FALL 2011 PAGE 1 TAARII Newsletter The American Academic Research Institute in Iraq

ISSUE NO. 6-2 FALL 2011 © TAARII

A JULY JOURNEY TO THE ENVIRONS OF UR

Elizabeth C. Stone and Paul Zimansky State University of New York, Stony Brook

Is it now possible for an American with great enthusiasm, therefore, that from larger urban centers. Abdel-Amir archaeological field project to work in we took advantage of an opportunity suggested that this policy might be open southern Iraq? This was the question we to spend a week in the Nasiriya area to revision. There were other practical most wanted to answer when we flew to offered to us through the efforts of our considerations that made the Ur area Basra in early July 2011, although we Ph.D. student, Abdel-Amir Hamdani. attractive. Nasiriyah has experienced had other objectives as well. We have Before he entered the Ph.D. program less trouble than most of the rest of Iraq been to Iraq several times in the last two at Stony Brook, Abdel-Amir had been and there are two dig houses within the decades, but this was our first chance in the Inspector of Antiquities for Dhi guarded perimeter around Ur that could a long time to return as archaeologists Qar Governorate, and he remains in house an expedition. Franco D’Agostino, with a research agenda rather than contact with both the local and national of Rome, had already secured a permit observers of war damage. Since 1990, archaeological institutions of Iraq. For to lead an Italian expedition to Tell we have only been able to pursue our more than a year, he encouraged us to Abu Tubaira, a nearby multi-period studies of Mesopotamian settlement come to southern Iraq and by October site slightly larger than what we were organization, initiated in the Mashkan- 2010 had convinced us that the time had interested in, and offered to share shapir Project, by reworking old data come to act. In the past it was difficult to quarters and equipment with us. He was and analyzing satellite images. The latter obtain an excavation permit to excavate being given a certain amount of furniture offer some intriguing suggestions on a small site in Iraq outside of salvage by the Italian military contingent as it how sites might be structured, but these areas, and the few small sites that pulled out of Talil Air Base, south of need to be tested on the ground. One have been excavated are all located far Ur, so we could bring an expedition in issue largely ignored and go right to work, in previous research without having to is the relationship waste precious field between little sites time setting up a camp. and big ones: were There were also the small settlements good scientific reasons that dot the landscape for choosing a site around urban centers nearby. Thanks to the like Uruk, Nippur, extensive excavation and Ur microcosms program of Leonard of cities, specialized Woolley — and the locations with specific publication of his functions in a complex results — Ur is one of urban matrix, or purely the best known ancient residential outliers? Mesopotamian cities, Satellite images and providing extensive surveys of the environs samples of private and of Ur in particular public buildings for showed this to be very both the Isin-Larsa/ rich ground for looking Old Babylonian period at the problem. It was Figure 1.1. Quickbird Image of Tell Mathkhuriyah. Imagery courtesy of the Digital and the later Kassite Globe Corporation. PAGE 2 TAARII NEWSLETTER

from the many Iraqi individuals and in their hospitality. After twenty years institutions that made this trip not just of working in Turkey, our Arabic is possible, but positively enjoyable.2 distinctly rusty, but with Amir Doushi at A second research objective was to our side, the conversation flowed and we visit a variety of sites in the Eridu Basin could almost forget the language barrier. and Ur area. Some of these showed We had another banquet with another quite distinctive traces of architecture in sheikh the next day (fig. 1.2), and at both satellite images, and we wanted to see of these meals the conversation focused what they looked like on the ground. on the role of the tribes in the new Iraq, The summer trip would provide us with a strong argument being made that the a better idea of what was showing up in south had been quieter than central and the images and what wasn’t. northern Iraq precisely because the We arrived in Basra Airport around tribal system was strong. Yet we had the 8 a.m. on July 7, 2011, on a Turkish clear sense that these men who wield Airlines flight from Istanbul. A man enormous power locally felt somewhat who said he worked for the Turkish left out of the new, very centralized, government was sitting next to us on political system. One argued that the the plane and told us that they were still collective nature of the tribes made them experimenting with the routes. We were a quasi-democratic system that should a little surprised to land in Najaf on be recognized. A day or so later we Figure 1.2. Lunch at the Mudhif. the way to Basra, and were even more spent the evening in a restaurant garden surprised a week later when our return beside the Euphrates with the literati period. There also seemed to be a good flight left an hour before schedule and of Nasiriyah — poets, film makers, number of small sites in the area to stopped again in Najaf. Experimenting playwrights, and the like — who were choose from. The one that seemed most indeed! At the Basra airport we were passionate about the role of the arts appropriate from our vantage point in met by Abdel-Amir and his friend Amir in the new Iraq and the importance Stony Brook was Tell Mathkhuriyah, Doushi, a translator and cultural advisor of education and literature (and film) one hectare in diameter with very who did much to facilitate our travels. to open people’s minds to new ideas extensive architectural traces visible There was also a documentary film crew in high-resolution satellite imagery who had come to record our trip. This (fig. 1.1). We could also see a military was not the kind of reception we were checkpoint by the site, which suggested used to on previous trips to Iraq. that it would be secure. The only After an uneventful drive to Nasiriyah question was the date of Mathkhuriyah’s and a quick stop in our hotel there, occupation: the few sherds we had seen we were taken to lunch at the Mudhif from it suggested the second millennium (guesthouse) of the sheikh who owned b.c., but they weren’t overwhelmingly the land around Tell Mathkhuriyah. He distinctive. Clearly we needed to visit welcomed us warmly, encouraged us the site and, if it proved suitable, solve to come and work, and treated us to a all of the logistical issues pertaining magnificent banquet. When we worked to working in a country that is still in Iraq in the 1980s, we did not have suffering from outbreaks of violence. this kind of experience when we lived We applied for an excavation permit in in Shomeli, the small town nearest to November. It was promptly granted to Mashkan-shapir, where the local Ba’ath us,1 with the idea being that we would representative discouraged Iraqis from make preliminary arrangements in interacting with foreigners. One of our the summer and commence work the neighbors in Shomali had invited the following winter. We set about planning women of the Mashkan-shapir team to the summer trip immediately and at tea in 1990, and the secret police turned Figure 1.3. Abdel-Amir Hamdani holding each step of the way, Abdel-Amir was up on her doorstep the next day. Iraqis the inscribed clay nail moments after its absolutely essential, lining up support no longer seem the least bit restrained discovery. FALL 2011 PAGE 3 and democracy. In spite base, and within sight of a of everything that has prison. It certainly passed happened in the past eight all security considerations. years, no one pined for the In the 1960s, Henry Wright past — rather they were had judged it to be entirely keen to find a positive way Kassite,3 but we found to participate in the future early second millennium of the country. ceramics as we began A few days after our walking up to the summit arrival we gave lectures at of the mound and only a the very elegant Arts Center few clearly Kassite sherds that had been built for the at the very top. Nearly fifty city by the Italians formerly years ago, Wright had noted in residence at Talil. This a Qal’eh (shaykh’s fort) in began with a memorial for that area, but apart from a Donny George and was small mound of dirt it was attended not only by a large no longer in evidence. We local audience, but also by Figure 1.4. Quickbird image of Tell Sakheriya with possible wall traces only spent about twenty dignitaries who had come shown in white. Imagery courtesy of the Digital Globe Corporation. minutes on this first visit from as far as Baghdad because it was hot and we and Babylon, and at least eight different Late in the afternoon of our first day had other sites to see, but Abdel-Amir television crews. Donny was eulogized in Iraq, we reached Tell Mathkhuriyah. spotted an inscribed clay nail (fig. 1.3) by all, his tragically early death deeply We were initially confused by the with what was undoubtedly a partially regretted, and his memorial poster has absence of the landmarks we expected. preserved royal inscription. These now become part of the permanent The checkpoint that we knew so well artifacts were generally embedded in exhibit at the center. from the satellite imagery had been an the walls of large public buildings. We In spite of the crowded schedule, we American one, and was gone. Even the took a GPS reading on the findspot and were able to squeeze in a trip into the guardrails beside the road, which we subsequently recognized in the high- marshes, something neither of us had had planned to use as a starting point for resolution satellite imagery that it was managed in the past. Although mid- mapping, had been torn out. The site was associated with a roughly 80 meter summer is not the best time to visit, not without its charm — a few camels square area of very regular architecture. we were able to witness the return of wandered by while we were there and We later showed photographs of the at least some of the water to the area the ziggurat at Ur could be seen in the cleaned object to Stephanie Dalley and around Chubaish and have a close-up distance — but it was now in an exposed Douglas Frayne, who recognized place view of water buffalo, birds, Marsh and isolated position along largely names and phrases consistent with the Arab villages, and reeds of all sizes and deserted paved roads. The archaeology Larsa Dynasty. In particular, it mentions shapes. was also disappointing. It did not take a place called Pi-Naratim (“Mouth of Our overall sense of Nasiriyah was long to find a few stamped sherds that the Rivers”), which Rim-Sin conquered of a town where little has been invested were clearly not dateable to the Old around 1807 b.c. (by convention of the in infrastructure (except for the Arts Babylonian or Kassite periods. Our best middle chronology). Center and our hotel), but people guess was that an early first millennium At about 5 ha and only 6 km from Ur, seemed relaxed. We heard no explosions b.c. date was most likely, and in any this site clearly met our criteria for a small while we were there and witnessed case it would not serve for comparison site near a metropolis. Although satellite people taking pleasure boats out on the with what was going on in Ur. images of it do not show the very detailed Euphrates, filling the restaurants and The next morning, Abdel-Amir architecture of Tell Mathkhuriyah, it is coffee-houses, and even a three-year-old Hamdani again came to the rescue, not devoid of such traces (fig. 1.4), and riding his tricycle in the street after dark. suggesting we take a look at another site, will provide us with the opportunity to At no time did we get even a whiff of the one of several with the undignified name check satellite imagery with data from insecurity that we hear so much about of Tell Abu Ba’arura (“father of sheep on-the-ground magnetic gradiometry, in the news. We also saw no Americans, droppings”). It is located along a guarded which we hope to collect in December. nor any other foreigners. cul-de-sac leading to an Iraqi military This technique was effective at Uruk.4 PAGE 4 TAARII NEWSLETTER

Having identified a site both secure and area, we were able to visit seven of the where the high water table brings the compatible with our research objectives, sites near Nasiriyah where reasonably salts to the surface. However, the latter we immediately applied to change our clear architectural details were preserved decades of Saddam Hussein’s rule saw permit from Tell Mathkhuriyah to one for in satellite imagery, besides Tell the development of the Third River the new site. We were persuaded that we Mathkhuriyah. All of these sites were Project, which collected the salty run-off could not apply for grants or permits for salinized. That is, when you walk over from agricultural fields in the northern a site with such a risible name in Arabic the site you break through a salt crust alluvium and channeled it southward — in English translation, at least, it might on the surface, and your feet sink into a between the Tigris and Euphrates have been even worse if the animals in dusty layer. This varied from only about Rivers. The water was then siphoned question were bulls — so the alternate 5 cm at Tell Sakhariya — moderately beneath the Euphrates and allowed to name Tell Sakhariya was suggested. We salinized — to 30–40 cm at Tell Abu fill the Eridu Basin, salinating the sites. have been assured that changes in the Tubaira, where the Italians plan to work. This, and the fact that many of them security of Tell Mathkhuriyah are good Satellite imagery of the latter provides were looted, makes them undesirable for grounds for requesting a change in the significant detail over much of the site, excavation, but they still provide useful permit, and we understand that the file yet the salt is so bad that few pot sherds windows into the organization of ancient is currently awaiting the signature of the can be seen and it seems unlikely that Mesopotamian settlement. Minister of Culture. the salt traces in the satellite imagery We also had the opportunity to We also took a look at where we hope will correlate with preserved mud-brick visit Umma and its early third- we will be living in December. The walls below the surface. millennium predecessor, Umm al- site of Ur is now fenced off from its Generally, our “ground truthing” Aqqarib. The excavated remains of surroundings and has armed guards 24 suggests that the more salt there both are impressive, but they have hours a day. In addition to the houses of was on the surface, the more visible been devastated by looting — indeed the three families of the site guards, there the architecture in the imagery, i.e., at Umma looters had apparently been are two dig-houses. One is brand new, salt highlights architectural details. at work only hours before we arrived but has been filled with conservation We suspect that all Mesopotamian because the soil from their trenches supplies for an impending project at Ur archaeologists have had the experience was still damp. These sites, now deep itself. The other is perfect. Set in its own of seeing ancient walls outlined in salt in the steppe, showed no evidence of quite private compound, it has a double on the surface of a site (fig. 1.5), but salinization — and thus satellite imagery room that can serve as a workroom, had not expected this in desert sites does not help us understand their a partially furnished kitchen, three deep in the Eridu Basin. Normally organization. On the outskirts of Umma, bedrooms and bathroom facilities. It has one associates it with irrigated areas however, we noted a large area of over- recently been upgraded, fired material that might so all rooms have have been an industrial heating/air conditioning area. There were no units, and there is a accompanying potsherds generator for times when to identify the date of the electricity fails. The this activity. We saw families of the guards a similar area of fired have agreed to cook an debris without sherds at evening meal for us, Tell Sakhariya, presenting and generally help with yet another incentive to shopping, transportation, excavate. and other logistical In sum, our brief trip to issues. The Nasiriyah Nasiriyah was enormously security service, who productive — thanks looked after us on our entirely to the very large trip, have agreed to number of people who escort us from house to worked so hard to make site and back. this happen. We fell in In the time that love with Iraq all over Figure 1.5. Early Dynastic Temple visible in WorldView 1 imagery. Imagery remained to us in the again, and this time felt courtesy of the Digital Globe Corporation. FALL 2011 PAGE 5 much more free in our interactions. for their continuing support for this project. and the Tammuz Organization for Social While we could see what the country 2 We must thank Abdel-Amir Hamdani, Development. had been through, everyone we met was former Inspector of Antiquities for Dhi 3 Henry T. Wright, 1980, “Appendix: The welcoming and we never felt we were Qar Governorate, now Ph.D. student at Southern Margins of Sumer: Archaeological the least bit in danger. There are, of Stony Brook University; Amir Doushi, Survey of the Area of Eridu and Ur,” in course, the usual hurdles to be vaulted Jasim Cultural heritage consultant of Heartland of Cities (Chicago: University of before we can get into the field: visas, IREX-Iraq organization; Talib Al-Hassan, Chicago Press), p. 339 [Site 20]. 4 formal permit, funding and so forth. But Dhiqar Governor; Hyder Abdulawahid Halmut Becker and Jörg W. W. Fassbender, nothing we saw on the ground in Iraq Al-Benian, Dhiqar Governor’s Deputy; 2001, “Uruk–City of Gilgamesh (Iraq): First Dhaher Muslim Al-Baka of the National Tests in 2001 for Magnetic Prospection,” last July suggests we can’t be back to do Security Center of Dhiqar Province; Ali in Magnetic Prospecting in Archaeological magnetometry and excavate in December. Kadhem Ghanem, Inspector of Antiquities Sites, edited by Helmut Backer and Jörg for Dhi Qar Governorate; The Iraqi Writers W. W. Fassbender, pp. 93–97 (Munich: 1 We would like to thank Qais Raschid and Union of Dhiqar; Police Major Ayad Barzan ICOMOS and Bavarian State Conservation the State Board of Antiquities and Heritage Ayyal; Al-Faiha T.V. channel in Dhiqar; Office).

IN MEMORIAM: MOHAMMED GHANI HIKMAT

One more star is shining in the skies Iraq, he taught sculpture at the Institute Florence. Born in Baghdad in 1929, over Baghdad registering another great of Fine Arts, the Academy of Fine Ghani was buried in his beloved city on loss for Iraq. Mohammed Ghani Hikmat Arts, and the College of Architectural September 15, 2011. He is survived by died in Amman, Jordan, on September Engineering at Baghdad University. One his son Yasser, daughter Hajeer, and wife 12, 2011. He was a household name for of Iraq’s pioneer modern artists, Ghani Ghaya al-Rahal. generations of Iraqis and Arabs whose was a member of a number of Iraqi art I will miss our visits and conversations memories of Baghdad are incomplete organizations, including Iraq’s most in your Amman studio, dear friend. I without the images of the Fountain influential art group, the Baghdad Group will miss your passionate talks about art of Kahramana, Ali Baba and the 40 of Modern Art that was established by and Iraq while surrounded by the beauty Thieves (1969), or Scheherazade and Jawad Selim and Shakir Hassan Al Said, you created and drinking Iraqi tea to the Shahrayar (1971). Ghani’s love for both his teachers and friends. Ghani sounds of Munir Bashir. his city has been manifested in various assisted and supervised in Florence the — Nada Shabout, Associate Professor and monuments that recall her glorious casting of the bronze frieze for Jawad Director of Contemporary Arab and Muslim past and keep the romance of the Selim’s Monument of Freedom and then Cultural Studies Institute (CAMCSI) at the legends of One Thousand and One its installation after Selim’s untimely University of North Texas. Nights alive, and others that celebrate death in 1961. In 1986, Iraqis’ contemporary lives. His love for Ghani had to again step in Baghdad continued to motivate him to after the death of the sculptor the last days of his life, campaigning and Khalid al-Rahal to finish the organizing committees for the recovery installation of the contested of looted Iraqi art in the aftermath of the Arch of Victory monument. 2003 invasion, and finally with designs Ghani’s distinctive for three new monuments to adorn style developed out a Baghdad that will be completed now deep understanding of the under the supervision of his son Yasser. humanities and the history of Ghani is one of Iraq’s most famous aesthetics, weaving Islamic and influential sculptors. After abstraction with Sumerian graduating from the Institute of Fine cuneiform in his famous Arts in Baghdad in 1953, Ghani studied Baghdadi doors, while his sculpture at the Accademia di Belle famous stylized and elegant Arti in Rome (graduated 1957), and figures combined his love then specialized in bronze casting in for Mesopotamian epics and Florence in 1961. After returning to the humanistic tradition of PAGE 6 TAARII NEWSLETTER

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR’S REPORT Beth Kangas TAARII has been continuing its efforts the other American overseas research the opportunity to join our archaeology to promote Iraqi and Mesopotamian centers, the operations and expectations colleagues. TAARII also held a Studies. I am pleased and honored to of the State Department’s Educational reception at MESA in December 2011 have become TAARII’s new Executive and Cultural Affairs, which provides and sponsored a panel entitled “Baghdad Director in February 2011 and thank funding for many of the centers, and 1950s + 50: Memory, Space & Politics.” Stephanie Platz for the wonderful ways to raise non-governmental funds. The panel was organized by Mina foundation she built. In September 2011, TAARII held a Marefat and included Bassam Yousif, As listed in the Spring 2011 very successful three-day conference in Magnus Bernardsson, Aline Schlaepfer, newsletter, three Ph.D. candidates and Jordan on the 1990s Sanctions in Iraq, and Caecilia Pieri. two post-doctoral scholars received as detailed in the final article of this TAARII’s three-year grant from the U.S. fellowships to conduct research on newsletter. TAARII co-sponsored the National Endowment for the Humanities ancient, medieval, or modern Iraq outside conference with the British Institute for (NEH) for the Iraqi Oral History Project of the country. In addition, seven Iraqis the Study of Iraq (BISI), which creates a (IOHP) ended in June 2011 following residing in Iraq received fellowships new relationship for us. Eighteen scholars a one-year no-cost extension. In to conduct research inside the country. — five from the U.S., six from Iraq, one December, we applied for continuation Funding for these fellowships came each from France, Germany, and Britain, funding for the IOHP in order to from TAARII’s 2010–2011 sub-grant and four Iraqis residing in Jordan — expand the creation and preservation from the State Department’s Bureau presented papers that examined the of the diverse histories of modern Iraq. for Educational and Cultural Affairs political, economic, social, and cultural The continuation project includes (ECA) through the Council of American consequences of the Sanctions. One collaborating with Duke University Overseas Research Centers (CAORC). of the conference’s keynote speakers Libraries to create an accessible archive. We will announce the U.S. recipients for was Hans von Sponeck, a former U.N. TAARII will use the interim period the 2011–2012 sub-grant in the Spring Humanitarian Coordinator for Iraq and between grants to continue analyzing 2012 newsletter (and continue our author of A Different Kind of War (2006). a portion of the results from the first practice of not naming the Iraq fellows The second keynote presenter was Joy phases of the IOHP. out of consideration for their security). Gordon, a philosopher and ethicist In November 2011, TAARII was In July, I had the chance to travel to at Fairfield University and author of selected as one of 359 pre-identified Jordan for three weeks to learn about Invisible War (2010). The participation partners for potential future, discrete TAARII’s activities there. Dr. Lucine of excellent young Iraqi scholars at the funding opportunities under the Taminian, TAARII’s Resident Director conference was particularly important Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs’ (NEA) and Senior Scholar in Amman, and I and promises a continuing high level of Organizational Interest and Capacity visited several organizations in Amman scholarship for the future of the country. Questionnaire program announcement. to discuss collaborations with TAARII. The conference also had a highly This puts TAARII in a pool of potential We also had the chance to discuss engaged audience, which included applicants when funding opportunities fellowships and future activities with former bureaucrats and government from the NEA arise over the next four Iraqis residing in Jordan and several officials in Iraq. Bassam Yousif, Magnus years. academics from Iraq who were visiting Bernhardsson, and Lucine Taminian will At the December 2011 Board meeting, Amman for a conference. Lucine co-edit a publication that results from the coinciding with the MESA annual and I started planning for TAARII’s conference. meeting, TAARII welcomed three conference on the Sanctions period in For the very first time, TAARII hosted new institutional members: Brown Iraq that would take place a few months a reception at the annual meeting of the University, the National University later in Amman. American Schools of Oriental Research of Singapore, and the British Institute In August, Lucine and I attended (ASOR) in San Francisco in November for the Study of Iraq (BISI). BISI and CAORC’s Directors’ meeting in 2011. In the past, the ASOR meeting TAARII became reciprocal members and Mongolia, home of another of the has occurred on the same weekend as look forward to further collaborations. twenty-two American overseas research the Middle East Studies Association We welcome your ideas on activities, centers (ORCs). The meeting offered (MESA), where TAARII holds its board resources, and funding sources for productive opportunities to learn about meeting. It was nice this year to have TAARII to pursue. FALL 2011 PAGE 7

MARRIAGE AS MIGRATION: IRAQI-JORDANIAN MARRIAGES AND AMMAN’S REFUGEE COMMUNITY* Susan MacDougall, Oxford University Marriage is one of the means Iraqis interested in gossiping about their the push and pull of families who have employed over the past several friends or neighbors, also obligates them attempt to balance the best interest decades to migrate out of Iraq and to craft acceptable narratives for an of their daughters with their limited secure residency in other countries. The audience of associates and acquaintances ability to offer them support, economic institution’s gendered nature makes as well as for international agencies or otherwise; they also navigate the Iraqi women employing this mode providing services and resettlement with currents of Jordan’s citizenship and of migration particularly vulnerable. which they often interact.1 Additionally, personal status laws. The former are Divorced Iraqi women confront Sharia- some service providers at Jordanian resistant to the assimilation of foreigners influenced personal status laws in Jordan NGOs observed Iraqi women married to and the latter partial to men, which leave that work in concert with stringent Jordanian men feigning divorce, since them on the margins of both groups. citizenship codes to minimize their legal the divorce would make them eligible Their limited legal rights confound their standing, while being wife and mother for cash assistance from the UNHCR. In search for institutions that support them, to Jordanians weakens their cases for either case, divorce became a defining and their misfit status in the refugee and asylum should they seek it following attribute for the women socially as well foreign wife categories contributes to a divorce. Stories of unsuccessful as legally. their sense of solitude. Since marriage marriages reinforce existing social The use of marriage for migration serves as a means of travel and divisions between Jordanians and Iraqis, and citizenship purposes reflects immigration as well as a cornerstone of and the Iraqi and Jordanian view of the deteriorating conditions in Iraq social organization, Jordanian family marriage as a contract between families over the past several decades that law acts as a parallel immigration policy means that failed immigration marriages drove and continues to drive Iraqis to that affects many Iraqis and in particular are interpreted as discriminatory as migrate. Sanctions presented uniquely women. Marginal status legally is well as disrespectful. A Fulbright challenging circumstances that inspired accompanied by outsider status socially. fellowship (December 2010–August new streams of migration, of which The four divorcees who participated 2011) supported my work with Iraqi marriage was one. Political and in my research each arrived in Jordan women married to Jordanians who were economic changes in Iraq during the during the 1990s, several years before either formally divorced or separated, sanctions, above all standstill economic the war in Iraq began in 2003. The four and TAARII hosted me as an affiliated growth and shrinking employment women, two of whom fled to Jordan scholar during that time. I did not opportunities, meant families looked with their husbands and two of whom intentionally exclude intact marriages, beyond their kin groups and neighbors came with their families before getting but attempts to reach Iraqi women for their daughters’ marriage partners.2 married, relate experiences of being married to Jordanians all led me to Girls’ travel abroad for marriage became outsiders in their husband’s families contacts with divorced women. more palatable to families, since it from the beginning of their marriages. My findings suggest that marriage meant their relief from the economic One woman said she worked as a servant served as a means of immigration to burden of an unmarried daughter and her for her mother-in-law; another served as Jordan for Iraqi women during the opportunity for a better life outside of a caretaker for her husband’s mentally late 1990s but later compromised their Iraq. This distance left the women with ill first wife. The economic and policy ability to seek assistance and isolated weak social support, with participants elements of that inequality appeared later them from family support in Iraq in my study noting their families’ on in their relationships, often when they following their divorces. The messy diminished role in their marriages over became responsible for conducting their entwining of intimacy with immigration a long distance. Women whose parents own affairs in the public sphere after increases women’s dependence on were with them in Jordan when they getting divorced. To do this research, their husbands by straining other social were married also saw their influence I conducted extended, open-ended ties, thus increasing their isolation and wane as they relied on their new sons- interviews with each woman in her home vulnerability in the event of divorce. The in-law to help them secure residency in social nature of marriage, specifically Jordan. * This piece is a reflection of very the attention it commands from others Iraqi brides of Jordanians negotiate preliminary fieldwork, which will continue in the future. PAGE 8 TAARII NEWSLETTER over nine months in Amman, as well as that women leaving the country travel different perspectives on that decision. participant observation and interviews with a mahram, putting up obstacles to “All I could think of was getting out with Iraqis and Jordanians providing women’s immigration without escorts. of Iraq,” Hiba said. Reflections on service to refugees. All anecdotes Anecdotal accounts from Iraqis mention their decision to marry are colored by and ethnographic data here are from the impact of these policies on the sex their later experiences in Jordan, with interviews or personal correspondence trade; since Iraqi women could not leave an emphasis on what they perceive as during that period. the country without their husbands, Jordanians’ discriminatory attitudes Mistrust of the state and of Jordanians seeking Iraqi women as sex against them. The relationship between international organizations like the workers sometimes married them to gender and citizenship comes to bear UNHCR make Iraqis who register get them out of the country. The stigma on the institution of marriage as well; as refugees selective in divulging attached to marriages with Jordanians a system where men have legal power information about themselves for fear because of this rumor means Iraqi over their wives became a site for of its consequences to their asylum women with absent Jordanian ex- Jordanian prejudices on Iraqis to take on case or their receipt of other charity or husbands would suffer an additional a new manifestation. Relationships with aid.3 The disruption and violence that layer of negative social appraisal as in-laws represent a particularly sensitive typically accompany escape from one’s suspected prostitutes. This is just one locus for this conflict. Hana mentioned home country inspire fear and suspicion example of the harsh judgment rendered conflicts between her in-laws and her in many forms, with official, neighbor, against divorcees, which contributes to family, and her limited ability to call on and family relationships affected.4 their sense of alienation and isolation her own kin for support: Questioning refugees and testing the in Jordan. Jordanian policies similarly There were problems between my “truth” of their stories also increasingly discouraged lower-income Iraqis from family and my husband [after we defines the process of seeking asylum, permanently settling in Jordan. Iraqis were married]. I couldn’t leave and providing the correct “truth” enjoyed relative hospitality during the my kids and run behind my family can make the difference between 1990s but those with limited financial because my brothers were married 5 resettlement and refoulement. Given means struggled to support themselves. and my parents, how long were these stakes, carefully crafting their While many middle class Iraqis settled they going to live? So to leave my stories and guarding personal details in Jordan, lower-income Iraqis had children, and live with my brothers’ become a daily practice. Divorced trouble finding employment and earning wives, and let them take me here women face the same constraints as an income. Marriage offered a route to and there and away from my kids … others seeking resettlement or aid, and residency, without which one could not it’s much better for me to stay in my when marriage is their means of escape, secure a job. own house. new layers of social expectations and From inside Iraq, reasons to be (…) fears enter the equation. Concealment apprehensive about life in Jordan seemed and mistrust are a part of Iraqis’ far away. One woman, Hiba, married a It’s been four years since he left us, experience in Jordan, and assumptions Jordanian man almost forty years her but I feel that this is my kingdom, about an American researcher’s senior without a second thought so that this house. I ate, drank, went to connection to their application for she could get out of the country. She sleep hungry … no one imposes asylum mean that the details of their did not even consider his age until she on me here. With your family, God marriage story can vary from meeting to arrived in Jordan. “As soon as I got knows how much time you’ve spent meeting. Concerns about their reputation here,” she said, “I wanted to go back.” with your family and how much of and reception with their neighbors also In retrospect, the women presented your upbringing was with them, demand that stories be crafted with care. their marriages as choices made with but when you get married and go to Circles of confidants are necessarily immigration opportunities considered them, you feel like you’ve become small, and social safety nets are as a factor. Their relationships reflected a foreigner. Tomorrow, you’ll get correspondingly limited. the imbalance in Jordanian and Iraqi married and you’ll feel this feeling. Present circumstances reflect citizenship at the time, namely making Remember me. historical trends; during the 1990s, Iraqi them vulnerable brides for local men Dua’a heard promises of iqama legal arrangements erred on the side of whose intentions toward them and their (residency permit) for herself and her keeping people in the country while families they remember as callous. The family during her courtship with a Jordanian policy tended toward keeping new obstacles they faced to establishing Jordanian that were left unrealized in them out. Iraq imposed a requirement residency in Jordan over time led to her marriage. “They’re rich, we’re poor FALL 2011 PAGE 9

… they laughed at us,” she said. Her friends. But Jordan, for all its problems, University of California Press, 1995). Didier marriage ended after several years of her seemed a safe haven to her since she Fassin, “The Vanishing Truth of Refugees.” husband’s adultery and abuse, leaving could go to buy vegetables on her own Colson Lecture, Refugee Studies Center. her responsible for two young sons. She without drawing attention. Returning to (Oxford: Oxford University, 15 June 2011). presents not only herself but her family Iraq would mean an even more hostile Miriam Ticktin, “Where Ethics and Politics Meet: The Violence of Humanitarianism in as victims of the arrangement and misled environment, with restricted mobility France.” American Ethnologist 33:1 (2006): as a result of their lesser status in terms for her and her children. Her husband 33-49. of class and citizenship. Her husband legally blocked her sons’ departure from 2 Yasmin H. Al-Jawaheri, Women in Iraq: The had a bad reputation and was known the country without his permission, Gender Impact of International Sanctions for drinking and seeing lots of women, she said, so she will not go back in any (Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2008). she learned later, and her stories of their event. Rana Husseini, “Jordan,” in Sanja Kelly introduction are full of ominous but Continued unsafe conditions in Iraq and Julia Breslin, eds., Women’s Rights in overlooked signs to this effect. When her represent the clearest disincentive to the Middle East and North Africa: Progress family asked acquaintances and friends returning to the country, but, as she Amid Resistance (New York: Freedom about him, they kept this to themselves, indicated, Jordanian child custody laws House, 2010). staying loyal to their Jordanian neighbors also represent an obstacle. Fathers have 3 IRC, Dawn Chatty and Philip Marfleet, rather than to them, the foreigners. Her the right to prevent their children from “Iraq’s Refugees: Beyond Tolerance.” family’s outsider status and financial traveling out of Jordan, which means that Forced Migration Policy Briefing 4 (Oxford: weakness led to a bad marriage for her, an escape home or resettlement abroad is Oxford Refugee Studies Center, 2009) 4 followed by self-reliance and social unavailable for many women who have Daniel and Knudsen, Mistrusting Refugees. isolation as she cares for her two sons. children.6 Jordanian children of these Fafo and the Government of Jordan, Dua’a criticized Iraqi marriage for its marriages similarly represent baggage “Iraqis in Jordan 2007: Their Number and Characteristics” (Amman, Jordan: 2008). harsh standards on wives: for their mothers in seeking resettlement. International Rescue Committee, “Five Dua’a related her conversation with [In Iraq] They blame the woman for Years Later, A Hidden Crisis.” Report of the everything. No matter what you’ve a lawyer at UNHCR in simple terms: IRC Commission on Iraqi Refugees (2008). endured already, you have to endure why would the U.N. grant the rights of a International Rescue Committee, “A Tough more for the sake of your family. refugee to children who have Jordanian Road Home: Uprooted Iraqis in Jordan, Syria Full stop. (…) passports? The personal status laws in and Iraq. Report of the IRC Commission on Jordan leave divorced women without Iraqi Refugees (2010). International Rescue Even if there are disagreements, the rights to custody, making it difficult to Committee, “Iraqi Displacement: Eight important thing is you, the woman. leave the country without leaving their Years Later Durable Solutions Still Out of No one asks why you waited things children as well. Leaving one’s children Reach” (2011). out or why you stayed silent, no. 5 is out of the question, making Jordan a Didier Fassin, “Vanishing Truth.” And then when divorce happens, last resort of sorts. 6 Rana Husseini, “Jordan.” no one welcomes the divorcee. Marriage also represents a closed door She’s divorced. Why did he leave behind which secrets about immigration her? He’s never in the wrong. They are kept. Its intimate nature makes Newsletter Submissions, don’t give her any excuses. She’s prying questions in that direction rude Comments, so-so, no good. That’s why he left as well as detailed sharing indiscreet. her. Or she can’t have kids. Or she & Suggestions To intervene in the relationship between doesn’t know how to raise her kids. To submit articles, images, spouses, as research with this population They forget any good qualities that or announcements in either does, touches a vein of mistrust and a woman might have. It’s a man’s English or Arabic , p l e a s e inspires different kinds of partial world more than a humane world. email Katie Johnson at explanations on the part of participants. [email protected] for submission Changing social mores in Iraq extended For that reason, the preliminary findings details. The deadline for the fall to the types of marriages permissible presented here will benefit from further issue of the TAARII Newsletter is for daughters, but less often extended ethnographic and textual inquiries in this June 1, 2012. to compassion for divorced women. In vein. Du’a’s experience, being alone without For all other inquiries, comments, and suggestions, please visit our website, a husband inspired others to gossip 1 E. Valentine Daniel and John Chr. Knudsen, about her and limited her circle of eds, Mistrusting Refugees (Berkeley: www.taarii.org. PAGE 10 TAARII NEWSLETTER PROVINCIAL HISTORIES OF TWENTIETH-CENTURY IRAQ: REFLECTIONS ON THE RESEARCH PROCESS Arbella Bet-Shlimon, Harvard University

The historiography of the modern an area, Kirkuk, with distinct political, twentieth century, but they generally do state of Iraq has always focused on social and economic dynamics. I contend not go into detail about everyday life or Baghdad. Many authors have examined that such a refocusing is necessary not political issues in Kirkuk — not even the policies and internal politics of the only to build a more comprehensive with reference to the oil industry, which Iraqi central government throughout literature of modern Iraq, but also to was centered in Kirkuk for several the twentieth century. Historians have achieve a deeper understanding of decades. For instance, the late former written about the machinations of British Baghdad’s own political dynamics by politician and oil expert Muhammad mandate authorities and the leverage examining its contentious, and often Hadid discusses various issues related held by British diplomats based in the violent, attempts to exert power and to Iraq’s oil industry in his lengthy Baghdad embassy after the mandate. influence over the rest of the country. autobiography but says little about More recently, historians have paid close Researching the Iraqi provinces, the city of Kirkuk specifically.5 In my attention to intellectual and political especially from outside of Iraq, poses research, I have found that published discourses emanating from Baghdad, a particular set of challenges. In this works written by people from Kirkuk particularly those related to nationalisms article, I will discuss my own approach are few in number and hard to come and identities. Scholars of architectural to research on Kirkuk in order to by. However, those that are extant and urban studies have also written illuminate for other researchers the have proven to be fascinating sources about Iraqi ideas of modernity as they kinds of information to be found and of information about local culture. I were manifested in the development of conclusions to be drawn from archival have broadly termed these “works of Baghdad, especially in the 1950s. and print sources on provincial areas of memory” because most of them are not, While this work is invaluable to a Iraq. My hope is that the insights herein strictly speaking, memoirs. fuller understanding of modern Iraq, will be useful for those who wish to In Arabic, the most interesting such it has yet to be supplemented by undertake similar projects in the future. works have been produced by members comparable attention to Iraq’s provincial I conducted the research for this project of the Kirkuk Group (Jama‘at Karkuk), areas. Among the few historical studies from 2008 to mid-2011, completing an influential collective of writers of provincial Iraq in the twentieth the bulk of the research in London in originally from Kirkuk, most of whom century are monographs by Nelida 2009 and 2010 with the assistance of left the city in the 1960s but continued to Fuccaro on the Yazidis of Jabal Sinjar a TAARII fellowship. Of course, the be active. A few members of the group, during the mandate and by Reidar potential for archival research on this along with other Iraqi writers, first Visser on the separatist movement and similar subjects within Iraq does published reflective essays about their in Basra in the 1920s.1 Additionally, exist, and interviews with Iraqis both experiences in a 1992 issue of the Arabic several historians have done excellent inside and outside of the country can literary journal Faradis, though these did work on pre-Iraq Mosul and/or Basra, also be a productive way to learn more not focus on the period when they were including Thabit Abdullah, Gökhan about provincial areas. Nonetheless, I in Kirkuk.6 In 1997, the journalist and Çetinsaya, Dina Khoury, and Sarah will focus here on the research I have novelist Fadhil al-Azzawi, a key member Shields.2 Various authors have also conducted with twentieth-century of the Kirkuk Group, wrote an essay written histories of the Iraqi Kurds in archival documents in Europe and with about the group that discussed its initial the modern state, though these works published materials that are available formation at some length.7 Azzawi’s tend to approach the topic through the in Western libraries. Indeed, even piece is useful to historians of Kirkuk for framework of ethnic politics rather historians from the region who have its discussion of local bookstores and the than as an analysis of the provinces written about Kirkuk have relied mostly newspapers and magazines that locals themselves.3 In my current project, on published works and on external, read. The late poet Anwar al-Ghassani “Kirkuk, 1918–1968: Oil and the particularly British, sources.4 published an enlightening essay about Politics of Identity in an Iraqi City,” I the Kirkuk Group on his personal aim to contribute to these existing efforts Works of Memory website in English in 2003 which, like to shift the focus of histories of Iraq There are several well-known memoirs Azzawi’s, situates the group’s origins onto the provinces. To do so, I analyze by prominent Iraqi politicians of the in the context of Kirkuk’s artistic and FALL 2011 PAGE 11 literary culture of the 1950s, with an and English to make a predetermined era British officials housed in various even greater attention to details like the argument about the city’s character from institutions such as the Middle East names of people associated with the a Kurdish perspective.13 These books Centre Archive at St. Antony’s College, group.8 Due to the generally increased are useful for understanding Kurdish Oxford. My project relies mostly on scrutiny of Kirkuk’s history today, and discourse on Kirkuk, particularly with these documents, as do the majority of thanks in part to English translations regard to the Ba‘th-era “Arabization” political histories of Iraq written in the of the work of Azzawi and of Kirkuk policy that resulted in the expulsion of past few decades. Group poet Sargon Boulus, it appears large numbers of Kurds and Turkmens However, before using these kinds that the group’s work is becoming the from the city and its surrounding areas. of sources, it is crucial to gain a sense subject of renewed attention.9 Studies of Yet I have found that they tend to offer of what they distort and omit. As Orit the group by literary scholars may enrich little original information of interest to Bashkin, among others, has noted, historians’ work on Kirkuk’s social researchers looking for primary-source the information recorded by British history in the future. materials. A Kurdish scholar has told authorities reflects their colonialist There are also many histories of me that memoirs written in Kurdish by interests and fears, even in the subtleties Kirkuk published in Turkish, and politically active Kurds, most of whom of the language used to describe different occasionally translated into English, spent time in Kirkuk between 1958 groups in Iraqi society. Furthermore, by members of the city’s Turkmen and 1975, could potentially be a useful relying on British archives to understand community. While these books seek to source of information about the city’s Iraqi perspectives “silences voices not advance preconceived political ideas, politics in the revolutionary era, though recorded in the British archives.”14 a few of them nevertheless constitute these memoirs have generally not been Researchers who use official British useful works of memory because they translated into any other language. documents to write Iraqi history are exhaustively document various aspects already aware of the need to separate of the community and of the city’s Official British Documents empirically true observations and data heritage and culture from a Turkmen Official British archival documents are from British colonial perspectives. At perspective. Hence, a book by Suphi by far the most fruitful sources freely the same time, though, it is necessary Saatçi, an architect from Kirkuk who available to historians of the politics for them to contemplate the reasoning now lives in Istanbul, aims to make of modern Iraq, and they are equally behind the British perspectives they the case that Kirkuk is historically valuable to those who are interested in encounter, as well as to consider which Turkmen through extensive use of provincial history. These documents Iraqi viewpoints are not represented original photographs and descriptions include Colonial Office, Foreign Office, at all within the document’s particular of the oldest parts of Kirkuk’s urban War Office, Air Ministry, and Labour framework of British interests and fabric.10 Other books contain the names Ministry files at the National Archives the significance of these omissions. of prominent Kirkuki Turkmens, such of the United Kingdom; India Office This methodical and careful approach as newspaper publishers and singers, records at the British Library; and the is especially essential when using with short descriptions of their activities; private papers and memoirs of mandate- official British sources to write Iraqi these are of interest to those provincial history. Documents concerned with the social on the provinces often focus history of Kirkuk.11 A book myopically on either rural boldly (and tellingly) titled tribal politics in hinterlands Kerkük Soykırımları, “Kirkuk’s or the activities of a limited Genocides,” which lists the number of urban notables in the names of Turkmen victims of cities, a fact that is indicative twentieth-century massacres of the British approach to in the city, gives a sense of maintaining authority at that how the Turkmen community particular moment. In addition, responded to and interpreted extant documents from most urban violence.12 areas outside of Baghdad Much like Turkmen authors, are fragmented, having been a number of Kurdish authors distributed among many Figure 2.1. Two boys stand in front of a wall in Kirkuk’s from the region have written different types of files and often Arrapha Estate. Source: DSIR 4/3021, National Archives of the histories of Kirkuk in Arabic having been lost or destroyed; United Kingdom. PAGE 12 TAARII NEWSLETTER this makes it more difficult to draw solid several Iraqi cities, including Baghdad, a straightforward process, especially conclusions from them. Kirkuk, Sulaymaniyya, Amara, and for scholars based in the West who are That said, after persistent sifting, Karbala. The Constantinos A. Doxiadis conducting their work mostly or entirely the fragments are plentiful enough to Archives are housed at the Benaki outside of Iraq. It can be a productive allow one to make ample analytical Museum in Athens and the materials endeavor, however, if researchers observations for a major study. One there are mostly in English. use a variety of types of archival and strategy that I found useful was to seek While these kinds of sources have published sources, both governmental files on topics that were not directly some of the same drawbacks as official and non-governmental. Often, these related to the urban history of Kirkuk, British ones, they are also useful as a sources must be sought and used in but that could provide relevant data upon complement to British governmental creative and unexpected ways. By their a careful reading. For instance, a search documents because the companies’ very nature, provincial histories of Iraq through files from the British Labour interests and local positions were require the researcher — and, eventually, Ministry’s International Labour Division distinct from those of British diplomats the reader — to read against the grain of and Overseas Department (series LAB and authorities. The IPC and Doxiadis narratives and sources that are usually 13) reveals numerous reports on local papers contain accounts of meetings centered in Baghdad. politics and working conditions in and correspondence with local officials Iraqi industries, including a few on the in Kirkuk that illuminate the municipal 1 Nelida Fuccaro, The Other Kurds: Yazidis Iraq Petroleum Company, which was and provincial governments’ concerns in in Colonial Iraq (London: I.B. Tauris, 1999); Kirkuk’s single largest employer.15 One ways that memoranda and reports written Reidar Visser, Basra, the Failed Gulf State: of the more unusual examples I found of by British diplomats often do not. For Separatism and Nationalism in Southern interesting information in an unexpected instance, when Doxiadis visited Kirkuk Iraq (Piscataway: Transaction Publishers, place was a series of photographs in 1955, local officials gave him details 2005). of Kirkuk in a 1950s Department of about rural-to-urban migration in the 2 Thabit Abdullah, Merchants, Mamluks and Scientific and Industrial Research file on province, including its underlying causes Murder: The Political Economy of Trade 16 brick efflorescence. The caption of one and the problems resulting from it, that he in Eighteenth Century Basra (Albany: 17 photograph of two boys standing in front subsequently recorded in his diary. This State University of New York Press, of a salt-covered wall in Kirkuk’s then- was a topic that was relevant to him as 2001); Gökhan Çetinsaya, The Ottoman recently built Arrapha Estate (fig. 2.1) someone who was planning housing for Administration of Iraq, 1890–1908 (London: only describes the bricks, but the photo the city, but would not have concerned Routledge, 2006); Dina Rizk Khoury, State is one of the clearest images I have the British government as greatly. and Provincial Society in the Ottoman found of what the new neighborhood, Similarly, IPC correspondences are Empire: Mosul, 1540–1834 (Cambridge: not to mention its inhabitants, looked especially important sources to analyze Cambridge University Press, 1997); Sarah Shields, Mosul Before Iraq: Like Bees like from the ground. in order to gain a deeper understanding Making Five-Sided Cells (Albany: State of Kirkuk’s labor affairs, since the University of New York Press, 2000). Papers of Corporations and Firms company’s employees and their families 3 Two of the best-known examples are Wadie Another way to glean information about were estimated to total about 30,000 Jwaideh, The Kurdish National Movement: areas like Kirkuk is to seek the papers people, or about 30 to 40 percent of 18 Its Origins and Development (Syracuse: of companies that operated there in Kirkuk’s population, by the late 1940s. Syracuse University Press, 2006); David the relevant time period. Since Kirkuk These papers are an abundant source of McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds, was the center of Iraq’s oil industry information on the needs and grievances 3rd ed. (London: I.B. Tauris, 2007). throughout much of the twentieth of company employees and the responses 4 See, for example, Kamal Muzhir Ahmad, century, the papers of the Iraq Petroleum of the company and local government to Karkuk wa-Tawabi‘uha: Hukm al-Tarikh Company (IPC), housed in the BP the emergence of organized labor in the wa-l-Damir (Arbil: Matba‘at Rinwin, n.d.); Archive at the University of Warwick in city. Both the IPC and Doxiadis papers Yücel Güçlü, The Turcomans and Kirkuk Coventry, are an obvious place to look. also contain many maps and photographs (Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2007). Another source that has proven to be of Kirkuk, which are essential sources in 5 Muhammad Hadid, Mudhakkirati: Al-Sira‘ valuable is the archive of the papers of the writing of urban history. Min Ajl al-Dimuqratiyya fi al-‘Iraq (Beirut: the Greek architect and urban planner Dar al-Saqi, 2006). Conclusions Constantinos A. Doxiadis and his firm, 6 Fadhil al-‘Azzawi, “Qissat Jil al-Sittinat fi Doxiadis Associates. Doxiadis created In all, researching the provincial history al-‘Iraq,” Faradis 4/5 (1992): 25–34; Sarkun housing and other types of plans for of Iraq in the twentieth century is not Bulus, “Al-Hajis al-Aqwa: Khawatir Hawl FALL 2011 PAGE 13 al-Sittinat,” Faradis 4/5 (1992): 37–43; the-master-of-the-banquet-by-sargon-boulus. Stanford University Press, 2009), 7–8. Anwar al-Ghassani, “Al-Sittinat, Hunaka, Antoon has published several translations of 15 See, for example, W. J. Hull, “Visit to Huna, Hunalika: Al-Hubb, al-Hurriyya, al- Boulus’s poetry through Jadaliyya since the I.P.C., Kirkuk Fields, 15–18 August 1950,” Ma‘rifa,” Faradis 4/5 (1992): 55–62. magazine’s establishment in 2010. August 1950, LAB 13/672, National 7 Fadhil al-‘Azzawi, Al-Ruh Al-Hayya: Jil al- 10 Suphi Saatçi, The Urban Fabric and Archives of the United Kingdom, London Sittinat fi al-‘Iraq (Damascus: Dar al-Mada, Traditional Houses of Kirkuk, trans. Mehmet (hereinafter UK). 1997), 279–317. Bengü Uluengin (Istanbul: Kerkük Vakfı, 16 DSIR 4/3021, UK. 8 Anwar al-Ghassani, “The Rose and Its 2007). 17 Constantinos A. Doxiadis, “7.12.55, The Fragrance: The Kirkuk Group/Fifty Years of 11 Ata Terzibaşı, Kerkük Hoyratları ve City of Kirkuk,” Iraq Diary DOX.Q.7, Presence in Iraqi Culture” (2003), accessed Manileri (Istanbul: Ötüken Yayınevi, 1975); 1955, Archive Files 23874, Constantinos A. 31 August 2011, http://al-ghassani.net/ Ata Terzibaşı, Kerkük Matbuat Tarihi, 2nd ed. Doxiadis Archives, Athens. an-kirkuk-and-kirkuk-group/kirkuk-group- (Istanbul: Kerkük Vakfı, 2005). 18 See, for example, File 135819, 12 essay-2003.html. Şemsettin Küzeci, Kerkük Soykırımları BP Archive, University of Warwick, 9 See for example: Fadhil al-Azzawi, The (Ankara: Teknoed Yayınları, 2004). Coventry, for its documentation of Last of the Angels, trans. William Hutchins 13 See, for example, Ahmad, Karkuk politically motivated housing schemes (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, wa-Tawabi‘uha; Nouri Talabany, The for oil workers. For the figure of 30,000 2007); Sinan Antoon, “‘To the Master of the Arabization of the Kirkuk Region (Arbil: IPC workers and their families in Kirkuk, Banquet’ by Sargon Boulus,” Jadaliyya (30 Aras Press, 2004). see M. T. Audsley, “Report on Visit to May 2011), accessed 31 August 2011, http:// 14 Orit Bashkin, The Other Iraq: Pluralism Iraq from 8th June to 10th July, 1948,” FO www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/1715/to- and Culture in Hashemite Iraq (Stanford: 371/68482, UK.

TIGLATH-PILESER I: A KING WHO LIT UP THE “DARK AGE” OF THE LATE SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C.1

Joshua Jeffers, University of Pennsylvania

Although Assyria was not initially a of their capital at Assur, modern day leading a campaign to the Mediterranean member of the so-called great states of Qal῾at Šarqāṭ located approximately 160 coast; he also put pressure on Babylonia the Amarna period — which included miles north–northwest of Baghdad. The when he defeated his southern neighbor Egypt, Babylonia, Ḫatti, and Mitanni political and administrative structures of in two major battles. This re-constituted — it suddenly rose to prominence in the many of the other Near Eastern powers territorial state endured for the majority mid-14th century b.c. when it quickly also collapsed at this time, resulting in of his rule as king. It was only toward acquired territory from Mittani in the a “dark age” for scholars, named for the his reign’s end that Aramean pressure west and Babylonia in the south, thus dearth of written documentation that is could no longer be withstood. They gaining international influence. This necessary for historical reconstruction. helped erode the Assyrian kingdom, expanded polity reached its height in This seemed to be the fate of the once continuing to do so even after Tiglath- the 13th century b.c. under Shalmaneser strong Assyrian state as well. pileser I’s death in 1076 b.c., until I and Tukulti-Ninurta I, when it helped Political fortunes shifted when Assyria was finally swept into almost to dismantle the once powerful Mitanni Aššur‑rēša-išī stabilized Assyria in complete obscurity during Aššur-bēl- kingdom, checked Ḫatti’s movements the late-12th century b.c. and laid kala’s rule in the mid-11th century b.c. eastwards, and even struck at the heart a foundation for the renewal of the This state of affairs lasted for almost 150 of Kassite territory with its conquest of kingdom. It is within this environment years until the Neo-Assyrian kings at the Babylon in 1225 b.c. After this period that Tiglath-pileser I ascended to the end of the 10th and beginning of the 9th of stability, however, Assyria was beset throne of Assyria in 1114 b.c. He seized centuries b.c. ushered in a new period of with political turmoil as its centralized upon his father’s progress, launching expansion and empire building. administrative system weakened and it numerous military campaigns to re- This brief survey of Near Eastern lost control over much of the land it had establish Assyria’s power. In the course history highlights the importance of acquired. This territorial state receded of his nearly forty-year reign, he resisted Tiglath-pileser I’s reign over Assyria.2 to its pre-expansion borders of the early the encroachment of groups of semi- At a time when documentation was 14th century b.c. and the Assyrian nomadic Arameans and reclaimed meager throughout most of the Near kings ruled only a small region north Assyria’s western territories, even East, Tiglath-pileser I revived Assyria’s PAGE 14 TAARII NEWSLETTER administrative apparatus. The Assyrian in an apparent chronological order of provide the names and titles of officials bureaucracy produced hundreds of clay when they were carried out. This literary working within the administrative cuneiform tablets that are invaluable technique removed the sometimes machinery — one example is Aplīya, for reconstructing the history, economy, sloppy and confusing organization of the great palace administrator, who was and culture of this time. Most of the previous kings’ inscriptions, and thus set in charge of making sure the system ran research concerning the Middle Assyrian the standard that the later Assyrian kings smoothly. These texts give us interesting period has centered on the kings of the followed and continued to develop. insights into how the bureaucracy of 14th–13th centuries b.c. for whom there Furthermore, Tiglath-pileser I is the the state functioned, even at the lowest is even more substantial documentation. first king to include a lengthy account levels where temple workers would Consequently, Tiglath-pileser I and the of his hunting expeditions in the royal borrow grain from the central storehouse corpora of cuneiform texts dating to his inscriptions, which was placed directly in order to complete their daily work reign have only been cursorily discussed after his military accounts. In this way, assignments of making bread or beer. in various articles, and a systematic Tiglath-pileser I makes the ideological The economic texts are also an investigation of his rule over Assyria claim that hunting wild animals is the invaluable source for data relating to the has yet to be conducted. The recent same as defeating political foes; this correct sequence of eponym names that publication of hundreds of cuneiform defines enemy space as a dangerous make up the yearly dating system. In documents from the early twentieth wilderness which must be overcome Assyria, kings did not utilize a numerical century German excavations of Assur through combat. Later Assyrian kings system for keeping track of the year date, and recent archaeological excavations of continue to use this motif in their annals, as with modern calendars (e.g., 2011). settlements under Assur’s administrative and a few of the Neo-Assyrian kings Rather, each year was named after an umbrella in the Ḫabur River Valley have visually produce the metaphor upon their important official in the Assyrian court, set the stage for a detailed examination palace reliefs, depicting hunting scenes of this king and his place in Assyrian alongside military conquests. history.3 My dissertation project aims With respect to the administration to situate Tiglath-pileser I’s rule in of Tiglath-pileser I’s kingdom, the its broader historical context within aforementioned publication of numerous the Near East and also to examine economic tablets from the capital city’s diachronically his role as a transitional archive has been quite valuable in figure from the small Middle Assyrian determining the scope of Tiglath-pileser kingdom to the later Neo-Assyrian I’s realm and the style of its governance. empire. While my discussion of Tiglath- Unlike the royal inscriptions that present pileser I’s reign here must admittedly a propagandized view of the kingdom, be relatively general as my dissertation economic texts preserve more “realistic” research is still in progress, I will call data concerning the extent of Assyria’s attention to several key topics pertaining territorial borders. Documents of this to Tiglath-pileser I’s tenure as king of type are useful in delimiting the extent of Assyria. his kingdom since they often contain the One important way in which the names of the cities that delivered tribute Assyrian kings expressed their political to Assur (in Akkadian called the ginā᾽u, power and dominance, as well as codified “regular offerings”), thus demonstrating the ideology of the state, was through that Assyria likely held administrative their royal inscriptions which recorded authority over them. These records the kings’ epithets, genealogy, military show that while Tiglath-pileser I directly activities, and building projects. Some ruled a smaller territorial area than his of Tiglath-pileser I’s most significant predecessors at the height of the Middle modifications to Assyrian historiography Assyrian period, his control over this are his changes to the literary structure area was secure throughout the full 4 of the royal inscriptions. Tiglath- length of his reign. In addition to this Figure 3.1. BM 91033. Octagonal clay pileser I is the first king to organize the information, the economic documents prism inscribed with a royal inscription of inscriptions according to the sequence preserve the everyday administrative Tiglath-pileser I (© Trustees of the British of his military campaigns, placing them activities of the kingdom and frequently Museum). FALL 2011 PAGE 15 and the cuneiform tablets created in that themselves outside of the ideology of for its support of the project. The provided year were inscribed with the name of this the centralized authority. One example monies were helpful in funding a month- individual, called an eponym (Akkadian of this is found in a royal inscription long stay in Berlin, where I was able to līmu). Then, in order to preserve the of Aššur-kettī-lēšir discovered at Tell transcribe, collate, and translate numerous proper chronological sequence of Bdēri.6 In this text, Aššur-kettī-lēšir is cuneiform tablets that are housed in the Vorderasiatisches Museum. I would like to officials, the scribes composed lists of called “king of the land of Mari,” but express my gratitiude to Dr. Joachim Marzahn eponym for reference. Unfortunately, then in the colophon, the inscription at the VAM for placing the requested tablets the eponym list we possess for Tiglath- is dated to “the time of Tiglath-pileser at my disposal. Furthermore, I would like pileser I is badly damaged; it only I, king of Assyria, his lord.” This text to thank Dr. Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum of the preserves the eleven eponyms at the end implies that Aššur-kettī-lēšīr, as “king” Freie Universität. She kindly met with me on of his reign, but even these names are of another land, had some type of several occassions during my stay to discuss in a very fragmentary condition. Earlier autonomous authority separate from this dissertation project and, as an expert scholars, such as Claudio Saporetti the central Assyrian government, but in the Middle Assyrian period, provided and Helmut Freydank, have worked yet was still under the influence of the valuable constructive criticism and excellent on reconstructing the Middle Assyrian Assyrian ruler. Neither Aššur-kettī-lēšir advice. 2 sequence of eponyms, but they have nor the land of Mari appear in the royal For a detailed examination of the history not been able to recreate the entire inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser I, nor do of the broader ancient Near East as a whole, sequence.5 With the recent publication they appear in the economic texts from see Amélie Kuhrt, The Ancient Near East c. 3000–330 BC, 2 vols. (New York: Routledge, of new cuneiform documents, many Assur up this point. So archaeological 1995). For a closer look at specific events of which contain eponyms, I have activity at one of the peripheral sites during the reign of Tiglath-pileser I, see identified new eponyms that belong has supplied a text which points to a Donald J. Wiseman, “V. Tiglath-pileser to Tiglath-pileser I’s time period and relationship between the Assyrian ruler I” and “VI. Pressures from the West” in have further refined the sequence of and one of the peripheral areas that Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 2/2: eponyms for his reign. As a result, a neither the Assyrian royal inscriptions History of the Middle East and the Aegean more accurate chronological context nor the economic documents do, thus Region c. 1380–1000 B.C., 3rd Edition, can be provided for Tiglath-pileser I’s demonstrating that the connection edited by I. E. S. Edwards, C. J. Gadd, N. G. tablets. Furthermore, by charting out between the king and his kingdom is L. Hammond, and E. Sollberger (Cambridge: the individuals who are specifically much more complex and variegated than Cambridge University Press, 1975), 457–71. 3 mentioned in tablets containing known the official documentation of the state The vast majority of newer texts have been eponyms, it is now possible to assign admits. published by Helmut Freydank in several other tablets to Tiglath-pileser I’s rule In conclusion, by integrating the volumes of the series Wissenschaftliche Veröffentlichungen der Deutschen Orient- even if they lack an eponym date based information from newly published Gesellschaft (Saarbrücken: Saarbrücker upon the presence of these specific texts with those that have long been Druckerei und Verlag; Wiesbaden: individuals, though the tablets can only known, and by incorporating recent Harrassowitz Verlag) under the title be given a relative position in his reign. archaeological discoveries from the Mittelassyrische Rechtsurkunden und One final approach for examining settlements outside the Assyrian core, a Verwaltungstexte. New texts also appear Tiglath-pileser I’s kingdom that I will clearer and more complete picture has in several other publications, which are too mention here is the excavation of sites emerged for Tiglath-pileser I’s role in numerous to name individually here. For a along the upper Ḫabur River, such as this “dark age” of ancient Near Eastern detailed survey of the archaeological material Tell Bdēri, Tell Ṭābān, and Tell Barri. history. It is my intention and hope that from the Middle Assyrian period, see Aline The information collected during future studies will be able to use this Tenu, L’expansion médio-assyrienne: these archaeological investigations comprehensive examination of Tiglath- approche archéologique (BAR International has proved vital in illuminating the pileser I’s reign as a foundation that can Series 1906; Oxford: John and Erica Hedges, 2009). relationship between the Assyrian core be supplemented with newer textual and 4 Tiglath-pileser I’s royal inscriptions are and the settlements on the periphery archaeological data whenever it becomes available in A. Kirk Grayson, Assyrian that were subservient to it. While textual available. Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC documentation from these locations is I (1114–859) (The Royal Inscriptions certainly not as abundant as that found in 1 This paper is a condensed overview of of Mesopotamia, Assyrian Periods 2; the capital city, these texts are crucial to the research that I am conducting for my Toronto: University of Toronto Press, a study of this period since they present dissertation thesis at the University of 1991). For an earlier examination of the how the people of the settlement viewed Pennsylvania. I would like to thank TAARII Assyrian royal inscriptions and many of PAGE 16 TAARII NEWSLETTER their features, see Rykle Borger, Einleitung Claudio Saporetti, Gli eponimi medio-assiri Beiträge zur mittelassyrischen Chronologie in die assyrischen Königsinschriften, (Bibliotheca Mesopotamica 9; Malibu: und Geschichte (Schriften zur Geschichte 1. Das Zweite Jahrtausend v. Chr. mit Undena Publications, 1979). A significant und Kultur des alten Orients 21; Berlin: Verbesserungen und Zusatzen (Leiden: E. reworking of the eponyms that incorporated Akademie Verlag, 1991). J. Brill, 1961). data from numerous cuneiform texts 6 Stefan Maul, Die Inschriften von Tall Bderi 5 Initial work on the eponyms of the housed in the Vorderasiatisches Museum in (Berliner Beiträge zum Vorderen Orient, Text Middle Assyrian period was carried out by Berlin was then done by Helmut Freydank, 2; Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1992).

IRAQ UNDER THE SANCTIONS: ECONOMIC, POLITICAL, SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL EFFECTS

The sanctions imposed on Iraq in 1990 relation to the populace, who suffered U.N. Humanitarian Coordinator for were the most severe ever laid upon drastic reductions in economic resources, Iraq and author of A Different Kind a country, and the thirteen years that health, and education. More telling was of War (2006), gave an insider’s view they lasted can be argued to have had the tearing of the social fabric, with a of how the U.N. functioned, how the far more devastating and long-lasting great rise in criminal behavior. Yet, at the definition of Sanctions was understood effects on the populace than the three same time, the strength and resilience of in different ways by various powers, and wars that Iraqis suffered since 1980. To the Iraqis brought about a resurgence how the day-to-day administration of assess these effects, TAARII, with the in national culture. Hundreds of young the humanitarian aid was made difficult co-sponsorship of the British Institute people began to learn traditional music or impossible by the U.S. and Britain. for the Study of Iraq (BISI), convened a (maqam), and Iraqi artists and writers, He stated that the sanctions not only three-day conference in Amman, Jordan, blocked from foreign developments, contributed to the human catastrophe in from September 23–25, 2011. looked into themselves and Iraq’s Iraq, but they violated international law In his introduction, McGuire Gibson millennia of culture to produce new and and damaged the credibility of the U.N. drew upon his experience in Iraq original art and literature. The Oil for Thus, the Iraqi regime and the U.N. between 1964 and 2003 to outline first Food program brought some relief, and share responsibility for the destruction of the creation of an impressive modern by 2001, it was obvious that the embargo the country. Von Sponeck’s predecessor, infrastructure in the 1970s, with general was breaking down. Before it could do Dennis Halliday, had resigned the post, prosperity, advances in public health so, however, there came the invasion. calling the Sanctions a form of genocide. and education. The coalition bombing Two keynote speakers laid out Disputes with the U.S. and Britain ended in 1991 destroyed that infrastructure, aspects of the role of the U.N. in the in von Sponeck’s resignation, despite the but after the war, Iraqis got the phones Sanctions. Hans von Sponeck, former backing he had from Kofi Annan. working in a month, the Complementing von Spo- electricity and refineries in neck’s presentation was the two months, and repaired more other keynoter, Joy Gordon, a than 100 bridges in a year. The philosopher and ethicist at Fair- embargo on almost any kind field University, who presented of product, under “dual-use,” data from a variety of sources, blocked the import of spare including U.N. documents and parts to maintain the repaired interviews. She had initially infrastructure, vehicles, and begun to write a general book machinery that allow a modern on the ethics of sanctions, with country to function. But the Iraq as one chapter. Instead, she Sanctions served the more wrote an entire volume on Iraq important purpose of draining (Invisible War [2010]) because the technical ability from the the Iraqi embargo was such an country through the wholesale exceptional form of sanctions. exodus of people with Key to understanding the strin- advanced degrees. The embargo Figure 4.1. Hans von Sponeck, former U.N. Humanitarian gency of the Sanctions was the strengthened the regime in Coordinator for Iraq (Photo: Joan Porter MacIver). fact that after the collapse of the FALL 2011 PAGE 17

oil. The only real function of tribal groups, and the playing off of the Iraqi committee was to religious group against one another in give a 15-minute speech to order to maintain some power, but these the Security Council when moves created more problems. required. Loulouwa al-Rachid, an independent Wamidh Omar Nadhmi is a scholar from Paris, discussed the Iraqi senior political scientist from exopolity, meaning the Iraqis in exile Baghdad University who who formed a new political and cultural oversaw the implementation entity. Based on fieldwork in Iraq in of a humanitarian aid program 1997 and on interviews with exiles in Iraq during the 1990s. He in Europe, her study showed that the discussed Sanctions in relation process of state decay began with the Figure 4.2. Tamara Daghistani and Hala Fattah listen to to divine and international law Iran-Iraq War, when Iraq’s existence a conference presentation (Photo: Joan Porter MacIver). and questioned the sufficiency and future were internationalized, with of the medical and food an unprecedented amount of foreign Soviet Union, the U.S. was able to ex- supplies that the U.N. allowed to enter interference in Iraq’s affairs. The ercise unprecedented control over the Iraq. Sanctions era was characterized by a U.N. She delineated the workings of the Hudab al-Qubaysi, an Iraqi economist dysfunctional society inside Iraq, while various bodies involved in the Sanctions, now teaching in Amman, detailed the in the diaspora there developed a vibrant both in the U.N. and the U.S. govern- suffering of Iraqi families, having to sell debate. At the same time, there was a ment, all operating behind closed doors off family heirlooms and libraries to stay mass emigration of talent, corruption, with surprisingly little public account- alive. Crime rose to new heights, social forgery of higher degrees, and predation ability. She showed that the blocking and family bonds deteriorated, and child of public resources by individuals and of items was often arbitrary, even when labor became common, as students groups. Sectarianism became a unifying they were not on the proscribed list, dropped out to become breadwinners element in the exopolity during this which included the most mundane of for their families. The universities time. The politicians in the exopolity items. deteriorated because fewer students deconstructed and reconstructed Iraqi In the discussion, Mudhafar Amin, were able to attend, faculty emigrated, identity. Meanwhile, the Kurds inside historian and former ambassador, was and there were great difficulties in Iraq were creating their own narratives able to add an Iraqi perspective to the receiving textbooks and journals. She and an enshrinement of federalism. operations of the Sanctions. He was especially cites the lack of paper that Haydar Sa’id, an Iraqi philosopher the Director of the Compensation made it difficult even to photocopy and now at the Center for Iraqi Research Committee for the Iraqi government distribute books that did arrive. in Amman, addressed “Critical Trends from 1994–98. He views the Yihya al-Qubaysi, an Iraqi linguist in Iraqi Culture and the Birth of the Compensation payments to Kuwait and currently at the Institut français du Non-State Intellectual.” Prior to the other nationals affected by the Iraqi Proche-Orient in Amman, addressed 1990s, intellectuals were allied with invasion of Kuwait as the main method the disintegration of the state and the the government or with parties, not of “pillaging of Iraq.” Connected re-emergence of pre-state relations. He independent. With the Baath regime, directly to the Security Council, the went back to the founding of the Iraqi intellectuals became subjected, not Compensation Committee could only state, stating that Iraq stood on three partners. The weakening of the state accede to the directives from New pillars: legitimacy of the king, military during the Sanctions led to more York; no decision could be appealed. power, and oil. With the revolution despotic rule and greater attempts to There were 2.46 million claims, of 1958, the first pillar fell and was control religious institutions. But the including personal and corporate claims. replaced by a new regime. The 1991 war regime could not control the country, Corporations made claims, but each and the uprising afterwards degraded and there was some separation of partner in a corporation could also make the legitimacy of the Baath State, and intellectuals from the state. There arose a a claim, so they were paid double. Thirty the subsequent degrading of the army in systematic critique of homeland, nation, percent of the Oil for Food money went favor of party power eroded the second and patriotism, especially in poetry. to compensation payments. And, on top pillar, while the Sanctions reduced the Some daring plays also were presented. of that, the 200 employees involved with oil flow. The regime resorted to the In his view, novels were on the sidelines, the compensations were paid from Iraqi manipulation of and even creation of and were not central to this movement. PAGE 18 TAARII NEWSLETTER

Eric Davis, a political and the dinar became virtually scientist at Rutgers University, worthless. (Normally, a 2% then insisted that although there drop in GDP makes a country was despotism in the 1990s, give in to pressure.) Long-term there was also resistance. The effects of the sanctions remain Sanctions curtailed legitimate grossly under-examined. The economic activity and Iraqis brain-drain was particularly increasingly turned to crime, damaging, with resignations especially the smuggling of oil and emigration far more and antiquities. But, despite effective than layoffs. The loss years of repressive rule, of productive capacity explains values from civil society and why rebuilding since 2003 has democracy that had existed in proceeded so slowly. During Figure 4.3. Conference participants discuss the various effects Iraq prior to 1963 persisted, the Sanctions, clan and sect of the Sanctions (Photo: Salam Taha). even under Saddam. Educated took the place of government or and professional families Glen Rangwala, from the Politics and other forms of civil society, and inculcated in their children values of International Studies Department at remain dominant players today. pluralism, tolerance, and democracy. Cambridge, is the co-author of Iraq in Addressing the effects of the Sanctions This “hidden generation” of the 1970s, Fragments, a study of the Occupation. on women, Asma Jameel Rasheed 1980s, and 1990s has contributed many In his contribution, he pointed out that Abu Nader of Baghdad University of the democracy activists now operating the Sanctions era has been forgotten by demonstrated the reversal of gains made in Iraq. the world. Major books on Iraq, such by women since 1958 and the growth The conference then turned to as those by Thomas Ricks and Larry of gender-based discrimination. She economics. Ahmad Ibraihi Ali al- Diamond, have only one mention of accounted for it partially in the need Alwash, former Deputy Governor of the Sanctions, and Gareth Stansfield’s book by the government to buy the loyalty Central Bank of Iraq, gave the ultimate sees no need to look at earlier history of tribal leaders in the 1990s, which insider’s view of the destruction of the because 2003 was transformational. allowed the emergence of tribes as a Iraqi economy. In 1980, Iraq had reserves During the 1990s, the government of Iraq social powerhouse with a patriarchal of 40 billion U.S. dollars. Because of the became a marginal actor in the economy agenda. The demise through emigration Iran-Iraq War, they were gone by 1983. because decisions were reserved for the and impoverishment of the middle class, The government borrowed, mainly from U.N. Security Council. The government which had been pro-woman, added Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, from 1984– focused on circumventing sanctions to the change, which was accelerated 88, creating an admitted 82 billion dollar and developing streams of revenue by attempts to Islamize Iraqi society. debt, though the figure was actually 127 outside official channels, while Iraqi Statistics show that women were, in the billion. The 1991 war destroyed vital citizens turned to entrepreneurial agents 1990s and still today, poorer than men, assets, and the Sanctions gnawed at the who acted outside the U.N.’s 661 and that female-headed households economy and society. The Oil for Food Committee. This informal economy are extremely vulnerable, with 89% in program saved Iraq, and it should have created networks of exchange and gave poverty. been accepted earlier. But, at the same local actors economic agency, and thus The psychological effects of the time, the program destroyed the private made them political powerbrokers. Sanctions will be felt for years. Faris sector. The international community had Rangwalla argues that understanding K. Omar Nadhmi, a psychologist at the decided to prevent Iraq from fixing its Iraq’s radical economic transformation University of Baghdad, has done studies economic woes. This situation explains under Sanctions helps explain the forms on the deterioration of social trust, using the quick collapse of the Iraqi economy of resistance and conflict that developed statistical reports and his own survey of after the invasion and the ease with during the Occupation. students at Baghdad University. As with which the U.S. was able to reorganize Bassim Yousif, an economist at the revival of polio, diphtheria, and other and structure the country as it is now. Indiana State University, stated that it diseases that had been in check before Political-ethnic conflict has created an was easy to sanction Iraq because of its 1991, psychological problems increased environment in which greed, corruption, geography. There are few export points, markedly, with, for instance, a 157% opportunism, and illicit gains from and the export is mostly oil. The GDP rise in depression. It had been a goal of public office have thrived. took a 75% plunge in two to three years, the Sanctions to undermine the mind- FALL 2011 PAGE 19 set, to remold the society. The Sanctions in the reconstruction of the universities for Iraqi masterpieces. Many of the contributed to the disintegration and in the Kurdish area, but it was the Oil better-known artists emigrated and fragmentation of the relationship for Food program (13% for the Kurdish are now dispersed around the world. between individuals and the state in area) that allowed a true revival. In the Inside Iraq, the response did not Iraq, resulting in alienation, nihilism, discussion session, a conferee asked how include pessimistic ideas nor were alien and resentment. His survey of students Kurdish universities could teach only in traditions introduced to the semi-poetic resulted in the following: the greatest Kurdish with a different curriculum and Iraqi art tradition, which has relied at distrust is for state institutions, followed texts from the rest of the country and least from the 1960s on literature as a by social groups, and then human nature. still pretend to be in a federal system. source of inspiration. Artists generally In his opinion, interpersonal trust is In answer, al-Najjar said that this is a ignored the regime’s directions since it so low that it will threaten the future dilemma. Arabic was not dropped but paid much less for art. There was a small of Iraq. But he has some hope because was neglected. There are few grade activist group that has lost its roots, Iraqis have survived under extraordinary schools teaching in Arabic. There is a being mostly outside Iraq. The “artists conditions. cultural disconnect from the rest of Iraq, of the 1980s,” who had served in the In considering the effect of Sanctions but the central government also ignores military and had seen the worst of times, on the intellectual life, first Sher Zad the issue and doesn’t interfere with the produced folklore-based semi-abstract Ahmad Ameen al-Najjar, professor of Kurdish Regional Government. works of high technical skill that were Political Science and Constitutional The next speaker, Muhammad Ghazi not influenced by Western artists due Law at Salaheddin University, Erbil, al-Akhras, a poet and literary critic to the isolation of the Sanctions. They reviewed the development of higher from Baghdad, delineated the response held collaborative exhibitions and even education in Iraq, going back to the of writers and publishers during the opened private galleries during the Ottoman period. With the setting up Sanctions. There were some shops 1990s. By the mid-1990s, the regime of the University of Baghdad in 1956 that specialized in the photocopying of failed to hold one successful exhibition, and Basra and Mosul in 1967, and with books, including textbooks, literature, unlike the private galleries. the establishment of new universities journals, novels, and books on the fine Whereas some would see the 1990s as around the country in the 1970s, Iraq arts. But because of the embargo on a time in which Iraqi artists rediscovered became renowned for higher education. paper, writers invented books the size their roots, Nada Shabout, an art But as a result of three decades of war of a hand, the so-called “palm books.” historian at University of North Texas, and sanctions, the universities were Especially important among the palm sees the generation of the 1980s as a politicized and lost their dynamic nature books were poems that were critical group who do not fit into either Iraqi art and ability to deliver quality education. both of the regime and the Sanctions. tradition or in the history of world art. The Sanctions played a key role in Because of the reduced format, genres The Venice Biennale of 2011 welcomed isolating, weakening, and impoverishing and literary styles changed, with shorter Iraq back to the “cultural stage” after the once renowned higher education poems, for example. Books were sold on thirty-five years of absence. All of institutions in Iraq, including those the streets like clothing and other items, the artists represented, however, were in the Kurdistan Region, even though and the selling was seen as a way of Iraqis living in Europe. Once considered it was no longer under government breaking the sanctions. It was the control. The Kurdish Region suffered Era of the Street. The production not only from the international of books outside official channels sanctions, but also from an embargo by was part of the nihilistic spirit that the Iraqi government. Saddam’s regime permeated during the 1990s. cut off contact with the Kurdish area Suheil Sami Nadir, an art and ordered all faculty there to leave; of critic and journalist now living the 700 faculty, all but 140 left, which in Amman, dealt with three crippled the universities for a time. issues: the artists’ responses to Then some of the 104 emigrated. The the Sanctions, the rise of private skeleton staff was further stressed by art galleries, and the giving the arrival at Salahedin University of up by the state of purchasing 8,000 high school graduates, for whom works of art at the same time there were no dorms, no stipends, and that there was an emerging pan- Figure 4.4. Asma Jameel Rasheed Abu Nader of no textbooks. International funds helped Arab and international market Baghdad University addresses the effects of the Sanctions on women (Photo: Joan Porter MacIver). PAGE 20 TAARII NEWSLETTER the most progressive art movement in McGuire Gibson ended the grand scale. The thousands of artifacts the region, Iraqi art was transformed presentations with a detailing of the that have been lost to Iraq are its cultural drastically by the Sanctions. Established drastic effects of the Sanctions on the heritage but also represent a great loss artists migrated and those left in Iraq archaeological heritage of Iraq. Drawing of monetary value. More important, felt alienated from the world. The on a tradition from the 1920s, the the destruction of sites will mean a loss Baghdad Art Institute and College of Antiquities service of Iraq had become of future employment for people who Fine Arts suffered from lack of faculty the best in the Middle East by the 1970s. might have worked with archaeologists, and resources and State patronage With a strong Antiquities Law from and it will lower the number of potential dwindled. But new private galleries, 1936, Iraq had halted virtually all illegal tourist destinations, on which Iraq’s selling to the U.N. personnel in Iraq digging and smuggling of Mesopotamian economy will depend when the oil is no as well as outlets in Amman, allowed artifacts. From 1938 onwards, the longer flowing. During the Occupation, artists to make a living. The embargo department sent students to European the Antiquities organization has become limited the materials available, and, and U.S. universities for advanced a political football in sectarian rivalries. as with literature, new materials and degrees and by 1975, the department If it survives as an entity, it will take formats were developed. A major theme had thirteen Ph.D.s on its staff, and years for the organization to regain its was ruination or burning, with scorched there were equal or higher numbers former level of professionalism. art works. In Shabout’s view, although in the universities around the country. In general discussions with a isolation led to a purity of vision that was The Iran-Iraq War reduced budgets, but highly engaged audience, a number Iraqi instead of European, the Sanctions the organization still functioned well. of issues were raised, along with crippled art because the production of In the uprisings following the Gulf recommendations for future action. It the 1990s lost its place in tradition. This War, nine out of the thirteen regional was pointed out that a major topic that has resulted in an inferiority complex in museums were looted by mobs and was not covered in the sessions was some artists who feel they are outside the more than 5,000 objects were stolen. the role of the neighboring countries mainstream but, conversely for others, a This looting spree gave birth to an in the Sanctions, perhaps a focus for superiority complex: “We stayed.” After orgy of illegal digging on hundreds of another conference. The conferees the 2003 war, many artists thought they archaeological sites in southern Iraq were assured that their papers would be would be able to return to Iraq, but under throughout the 1990s. The looting was published, with Magnus Bernhardsson, the Occupation many of those who not entirely random, as dealers abroad Bassim Yousif, and Lucine Taminian as “stayed” have left Iraq. Oddly enough, working through Iraqis sent men to loot editors. The sessions were all recorded, there is now great interest in Iraqi art, specific sites. Major new Mesopotamian including the simultaneous translations spurred in part by the theft of hundreds collections were formed in Europe, that everyone agreed were outstanding, of pieces from the National Art Gallery, America, and Japan during the 1990s and thus the discussions will be reflected which Shabout and the late Muhammad and new ones have come into existence, in the book. Beth Kangas and Lucine Ghani have been trying to document and especially in the Emirates, since the Taminian were acknowledged for their recover. 2003 war, when looting resumed on a excellent organizing of the conference.

DONNY GEORGE YOUKHANA DISSERTATION PRIZE

We are pleased to announce that the family of the late Dr. Donny George, the former Director of the Iraq Museum and President of the State Board of Antiquities who passed away in March, gave TAARII permission to name its biennial dissertation prize in the ancient category in his honor. TAARII awarded the first Donny George Youkhana Dissertation Prize to Dr. Karen Sonik, who received her Ph.D. in 2010 from the University of Pennsylvania in the Art and Archaeology of the Mediterranean World graduate program. Her dissertation is entitled, “Demon-Haunted Universe: Conception of the Supernatural in Mesopotamia.” TAARII did not award a prize in the Dr. Karen Sonik modern category this year. The next competition will be in 2013 for dissertations defended in the academic years 2011–2012 and 2012–2013. FALL 2011 PAGE 21

IRAQI STUDENT PROJECT: PROGRESS REPORT

Gabe Huck and Theresa Kubasak

In the Spring 2010 TAARII Newsletter, These ten Iraqi students, aged 18 to 24, Issue 05-01, we wrote of the Iraqi completed ten months of daily studies Student Project (ISP), then in its third in Damascus with Iraqi Student Project year. Ours is a non-governmental (ISP) volunteers: academic writing, organization, operating from Damascus critical reading, listening skills, math, but dedicated to providing Iraqi students giving presentations, learning to bridge with an entree into American educational the differences between educational institutions. We thank TAARII for systems, composing application essays allowing us to report on our work. Here and gathering letters of recommendation, we provide an update on our efforts. searching for and finding transcripts from Figure 5.2. Saif is now a student at the Ten new Iraqi students are settling in high school in Iraq or Syria, rehearsing University of Great Falls, Montana. at nine U.S. colleges/universities: Ziad visa interviews, even preparing Iraqi to Dartmouth; Mohammed to Tufts; recipes for a cookbook. individuals, congregations of religious Mimoon to Worcester Polytechnic ISP never asks for any payment from women and men, the Mennonite Central Institute; Sarah to the University of students or families. We are a retired Committee, and foundations devoted Rochester; Huda and Ali to Berea couple who can live in Damascus on to peace and justice. It doesn’t take all College in Kentucky; Sarab to Loyola our U.S. Social Security payments and that much. We never seek government University in Chicago; Anas to Lewis keep busy with the daily challenges money from any source. University near Joliet; Saif to the of what we envisioned more than four Each June since 2009 we have University of Great Falls; and Mustafa years ago as a modest and workable published a book, printed and bound to Gonzaga University in Spokane. way for Americans to make reparation in Damascus: The River, The Roof, The Nothing was easy for Iraqi students to Iraqis and for each to learn about the Palm Tree. In this book, the students moving from Damascus to college other. ISP students reflect the diversity speak for themselves. This year one this year. F-1 visas with intention to of Iraq. They are majoring in a variety section includes their writing about a return were secured despite troubles at of subjects and see their life’s work in photo exhibit they visited at the French the U.S. embassy. Airline tickets were a wide spectrum of possibilities from Cultural Center in Damascus. The purchased on the ever-fewer flights from engineering to NGO work, from interior photos were the work of a Syrian news Damascus. Then came the long farewells design to physics, from health care to photographer. ISP student Ali described to parents and siblings, aunts and uncles business. Just what one would expect. a photo taken in Baghdad shortly after in Baghdad and Damascus, and the Since 2007 Iraqi students have worked the 2003 invasion: hearty welcomes from new friends and with us in Damascus from September During the chaos in Baghdad, support groups in Boston and Chicago to July each year: 53 were accepted at thieves were stealing from the and beyond. U.S. colleges and received F-1 visas. government buildings. In this photo, Six have since been separated from ISP an American soldier has a prisoner because of change in non-immigrant who might be one of these Iraqi status, or academic or behavioral thieves. In my point of view we problems; 46 continue their studies, and now have two thieves in one photo! one has graduated (in three years, thanks The American used the handcuffs to to credits accepted from the University arrest the Iraqi. But my question to of Baghdad) and has received an the soldier is: Who is going to arrest assistantship to continue for his graduate you? Both of them are thieves. The degree. Iraqi was stealing from his home. The two of us returned to Syria in The American soldier was stealing September to begin the cycle again with the land that belongs to Iraqis. yet another dozen or so students. On a dozen Saturdays in the winter/ Figure 5.1. Sarah is beginning her studies ISP is a 501(c)3 in the U.S. We spring of 2011 we gathered on Saturday at the University of Rochester, New York. depend on funds raised from generous afternoons for food and film. We PAGE 22 TAARII NEWSLETTER watched and discussed a dozen hours And here is “Seeing Baghdad of the “Eyes on the Prize” PBS series after Seven Years”: from the 1980s, the story of the civil rights movement, 1955–68. That is, Darkness is diminishing. Montgomery to Memphis. We were able Nothing but desert to deal with a part of U.S. history and stones and an open space. U.S. reality that offers the newcomer to They are mine, they know me. the U.S. much insight. Mimoon wrote: The sun is different. It is mine. I didn’t believe in the power of nonviolence until I saw “Eyes on the But “me” is not mine any more. Prize.” It changed my perspective on In the presence of this life and what I want. Using the mind magnitude before the hand is very powerful. I lost my legitimacy back there. The power of youth combined I blended in. with perseverance can change the In that other land my existence was being fulfilled. world. And the living example is the Figure 5.3. Students of the Iraqi Student Project. Egyptian revolution. Seven years have passed. Their book also shows how the students And now my lungs are being tried some poetry in English like these cleansed by your purifying scent. staff in the United States. See www. haiku poems: A remote whisper: “It has been a long iraqistudentproject.org. time.” Tea with cardamom Please contact us if you have Flies me back into Iraq: Members of TAARII and others who any questions or might want to Smell of home and hope. read this newsletter might want to become involved in our work or in make a connection to ISP. Our website outreach involving our students: I fall to the ground. is a good beginning and gives contact [email protected]. We thank The grass there stands up proudly. information for us in Damascus and TAARII for the good work of the Rise up — keep walking. for the ISP Board of Directors and organization and its members.

• INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS • For information on how to become a TAARII member, visit www.taarii.org. American Schools of Oriental Research Harvard University University of Arizona Hofstra University British Institute for the Study of Iraq Indiana State University Brown University University of Maryland, College Park University of California, Berkeley National University of Singapore Language Announcement New York University University of California, Santa Barbara As readers may be aware, TAARII is University of Notre Dame University of Chicago committed to producing a bilingual University of Pennsylvania Museum Columbia University newsletter in English and in Arabic. Portland State University We regret that we are now printing Duke University-University of North Rutgers University our newsletter in English only. We Carolina Consortium for Middle East Smithsonian Institution are seeking funds to resume printing Studies State University of New York, a bilingual newsletter and to include George Washington University full Arabic translations of English- Stony Brook Georgetown University language newsletters on our website. Williams College We appreciate your patience and understanding in the meantime. FALL 2011 PAGE 23

Figure 6.1. Scholars from Iraq, Europe, and the United States Figure 6.2. Junior and senior scholars participated in the discussed the effects of the 1990s Sanctions in Iraq (Photo: September 2011 conference on the Sanctions period in Iraq Salam Taha). (Photo: Salam Taha).

A Trip through the Marshes of Iraq, Summer 2011 (Photographer: Elizabeth C. Stone) TAARIIPAGE 24 TAARII NEWSLETTER The American Academic Research Institute in Iraq 3923 28th St., #389 • Grand Rapids, MI 49512 Ph. (773) 844-9658 • Fax (773) 288-3174 www.taarii.org

In this Issue “A July Journey to the Environs of Ur” Elizabeth C. Stone and Paul Zimansky 1 In Memoriam: Mohammed Ghani Hikmat 5 ABOUT TAARII Executive Director’s Report 6 TAARII has been formed by a consortium of universi- “Marriage as Migration” ties, colleges, and museums, which comprise its insti- Susan MacDougall 7 tutional membership. Each institution names a person to “Provincial Histories of Twentieth- act as its representative on the Board of Directors. In- Century Iraq” Arbella Bet-Shlimon 10 dividual Members elect additional Directors. The Offi- “Tiglath-Pileser I” Joshua Jeffers 13 cers, along with two members of the Board of Directors, “Iraq under the Sanctions” 16 comprise the Executive Committee, which is charged with assuring academic integrity, organizational over- Donny George Youkhana Dissertation sight, and financial and programmatic accountability. Prize Winner 20 “Iraqi Student Project” Gabe Huck & TAARII is a non-governmental organization and is incorpo- Theresa Kubasak 21 rated in the state of Illinois as a not for profit organization and has 501(c)3 status with the Internal Revenue Service.