing Hydroelectric Efficiency: Four Lower Snake River Dams

Home , Dworshak Dam, Lower Granite Dam, Lower Monumental Dam, Spillway

Kaitlyn DeGroot Rajas Karajgikar [email protected] [email protected] Max Milone Pranav Penmetcha [email protected] [email protected] Olivia Wang [email protected]

July 22, 2016

The New Jersey Governor’s School of Engineering and Technology

Abstract Kaplan turbines, and temperature regulat- ing systems, were implemented into an ideal Hydroelectric dams are the most widely dam design. This design also includes mod- used source of clean energy, but they are ified turbine screens, Western White Pine also harmful to the marine life in the rivers trees along the bank of the water, and a and reservoirs the dams are built on; for siphon spillway system with a piano key these reasons, an exploration of dams is weir. The ideal dam design serves to pro- necessary. The four Lower Snake River mote features of dams that would enhance dams were identified as dams with mul- hydroelectric production and marine life tiple issues including hydroelectric ineffi- sustainability. Though the ideal dam design ciency, dangers in the turbine pathway for was made to resolve problems specific to the fish, sedimentation buildup, flooding, and four Lower Snake River dams, the overall temperature fluctuations in the water. The system can be implemented in other dams complications that arise from the construc- to address similar issues and to prevent the tion of dams threaten marine life popula- same problems. tions, and they can permenently damage an ecosystem. People living near dams may face problems such as property damage 1 Introduction and power shortages. To address these issues, original components of the four Lower The first known dam was built in Egypt Snake River dams, such as bypass systems, around 2950-2750 B.C., and since then,

1 dams have transformed and are being built area, specifically the juvenile salmon popu- for the purpose of generating power through lation. These disadvantages present issues hydroelectricity [1]. Unlike fossil fuels, hy- that would ultimately threaten the wildlife droelectric dams can complete various tasks and humans in the Snake River ecosystem. without producing greenhouse gases and By identifying specific components of the harming the environment. Although hy- four Lower Snake River dams and research- droelectricity itself is not dangerous for the ing the applications of those specific compo- environment, recent research demonstrates nents, the ultimate causes of the major is- that dams can have drastic consequences. sues of the dams could be addressed. Re- The allocation of water in reservoirs cre- search in the four Lower Snake River dams ated by dams disrupts native fish popula- offers the potential to establish solutions to tions that use the rivers as a breeding and varying issues involving hydroelectric effi- living area, in essence destroying the habi- ciency and marine life preservation. tat of marine species. In addition, dams erode the downstream river banks by causing a buildup of sedimentation [2]. Hydro- electricity, although inexpensive when compared to other clean energy obtaining methods, is still considered costly due to the expenses of construction, maintenance, and future repairs of dams. As a result, civil engineers that work with dams are confronted with the question of efficiency versus cost; therefore, it is important for civil engineers to visualize a dam which can generate a large amount of electricity without harming the aquatic ecosystem, while also considering the cost of its construction. Four large hydroelectric dams were built by the federal government on the Snake River in the 1960s and early 1970s. The four Lower Snake River dams are storage Figure 1.1: dams which are used as reservoirs for wa- This map shows the Snake River system, ter [3]. The four Lower Snake River dams which includes the four lower Snake River have numerous benefits essential for the dams and the Dworshak Dam [5]. community surrounding the Snake River. The benefits of the dams include providing emission-free renewable energy and power to the Northwest, stabilizing the 2 Background Snake River system, contributing to trans- mission system reliability, supporting wind 2.1 Hydroelectricity power, and assisting in irrigation [4]. De- spite their advantages, the four Lower Snake With various energy transformations, River dams have drawbacks which nega- dams can generate a substantial amount tively affect the marine life that inhabit the of hydroelectric power. When water flows

2 from a high to low elevation, potential en- bine. Examples of gravity turbines include ergy is converted into kinetic energy. The the reverse Archimedes Screw and the over- resulting kinetic energy is then converted to shot water wheel. mechanical energy by the turbines in a dam. The most efficient types of turbines are When a generator turns, the mechanical en- the Pelton and Kaplan turbines, which work ergy formed by the turbine is then converted well even below the design flow, or the into electrical energy, which is essentially amount of water the turbine was meant to be the hydroelectric power. Electric efficiency used for. Unlike these turbines, the Cross- is enhanced when large quantities of poten- flow and Francis turbines only work effec- tial energy are stored. For instance, when tively for the design flow [8]. Thus, in sit- dams have larger heads, or longer distances uations where dams may be holding less between the source of the water and the tur- water than their full potential, the Cross- bine, the water gains more potential energy flow and Francis turbines will be ineffec- as it travels farther. If dam pipes are larger, tive. Between the Pelton and Kaplan tur- more water volume is present, which causes bines, which have proven success rates, the a larger amount to pass through the turbines Pelton turbines are generally cheaper. The and generate hydroelectricity. The dams cost of these turbines can be modeled by the manipulate energy transformations to gen- formula: erate hydroelectric power for the surround- 0.54 ing community [6]. C = 8300(QH) (1) ”Q” is the flow rate in meters cubed per second and ”H” is the length of the head in me- 2.2 Turbines ters. The cost of Kaplan turbines can be modeled by the formula: Dams generate hydroelectricity by using turbines. The type of turbine selected for C = 15000(QH)0.68 (2) a given dam has a direct correlation with cost, efficiency, and marine life. Turbines ”Q” and ”H” take on the same units as in come in three varieties: impulse, reaction, the aforementioned formula [9]. However, and gravity. Impulse turbines work because in terms of preserving marine life, neither they are driven by jets of water which travel the Pelton nor the Kaplan turbines would at high velocities. Examples of impulse tur- be the best choice. Pelton turbines, due to bines are the Pelton and Crossflow turbines. their design, cause virtually 100% fish mor- Unlike impulse turbines, reaction turbines tality and Kaplan turbines have a fish mor- utilize a rotor which is submerged in wa- tality rate between 5-20%. Large, lowhead ter and placed in a casing. Pressure differ- turbines lead to eel mortality rates of 10- ences on opposing sides of the blades of the 20%, and smaller turbines found in typical turbine cause the rotor to rotate. Examples hydroelectric power plants cause fish mor- of reaction turbines include the Francis and tality rates of 50%. Mortality rates are high Kaplan designs, which are similar in compo- because fish are unable to survive passing sition and are commonly used due to their through turbines which can cause shearing efficiency [7]. Gravity turbines are driven effects and abrasion [9]. The best alterna- by the water which falls from the top of the tive is the Alden turbine, which is consid- turbine to the bottom. The water’s weight is ered fish-friendly due to its 98% survival the force behind the functionality of this tur- rate. In terms of efficiency, Alden turbines

3 are only 1% less efficient than Kaplan tur- ence of their heads, juvenile fish have an bines, coming in with a 94% rate [10]. increased chance of passing through the The four Lower Snake River Dam sys- holes of the turbine screens. Since the four tem consists of the following dams: the Lower Snake River dams have Kaplan tur- Ice Harbor, the Lower Monumental, the bines, once a fish passes through the screen, Lower Granite, and the Little Goose. Each it has a high chance of dying by the tur- of these dams have Kaplan turbines, with 6 bine. Another predicament is that the cur- blades each. Due to the amount of blades, rent turbine screens, themselves, pose a life- large structure, and complex composition, threatening risk to the fish. Since the size of the turbines produce, on average, 212,400 the turbine screen is not much larger than horsepower, or 158,390,000 Watts [11]. the actual turbine itself, the fish are exposed to an area where they can easily be sucked in or get stuck on the turbine screen and 2.3 Turbine Screens be unable to escape. Stainless steel is most effective for the turbine screens, because it Turbine screens are a crucial component is highly effective, inexpensive, and com- of many dams that serve the purpose of in- monly available [14]. Stainless steel is ap- creasing the survival rate of fish traveling proximately 489 pounds per cubic foot [15], through a turbine passage. These screens and costs $300 per metric ton [16]. serve to divert fish away from the turbine while still allowing water to flow through the turbine. 2.4 Spillways The four Lower Snake River dams have turbine screens that generally resemble a A spillway is a structure used to provide conveyor belt. The screens, on average, are the controlled release of water from a dam 20 feet high and 20 feet wide, and they or levee into a downstream area and it has travel around the frame of the turbine as a negative impact on marine life. Spillway a continuous belt [12]. This design assists drops of more than 50 meters result in a in evenly distributing sediments: the screen 100% mortality rate and smaller spillway collects, rotates, and shifts debris to the drops can result in damage to the gills, eyes, back side of the dam where the water flow and internal organs of fish [17]. The four washes it off. Lower Snake River dams have eight to ten Despite the effort to improve sediment gate ogee spillways. An ogee spillway is gen- distribution and fish populations in the four erally used in rigid dams and forms a part of Lower Snake River dams, the engineers of the main dam. The crest of the spillway is these dams fell short in their ability to de- shaped to conform to the lower nappe of a velop a device that maximized salmon sur- water sheet flowing over an aerated sharp vival rate through the turbine passage. Ac- crested weir. The flow with the designed cording to the Federal Caucus, the aver- head glides smoothly above the free surface age percentage of fish which survive pass- of the spillway so the discharge is greater ing through turbine passages is approxi- than that of the free fall spillway. With an mately 93.2% in the Snake River system, ogee shaped spillway no negative pressure meaning that an even smaller percentage will be formed above the surface. However, of fish survive traveling through all four if the flow exceeds the designed head, there dams [13]. Due to the small circumfer- is a possibility of separation of flow and a

4 consequent formation of negative pressure. addition to spillways and they decrease the The suction pressure in a siphon spillway height between the spillway and the surface will cause an increase in discharge whereas of the water. The two most common weir a spillway with the head under the nappe types are piano key and labyrinth. will have a decreased discharge [18]. Gener- A labyrinth weir is made of thin vertical ally a spillway consists of a control structure, reinforced concrete wall, and appears as a a conveyance channel, and a terminal struc- series of trapezoids. In a typical labyrinth ture. There are different types of spillways weir, the total crest length is about four that can be used depending on the suitabil- times the length of the spillway. Also, the ity of the site and other parameters. The dif- discharge capacity is roughly double that of ferent types of spillways include ogee, chute, a traditional weir. For labyrinth walls that side channel, and siphon spillways. are 3 or 4 meters high, the increase in ca- The chute spillway is a type of spillway pacity is about 5 cubic meters per second. in which the water, after flowing over a Labyrinth weirs increase the efficiency of short crest or other kind of control struc- dams and they provide a safe passage for ju- ture, is carried by an open channel (called venile populations. The main drawback of a the ”chute”) to the downstream side of the traditional labyrinth weir is that it requires river. a large amount of space. A labyrinth weir Side channel spillways are located just up- cannot be built on top of a Gravity Dam or stream and to the side of the dam. The wa- on most spillway structures. ter, after flowing over a crest, enters a side channel which is nearly parallel to the crest. This is then carried by a chute to the downstream side. The siphon spillway, as the name indi- cates, works on the principle of a siphon, where a tube carries water from the reservoir to a lower level of the spillway. A hood provided over a conventional spillway forms a conduit. With the rise in reservoir level, water starts flowing over the crest as in an Figure 2.1: ogee spillway. Flowing water, however, cap- This image demonstrates how weirs tures air and initiates the siphon action. Un- decrease the plunge depth, making it easier der this condition, the discharge takes place for the fish to exit the spillway [18]. at a much larger head. The spillway thus has a larger discharge capacity. This may cause the reservoir to be drawn down be- A Piano Key weir is a new version of the low its normal level before the siphon action labyrinth weir that can be placed on an ex- breaks and therefore, an arrangement for isting gravity dam or spillway. The Piano de-priming the siphon at the normal reser- Key weir may be used to increase reservoir voir level is provided. storage by providing an equivalent spillway Although the ogee spillway does increase discharge with a higher spillway crest or to the percentage of marine life survival, mea- increase the capacity of an existing spillway. sures can be taken to further increase sur- The design includes either a pair of over- vival rates. Weirs are the most common hangs on the upstream and downstream

5 faces of the dam or a single overhang on the Each year, 3 million cubic yards of sediment upstream face. The crest layout is rectangu- enter the reservoir [21]. As a result, the lar [19]. towns of Lewiston and Clarkston face growing risk of floods.

2.5 Sedimentation Deposits 2.6 Temperature Dams cause a buildup of unnatural sed- Dams negatively affect fish by alter- imentation that can harm marine life. In ing the temperature of the water flowing these circumstances, dams increase the trap through the dam. The alteration can be an efficiency, or the amount of sediment load, increase or decrease the original tempera- to nearly 100%. This means dams are be- ture. Rivers tend to be homogenous in tem- coming useless reserves of sediment rather perature but reservoirs tend to be layered, than storage spaces for water. Research with warm water collecting at the surface. done by Professor K. Mahmood at George Water that is released downstream is gener- Washington University shows that 1,100 cu- ally colder than it should be because it was bic kilometers of sediment or approximately released from the bottom of the reservoir. one-fifth of the world’s storage capacity had Many organisms depend on specific tem- been reached by the year 1986. In fact, peratures throughout the year, and when the reservoir, Nizamsagar, in India, has ex- the dams change the temperatures, their perienced an increase in sedimentation by survival is jeopardized [22]. 1,650%. The effects of sedimentation on the Specifically for the four Lower Snake lifespan of dams can also be seen by the es- River dams, the dams began to create a timates made by the US Army Corps of En- “thermal barrier” for salmon and steelhead gineers. The estimates concluded that sedi- migrating upstream, consequently slowing ment increase in the 135 MW Cerron Grande fish migration. Therefore, dams threaten Dam in El Salvador caused the lifespan of marine life in the reservoirs and rivers they the dam to decrease from 350 years to 30 are built on. [20]. In addition, sedimentation deposits can cause the erosion of river banks downstream the dams. For this reason, it is rec- 2.7 Bypass Systems ommended that valleys are not used as locations for dams. A bypass system diverts fish away from In the four Lower Snake River dams, es- turbines and specifically provides juvenile pecially within the Lower Granite Dam, sed- fish a safe alternative to travel across a dam. iment distribution poses a major issue for A large percentage of the habitat which was the salmon population. Of all the water in once available to fish is blocked when a dam the Lower Granite Dam, 55% is filled with is established with no bypass system. Ju- sediment. The sediment builds up behind venile fish will go through the risky turbine the dam, and as a result, prevents fish from passage if that is their only option [23]. In having full accessibility to nutrients. Un- most bypass systems, a turbine screen as- fortunately, this uneven sediment distribu- sists in diverting the fish to a gatewell, where tion also poses a high risk for flooding in the fish are directed upward to a collection area. Water is rising in the Lower Granite channel; the fish are carried safely through Dam as a result of the pileup of sediment. the dam starting from the gatewells, and are

6 eventually released downstream [24]. that is medium-sized for the sake of applica- An example of a dam with a bypass sys- tion and relating to other dams in the world. tem is the Lower Monumental dam. Accord- Moreover, the dam chosen would need pre- ing to the Federal Caucus, the survival rate vious research readily available for comple- is 100% for fish traveling through the bypass tion of the theoretical portion of the project. in the Lower Monumental dam; about 16% Based on these conditions, the four Lower of Yearling Chinook salmon choose to cross Snake River dams were chosen. the dam by the bypass passage. Once the four Lower Snake River dams were identified and then selected, the hydroelectricity and marine life issues of the dams were addressed. The majority of the issues identified in the dams were discov- ered to be caused by the composition of the dam. By specifying the areas of these complications, it was concluded that several components of the dam needed to be modified and new devices implemented.

3.2 Research on Components of Dams

Research was conducted on the compo- Figure 2.2: nents and the issues associated with each This image displays the salmon survival part of the four Lower Snake River dams. rates in the Lower Monumental Dam [14]. The source of each issue was analyzed with simple algebra and physics concepts. Fol- lowing this, various methods used by successful dams to solve similar situations were 3 Research and Innova- examined. This led to the development tion: Using Previous of various innovations based on those specific methods, which, if applied, would im- Knowledge for Discov- prove the turbines, turbine screens, spill- ery ways, sedimentation deposits, temperature problems, and bypass systems of the dams. 3.1 Research on Dams Hydroelectric efficiency is the first major issue of the four Lower Snake River dams; After researching the various issues of the turbine is the determinant of this effi- hydroelectric dams, it was decided that a ciency, and the original turbine of the four sensible choice for the case study would be Lower Snake River dams was identified as a dam that has multiple problems. The dam a Kaplan turbine. By analyzing data on its chosen would be one that needs major inno- efficiency, it was determined to be an essen- vations in terms of reaching its full potential tial component of the dam. Because the four of power and in preserving its marine life. Lower Snake River dams frequently have In addition, the dam would have to be one low water levels throughout the year, a mod-

7 ified Kaplan turbine, certain models of a 4 Results and Discus- spillway system, and better sediment control were chosen to generate the most elec- sion tricity. The second major issue of the four Lower Snake River dams is marine life mor- 4.1 Turbines tality. Juvenile salmon are the main victims of death due to turbine access, dangerous The four Lower Snake River dams cur- pathways, lethal temperatures, and uneven rently have water shortages and require sediment distributions. Through continued power even when the water is not at the research, temperature regulation systems, design flow level. For this reason, the Ka- turbine screens, and bypass systems were plan turbine was chosen as ideal for the determined as appropriate devices for as- four Lower Snake River dams. The cur- sisting marine life. rent turbines implemented at the dams are Kaplan, which are designed to assist in the generation of power, despite water shortages. Although Kaplan turbines are dangerous for marine life, with the application of 3.3 Creating an Ideal Design turbine screens, the Kaplan turbine can be and Estimating Costs effective in generating hydroelectric power while preserving marine life. There will be little cost to the four Lower Snake River After establishing several solutions, a dams because the Kaplan turbines are al- general model of an ideal dam for the four ready present. In future dams where sub- Lower Snake River dams was created us- stantial fish populations are present, Alden ing Google SketchUp. This ideal model in- dams should be considered compared to a cludes ideas from other successful dams ob- combination of Kaplan turbines and turbine served through research, modifications of screens. Although Alden turbines are more the current implements in the Lower Snake expensive than Kaplan turbines by 60%, River dams, and innovative, self-designed they are better at preventing fish mortality features. Thus, this model includes parts by a significant margin [25]. In comparison, which aid in promoting the generation of a Pelton turbine would be ideal in dams with more hydroelectricity and in decreasing the insignificant marine populations because of fish mortality rate. In addition to a general its cheaper price. dam design, a turbine sketch and a turbine Using the Google SketchUp program, a screen sketch were composed; these designs modified rendition of a Kaplan Turbine was represent the best version for the four Lower created. The modified version has four Snake River dams. Although specific in ad- blades which maximize the gap size, thereby dressing the problems of the four Lower reducing the chance of a juvenile fish get- Snake River dams, the ideal dam design ting harmed by the blades. In order to com- can be applied to other dams around the pensate for the reduction in blades, a larger world. Efficiency and cost were considered, blade size was established so the electric and specific expenses were estimated for the efficiency is maintained. Most of the re- construction of the dam. The costs aided mainder of the sketch, including the gen- in determining the most efficient, while cost erator, wicket gates, and outflow pipe, are effective, design. unchanged, as these do not have an impact

8 on migrating fish and work well as they cur- that an issue with juvenile fish traveling rently are. through the turbine passage is that the average diameter of the heads of the fish is generally smaller than the holes in the turbine screen, resulting in juvenile fish having access to the turbine. To address this problem, a turbine screen was designed with smaller holes. The holes in the updated turbine screen design, which have a length of one centimeter, were designed with the intent to prevent juvenile salmon from going too close to the turbines. The size of the turbine screens can affect the force with which a salmon is pulled towards the turbines; in order to increase the distance between the turbine and the salmon, the turbine screen size needs to be increased. This will decrease the force of the turbine on the juvenile salmon. Since the current turbine screen size is 20 feet by 20 feet, the resulting measurements for the redesigned turbine screen were decided to be 25 feet by 25 feet.

Figure 4.1: This Kaplan turbine sketch was designed using Google SketchUp; the turbine has four blades to maximize hydroelectricity.

4.2 Turbine Screens The turbine screens in place at the four Lower Snake River dams do not effectively protect fish, particularly juvenile salmon. By taking the percentage of fish which sur- Figure 4.2: vive by the turbine passage through one This image displays a juvenile salmon dam, 93.2%, and raising it to the fourth measured with a ruler to show its small size power, the resulting percentage, 75.45%, is [26]. the amount of fish which survive through all four dams by way of the turbine passage. Images of juvenile salmon with rulers A model of the turbine screen was cre- showed that the approximate circumference ated in Google SketchUp. In this program, of a juvenile salmon’s head is two centime- the general shape of the turbine screen was ters. From this information, it was inferred sketched. The screen was designed to re-

9 semble the conveyor belt structure of the previous turbine screen, and the actual di- mensions of the screen measured 25 feet by 25 feet. An up close view reveals that within each 9 centimeter by 9 centimeter cell, there are approximately sixteen 1 centimeter by 1 centimeter holes. The screen was made of stainless steel alloys, and the total volume of stainless steel used for the screen was calculated to be 4,900.12 cubic feet (This value, as well as all calculations done for the turbine screens, do not take into consideration Figure 4.3: the deduction of cubic feet due to holes). This turbine screen sketch shows the The type of stainless steel that was used general shape of the ideal dam design; it in this design is approximately 489 pounds was created using Google SketchUp. per cubic foot and costs roughly $300 per metric ton. From these given quantities, it was calculated that the ideal turbine screen weighs 2,440,261.48 pounds (1,106.88 metric tons), and costs $332,064. Using the same given quantities, the approximate volume of the original turbine screens of the four Lower Snake River dams is 2,893.75 cubic feet , and weighs about 1,415,043.75 pounds (641.85 metric tons). The approximate cost of the original turbine screens, given that they were designed with stainless steel, is roughly $192,555. The difference in cost is $139,509; however, despite the dif- Figure 4.4: ference in cost, the potential efficiency of This sketch shows an upclose view of a 9 the newly designed turbine screens far out- centimeter by 9 centimeter turbine screen weighs the cost to install it. Due to the in- cell designed using Google SketchUp. crease in its general size, and the decrease in its hole size, the ideal turbine screen design will more effectively maintain marine 4.3 Spillways wildlife than the original turbine screens of the four Lower Snake River dams. The current spillway for the four Lower Snake River dams is an eight-ten gate ogee spillway. An eight-ten gate siphon spillway is the best alternative. As mentioned pre- viously, the spillway has a larger discharg- ing capacity due to the raised level of the reservoir. Also, the raised level of the reservoir decreases the fish plunge depth; most juvenile salmon can only dive a maximum

10 depth of 20 feet and in some instances, the the sill of the spillway in meters. The av- entrances to spillways can be sixty feet un- erage length of the spillways for the four der the water. The siphon spillway has its Lower Snake River dams is 950 meters and entrance closer to the surface of the water, the average height of the water above the thereby decreasing the mortality rate of the sill of the spillway is five meters [27]. This juvenile fish population. gives a new maximum discharge capacity of Furthermore, combining spillway weirs 27,614 cubic meters per second. Currently, with the siphon spillway will continue to the maximum discharge capacity of the four protect the lives of the fish. spillway weirs Lower Snake River dams is 850,000 cubic also increase the height of conventional feet per second or 24,063.5 cubic meters per spillways and allow fish to easily exit the second. This is a 15% increase in discharge dam. Weirs improve the embankment crest capacity which will improve the overall hy- by increasing the water level of the reser- droelectric efficiency of the dam. In ad- voir to decrease the plunge depth of salmon. dition, the enhanced spillway system will This makes it easier for the fish to find the greatly benefit the marine life in the river. exit of the spillway and to safely exit the The cost for improving the spillway sys- dam. The Piano Key Weir would be the tem is modeled by the equation: best option for the four Lower Snake River C = AhL (4) dams because it increases reservoir storage by providing a spillway discharge with “A” is the cost of increasing the height of a higher embankment crest. The increase in the dam by 1 cubic meter, “h” is the height reservoir storage increases discharge capac- increase of the dam, and “L” is the length ity, which improves the overall efficiency of of the spillway. C = 93(5)(3200) which is the dams [18]. equivalent to $1,488,000 [19].

4.4 Sedimentation Deposits To stop erosion in the banks of the river downstream from the dam, watershed management should be utilized to hold the soil. This tactic requires improving farming practices. The growth of plants allows the Figure 4.5: soil to stay in place. A tree that is native to This image illustrates the structure of a Idaho and is ideal to plant is the Western piano weir [18]. white pine. This type of tree is large, ranges from fifty to seventy-five feet, is coniferous, and has long roots [27]. The efficiency of the Piano Key weir com- There are several costs for the planting bined with the siphon spillway can be mod- Western white pine Trees. It costs $40 per eled by the equation: acre to do site preparation, which varies Q = 2eH3/2 + 3eH1/2 (3) for each place depending on the preexist- ing vegetation. Contract-planting costs $35 “Q” is the discharge in cubic meters per sec- per acre and thinning and pruning cost $70 ond, “e” is the length of the spillway in me- per acre. Thinning and pruning is the re- ters; and “H” is the height of the water above moval of plants which prevent trees from

11 growing larger. Lastly, one-thousand White 4.5 Temperature Pine seedlings would cost $90, and it would cost $36 per acre with 400 seedlings planted A solution was derived for the Lower per acre. In total, it would cost $181 per acre Granite Lock and Dam, which is one of the to plant Western White Pine trees [29]. four Lower Snake River Dams. The process of “flow augmentation” was created, which is the process of releasing cool water to benefit fish passage in the warmer water of the Snake River downstream from the dams. At the Lower Granite Lock and Dam the tailwater, water just below the dam, is kept at 20 degrees Celsius or colder to benefit salmonids recognized by the Endangered Species Act. Cool water is seasonally released from the Dworshak Dam Reservoir on the Clearwater River. This water strati- fies with the warmer water below the Lower Granite Dam as it flows downstream. The program is implemented annually; it begins in early summer and ends in early fall [34].

4.6 Bypass Systems The bypass systems that are imple- Figure 4.6: mented in the ideal dam design are the orig- This table portrays the ways in which inal bypass systems of the four Lower Snake vegetation aids stream-like bodies of water River dams. The bypass systems of the dams [28]. are an effective alternative pathway for fish to travel across the dam because they of- fer a safe pathway with no obstacles. The system supports the idea that the bypass is Moreover, dredging also helps com- the most effective pathway for juvenile fish, bat the buildup of sediment.According to which face difficulty in other pathways due the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- to their small stature and relative weakness. ministration, dredging removes sediments The lasting impact of this system can be rep- and debris from the bottom of bodies of wa- resented by observing the statistics of the ter [30]. Dredging is needed in waterways current bypass systems of the four Lower where sedimentation slowly fills different Snake River dams, which show a 100% sur- channels and harbors [31]. However, dredg- vival rate for fish traveling through the path- ing is expensive and requires repetition to way. remain effective. This solution only elimi- nates the threat of flooding for the near fu- 4.7 Ideal Dam Design ture [32] and costs about $12.75 per cubic yard. For 400,000 cubic yards, it would cost The ideal dam design modeled in Google $5.1 million [33]. SketchUp consists of various features that

12 enhance hydroelectric production and salmon survival. Visible features of the dam include: the turbine housing, a siphon spillway system with a piano key weir, West- ern white pine trees for watershed management, and a bypass system. Components of the dam not visible in the sketches of the ideal dam design include: a Kaplan turbine, modified turbine screens, and temperature Figure 4.8: This image shows a front view of regulation systems. The bypass system, tur- the ideal dam design. bine screens, and Piano Key weir assist in diverting the salmon away from the turbine, the siphon spillway and Western white pine trees assist in evenly distributing sediment, and the temperature regulation systems assist in maintaining non-lethal temperatures; in a dam where salmon have access to safe pathways and safe temperatures while not having issues due to sediment buildup, salmon ultimately have a higher chance of survival. The Kaplan turbine pro- Figure 4.9: This image shows a side view of duces an efficient amount of hydroelectric the ideal dam design. power, and the siphon spillway allows for the turbine to continue to generate large amounts of power even when water levels are low. Ultimately, the ideal dam design represented in Google SketchUp demonstrates potential to increase salmon count and hydroelectric power if implemented in dams.

Figure 4.10: This image shows a top view of the ideal dam design.

5 Conclusion

Dams have many beneficial aspects to them, such as the very cheap generation of Figure 4.7: This image shows a side view of power without the production of CO2 and the ideal dam design. no risk of running out of a power supply.

13 Negative characteristics are also present, The implementation of these modified parts including not generating enough electric- will prove beneficial at stopping many of the ity and causing a high fish mortality rate problems directly caused by dams. in some situations. The four Lower Snake Future research on dams should remain River Dams were examined as a case study focused on generating more power and in where improvements are suggested based preserving marine life. Simulations based on successful dams. The improvements on the ideal dam diagram made from Google were modifications made to specific com- SketchUp should be created to test the effec- ponents of other dams and were visually tiveness of the novel dam with its modifica- displayed via Google SketchUp. The vir- tions. Additionally, the modifications from tual dam can be applied to make real-life the diagram should be applied to real-life dams more efficient and eco-friendly. The dams if successful results are seen through ideal turbine to use for generating enough the simulation. First, these modifications hydropower is either the Pelton or the Ka- should be made to the Lower Snake River plan turbine, which both work at all levels dams and later, to dams worldwide. The of water flow. Since the four Lower Snake real-life application of these dam modifi- River Dams currently have Kaplan turbines, cations should allow civil and environmen- modifying these would prove cheaper than tal engineers to find the correct balance be- replacing them with Pelton or Alden tur- tween generating power and preserving ma- bines. Modified turbine screens which en- rine life. compass a greater volume but have smaller holes are recommended for the preservation of marine life. The implementation of these modified turbine screens will allow strong turbines, which are considered dangerous for marine life, to remain in dams, without any negative effects. In order to 6 Acknowledgments increase the efficiency of the dam and improve fish survival rates, the siphon spillway should be combined with the Piano Key The authors of this project would like to weir to raise the embankment crest of the acknowledge and thank the individuals who dam. Within the dam, sedimentation causes provided guidance in this research. First a serious flood threat, which can be com- and foremost, thank you to project mentor batted with the planting of trees in the sur- Alissa Persad for her supervision and as- rounding area as part of watershed man- sistance on the project. In addition, thank agement. Dredging can also be used to re- you to both Alexander Hobbs and Anthony move portions of the sediment filling the Yang for their aid in advancing the project. river. Furthermore, fluctuations in water Thank you to Rutgers, the State Univer- temperature are fatal for certain organisms sity of New Jersey, Rutgers School of Engi- and “flow augmentation” is recommended neering, Lockheed Martin, South Jersey In- for the mixture of dam water with the reser- dustries, and printrbot. Finally, thank you voir water to maintain the proper temper- to Dean Antoine, and Dean Rosen for pro- ature. For fish traveling across the dam, viding the authors a unique and once-in-a- bypass systems are shown to work success- lifetime chance to explore their scientific in- fully in the four Lower Snake River Dams. terests.

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