FOOD INDUSTRY BRIEFING SERIES

Wine Production Vine to Bottle

Keith Grainger and Hazel Tattersall Food Industry Briefing Series

WINE PRODUCTION: VINE TO BOTTLE

Keith Grainger and Hazel Tattersall © K. Grainger & H. Tattersall 2005

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First published 2005 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Grainger, Keith. Wine production : vine to bottle/Keith Grainger and Hazel Tattersall. p. cm. — (Food industry briefing series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-14051-1365-6 (pbk.: acid-free paper) ISBN-10: 1-4051-1365-0 (pbk.: acid-free paper) 1. Wine and wine making. I. Tattersall, Hazel. II. Title. III. Series. TP548.G683 2005 641.2′2—dc22 2005005238

ISBN-13: 978-14051-1365-6 ISBN-10: 1-4051-1365-0

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For further information on Blackwell Publishing, visit our website: www.blackwellpublishing.com Contents

Series Editor’s Foreword ix Preface xii Acknowledgements xiv Introduction xv

Chapter 1 – The Basics 1 1.1 The structure of the berry 1 1.1.1 Stalks 2 1.1.2 2 1.1.3 Yeasts 2 1.1.4 Pulp 3 1.1.5 Pips 4 1.2 The grape vine 4 1.3 What is a grape variety? 5 1.4 Reasons for grafting 6 1.5 vastatrix 7 1.6 9 1.7 The lifespan of the vine 11

Chapter 2 Climate 12 2.1 Climatic requirements of the grape vine 12 2.1.1 Sunshine 12 2.1.2 Warmth 13 2.1.3 Cold winter 13 2.1.4 Rainfall 13 2.2 Climatic enemies of the grape vine 14 2.2.1 Frost 14 2.2.2 Hail 14

iii WINE PRODUCTION iv hpe et n iess34 24 Pests and Diseases Chapter 5 20 TheVineyard Chapter 4 Soil Chapter 3 . iess36 38 34 31 26 treatments Prevention and 24 5.3 Diseases 23 5.2 Important pests 5.1 25 30 23 growing The seasonand work in the 4.6 Irrigation 4.5 Pruning methods and management 4.4 22 Training systems 4.3 Density of planting of vines 18 4.2 location Vineyard 4.1 17 20 3.5 compatibility Soil 3.4 types Soil suitable for viticulture 3.3 Influence of soilsupon wine style 17 3.2 requirements Soil of the grape vine 3.1 15 Weather 2.6 climate of Impact 2.5 concept The of degree days 2.4 and Mesoclimate 2.3 .. te riigsses29 26 21 Other training systems 4.3.2 Main types of 4.3.1 20 21 16 16 15 16 mineral requirements Nutrient and 3.1.3 Fertility 3.1.2 drainage Good 15 15 3.1.1 trees and Woods 2.3.4 Aspect 2.3.3 Altitude 2.3.2 Water 2.3.1 heat Excessive 2.2.4 Strong winds 2.2.3 n ult 21 and quality iead32 vineyard

hpe niomna prahsi h iead39 Environmental Approachesin theVineyard Chapter 6 hpe h avs 44 TheHarvest Chapter 7 hpe iiiain–TeBsc 48 Vinification –TheBasics Chapter 8 hpe e ieMkn 54 Wine Red Making Chapter 9 hpe 0DyWieWn aig62 DryWhite Chapter 10 01Cuhn n rsig62 pressing Crushing and 10.1 . rai iiutr 40 42 39 viticulture Biodynamic 6.3 Organic viticulture 6.2 Integratedmanagement (IPM) pest 6.1 . tl n ult 47 45 44 Style and quality 7.3 Harvesting methods 7.2 picking the timingof ripeness and Grape 7.1 . ieyeupet50 49 48 Winery equipment 8.3 design Winery locationand 8.2 vinification principlesof Basic 8.1 . auain60 60 59 59 58 60 55 Maturation 9.9 Blending 54 9.8 Malolactic fermentation 9.7 Pressing 9.6 Racking 9.5 9.4 57 Fermentation,extraction control temperature and 9.3 Must preparation 9.2 crushing and Destemming 9.1 012Pesn 62 62 Pressing 10.1.2 Crushing 10.1.1 .. adpcig45 46 Machine picking 7.2.2 picking Hand 7.2.1 .. emnainvt 51 Fermentation vats 8.3.1 .. xrcin58 57 57 Extraction 9.3.3 Temperature control 9.3.2 Fermentation 9.3.1

CONTENTS v WINE PRODUCTION vi hpe 2Detailed Processes ofRedandWhite Chapter 12 65 Preparing WineforBottling Chapter 11 24Dsemn 79 78 79 78 71 71 Colour extraction,and concentration 73 12.6 dryness Fermenting to - musts 12.5 Destemming 12.4 cultured Natural yeasts or 70 12.3 spoilage topreventof gases Use 12.2 66 65 71 Wineand presses pressing 12.1 64 63 Closures 11.6 Bottling 63 11.5 64 Adjustment of sulphur dioxide levels 11.4 Stabilisation 11.3 Filtration 11.2 Fining 11.1 Maturation 10.5 Malolactic fermentation 10.4 Fermentation 10.3 Must preparation 10.2 265Rtr iiir 83 81 81 Rotary vinifiers 12.6.5 Rack and return (délestage) 79 12.6.4 74 76 overs Pump 12.6.3 Cold soaking (pre-fermentation 74 73 12.6.2 74 Must concentrators and reverse osmosis 12.6.1 Vertical basketpress 12.1.5 press Horizontal pneumatic 12.1.4 Horizontal platepress 67 12.1.3 67 Batch press 66 12.1.2 Continuous press 12.1.1 Membrane filtration 11.2.3 Sheet filtration 11.2.2 Earth filtration 11.2.1 268Fxn oor84 83 Fixing colour 12.6.8 Whole grape fermentation, carbonic and 12.6.7 Thermo-vinification –heat extraction 12.6.6 annblne79 tannin balance eicroi aeain83 semi-carbonic maceration aeain 81 maceration) ieMkn 73 Wine Making

hpe 5SakigWns97 Sparkling Chapter 15 91 Making Other Types ofStill Wine Chapter 14 87 BarrelMaturation andOakTreatments Chapter 13 53Tetaiinlmto 98 97 97 93 94 The traditional method 15.3 Second fermentation in bottle 15.2 Fermentation in sealedtank 89 15.1 91 Liqueur (fortified)wines 14.3 wines Rosé 14.2 wines Medium-sweet andsweet 14.1 87 Oak treatments 13.2 86 The influence of the barrel 13.1 85 Removal of excess alcohol 12.8 hyper-oxygenation Macro-, and micro- 12.7 531Pesn 98 99 99 95 94 First fermentation 92 15.3.3 Débourbage 96 15.3.2 Pressing 15.3.1 92 Other well-known liqueur wines 14.3.3 Port production 14.3.2 Sherry production 89 14.3.1 Sweet wines 88 14.1.2 88 Medium-sweetwines 14.1.1 Where barrels arestored 85 13.1.5 Amount of time spent in barrel 85 13.1.4 85 Manufacturingincluding techniques, 13.1.3 any (or and originofoak Type 13.1.2 of thebarrel Size 13.1.1 84 Micro-oxygenation 12.7.3 Macro-oxygenation 12.7.2 Hyper-oxygenation 12.7.1 Post-fermentation maceration 12.6.9 537Mtrto 100 99 100 99 Maturation 15.3.7 Second fermentation 15.3.6 Addition of liqueur de tirage 15.3.5 Assemblage 15.3.4 osig88 88 toasting other wood)

CONTENTS vii WINE PRODUCTION viii ne 127 114 122 124 Index Useful Websites Bibliography Glossary 109 CommonFaults andtheir Causes Chapter 17 103 Problems andSolutions Chapter 16 79Gomn113 113 113 112 112 110 111 111 109 Geosmin 17.9 Geraniol 17.8 Dekkera 17.7 Brettanomyces 17.6 Reductivity 17.5 Excessive sulphur dioxide 17.4 Excessive volatile acidity 17.3 Oxidation 17.2 2,4,6-Trichloroanisole 17.1 106 105 103 104 winemaking in Problems 16.4 Handling fruit in the winery 16.3 Coping with problems in the vineyard 16.2 – style and quality 16.1 648Crls otig108 108 107 106 107 107 106 bottling Careless Poor or over-filtration 16.4.8 Lack of attention to barrels 16.4.7 102 in post-fermentation racking Delays 16.4.6 of controlfermentations Lack 16.4.5 16.4.4 Problems with crushing, destemming or 102 100 of fruitselection Lack 16.4.3 in Delay processing fruit 16.4.2 102 16.4.1 102 Corking 15.3.12 Dosage(liqueurd’expedition) 15.3.11 Dégorgement pointes Stacking sur 15.3.10 Rémuage 15.3.9 15.3.8 rsig107 pressing

Series Editor’s Foreword

In the old wine producing countries and regions of Europe, wine has been easily available for generations and is a well established part of the dietary cultures of many nations. In more recent times the beverage has increased its visibility in the diets of people in countries not blessed with an indigenous wine industry, and the change is still underway. Now wines produced in the many, and increasing number of, wine producing regions of the world are being exported globally. Consumers from widely differing socio-economic groups are able to experience wine, and no longer can it be thought of as the preferred beverage of the privileged classes. Wine has come of age in the modern consumer marketplace. It is something that is enjoyed by all kinds of consumers, often at the expense of other beverages. A great deal of the credit for what we might term the democra- tisation of wine must go to producers in countries such as Australia, New Zealand, California and South Africa, as well as some adventurous Old World producers. They have worked hard over many years to produce high quality wines that appeal to modern tastes, and have developed highly efficient and flexible distribution networks that serve a global food marketplace. This said, credit must also go to the supermarkets which have helped to develop the consumers’ interest in wine, significantly by creating ways to inform people about wine. No longer does one have to be an expert to find and enjoy a drinkable wine. A great deal of useful information is now routinely provided on bottle labels and super- market shelves, thus guiding judgement, easing decision making, and increasing the likelihood that the money spent on a bottle of wine will be rewarded by the liquid in the bottle. Some people though, wish to know more about wine than can be found on

ix WINE PRODUCTION x modules, as well as students studying the subjects of food and drink. food and of thesubjects studying students as aswell modules, and courses tosupport books the use may who to academics knowledge easilyoncertain topics.The be series will also of benefit tackletowish togain heavytexts, do nothavethetime butwho who industry professionals benefit tobusy isofparticular food series and technology, with condensedworks that can be readquickly. The science andfood processing, productionand with aninterestfood in created toprovidepeople was specific producttype.Theseries a Briefing food service. from food science and technology to hospitality management and to be of importance to academics and students in fields ranging in thewine industry willfindthebookofgreat it utility. Also,Iexpect work those who as production well as in wine interest those withan professionals and non-professionals alike. Indeed,I amsure that achieved theirobjective, andamsure I the bookwill beof useto duce areadilyaccessible text which can be easilyread and topro- out set intentionally have Tattersall, Hazel and Grainger moreadvanced publications. In this respect, the authors, Keith starting point for a process of study which gradually takes in who wish to make aserious study of wine. It makes anideal those for topic the of knowledge specialist of development the from vine to bottle. It will also provide avery firm foundation for who wish to understandwhat wine isand howis it produced– viticulturalists and oenologists. It will be of great value to those accompany TV programmes and the specialistbooks written for work that fits well between the coffee table publications that practical involvement withthewine industry. They have created a experienced wine educators, who have drawn on many years of level. interest is that oftheenthusiastic writtenthem, irrespectiveforthis bookhasbeen their ofwhether therefore,delveto Theyneed, intoappropriate texts, and expert. bottle or in the supermarket, or even conveyed by the TV wine the and college and university libraries c libraries university and and college priced, sothat studentscan afford to buy their owncopies, sensibly In this respect it hasbeen Blackwell’s intention to keep the books efficiently assimilated. As editor of the work, Ican see they have This book isthe third publication in Blackwell’s Wine Production: Vineto Bottle

Series and it makes a worthya contribution anditmakes asitdealswith amateur amateur atamoreprofessional or an extend to multiple ownership. tomultiple an extend hasbeen written bytwo very Food Industry In an age when textbooks andjournals are priced being out of for this. importantcost structure is academic market, tolearningthesane ensuring access through a Series Editor, and the publishers must becommended and thepublishers Harper Adams University College Food IndustryBriefing Series Ralph Early

SERIES EDITOR’S FOREWORD xi Preface

There are, of course, many detailed books on the topics of grape growing and winemaking, and the multifarious individual aspects thereof. These books, although very valuable to students, grape growers and winemakers, are often highly technical. There are also several ‘coffee table’ books, which paint a picture that will be appreciated by consumers and those with merely a passing interest. Our aim in writing this book is to provide a concise, structured yet readable, understanding of wine production, together with a basic source of reference. Although the book contains necessary scientific information, it is designed to be easily understood by those with little scientific knowledge. As such, it may prove valuable to food and beverage industry professionals, wine trade students, wine merchants, sommeliers and restaurateurs, those entering (or thinking of entering) the highly competitive world of wine production, and all serious wine lovers. The information contained herein is not from any parochial or polarised viewpoint, although the authors, like all wine lovers, cannot (and do not wish to) claim to be totally objective. During the research and preparation we have spent much time in wine regions in both the New World and Old. We obtained diverse and detailed viewpoints from hundreds of practitioners, including growers and vineyard workers in both cool and hot climates, family winery owners, winemakers and technicians working with large scale producers, consultants and representatives of wine institutes. We wish to thank everybody who gave us their valuable time and were happy to share their knowledge and opinions. We also wish to thank Ralph Early, series editor for the Food Industry Briefing books, xii for valuable his suggestionsandwork onediting thetext, andNigel us the opportunity to produce this work. Balmforth andLaura Price ofBlackwell Publisherswhohavegiven Hazel Tattersall Keith Grainger

PREFACE xiii Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the following people and organisations for permission to use the figures identified here:

Christopher Willsmore, Warwickshire for Figs. 1.1, 1.3, 1.4 and 4.1. Corinne Delpy, Yaslin Bucher S.A., Chalonnes-sur-Loire, , for Figs. 9.1 and 12.2. Mauro Ricci, Della Toffola S.p.A., Signoressa di Trevignano, , for Fig. 11.4. Nicola Borzillo, REDA S.p.A., Isola Vicentina, Italy, for Fig. 12.5. Lynn Murray, Champagne Taittinger & Hatch Mansfield Agencies, Ascot for Fig. 15.1. Frédérick Questiaux, Oeno Concept S.A., Epernay, France, for Fig. 15.2.

xiv Introduction

No other beverage is discussed, adored or criticised in the same way as wine. To a few, it is something to be selected with the greatest of care, laid down until optimum maturity, carefully prepared for serving, ritually tasted in the company of like-minded people using a structured technique and then analysed in the manner of both the forensic scientist and literary critic. To many, it is simply the bottle bought in the supermarket according to the offer of the moment, drunk and perhaps enjoyed on the same day as purchased. To those favoured with living in wine producing regions it is often the beverage purchased from the local producers’ cooperative from a dispenser resembling a petrol pump, taken home in a five or ten litre containers and drunk with every meal. There is a wonderful diversity in the styles and quality of wines produced throughout the world, promoting discussion and disagree- ment amongst wine lovers. The wines of individual producers, regions and countries rise and fall in popularity according to consumer and press and TV media perceptions of style, quality, fashion and value. Consumers do not remain loyal when they perceive that their needs and wants are better met elsewhere. In the 1980s, wines from Bulgaria were very popular in the United Kingdom and Australian wines almost unheard of. By 2005 the wines of Australia held the top position in the UK market, by both volume and value of sales. Few would dispute that the standard of wines made today is higher than at any time in the 8000 years or so of vinous history. The level of knowledge of producers, and thus the ability to control the processes in wine production, could only have been dreamt of even 40 years ago. Yet when Decanter magazine compiled a list of the greatest wines of all time in August 2004, the top position was awarded to Château Mouton Rothschild 1945, and six of the ‘top ten’ wines were produced more than 40 years ago. Also, in the past

xv WINE PRODUCTION xvi the winemaking should take place in the district of origin. However, in winemaking. The should be freshly gathered, and ideally spirits),beer water (and many isnotgenerally as aningredient used fermentations. Itshouldbenotedthat, unlikeintheproduction of naturalthesechoose toinhibit y winemakers However, many on theskins. powderwhite looks like a pulp is rich in sugar and yeastsare contained in the bloom which aprofit.control: , quality, style and cost. Of course, the aim isto make maximum for aiming are winemaker the and grower Both the operation. wineproductionthemade andthestructure of upon thedecisions impact a major have of locallabourwill and cost and availability legal,finan geological, historical, wine. These decisions will be based on numerous factors: geographical, yard andwinerywillimpactuponthe style andqualityofthefinished or small large. from buygrapes growers who theirgrape needs, supply there arewineproducerswhohave cooperative that wine.Then ofa makes firm, or whoaremembers who makeno wine but selltheir grapes to growers a wineproducing and manybusinesses, that carry out just one ofthese stages: ( the growing of grapes ( are constantly experimenting and changing techniques. producers youlikely are to hear ahundred differentviewpoints, many and remain subject tochallenge.Indeed,ifyoutalk50winemakers approach towineproduction. procedures usage incommon Many we needtostressatthisstage thatthere nosingle,unquestioned is However,complex.others grasp, more to of theconcepts aresimple referreddiversity underthreat. we tois wonderful the words, other In standardised. become have styles whose wines good technically producing of effect detrimental the had haveperhaps producers of andconsolidation globalisation few years, to fermentation. one region to another, or evensometimes toanother country, prior is not uncommonforgrapes orwines. It grapemusttotravel from this is not adheredalways to,particularly withregard to inexpensive vinification Grapes contain allthatisbasicallynecessarytomake wine:the undertakenoperationsin boththevine- madeand The decisions industry, in the aremany there world producing thewine Throughout In considering wine production, there are two distinct stages: This book detailshowwine produced,is fromvine tobottle. Many ). ). viticulture cial and commercial. Theresources cial andcommercial. easts and use culturedeasts anduse yeastsfor ) and turning grapes into wine no ,orinsufficientto obtained fromthefermentation of is toxic, and can thedamage body if taken in excess. The alcohol is wiseproduct,a naturalAlthough ethanol itis as ethylalcohol. known wines, or two years or more for some of the highest quality wines. In of thehighestquality some for years ormore two wines, or fora fewweeks duction little maytake inexpensive as process as otherfinishedthe wine.Theentirepro- will impactupon operation and carbondioxide. thesugarinmust intoethanol whichconvert ofyeast of enzymes making perhaps the best Pinotage in the world. and bury me.’ BeyersTruter, South African winemaker, famedfor meaway take must thenyou “Yes”, andIanswer can?” you wine that take overadecade. may the caseof some liqueur (fortified) wines, the production process Must: Grape juice and solidsbefore fermentation. Box I.1 Quote: ‘If youaskme:“Havemadethe best wine,or the best every lies theheartofwinemaking, at Although thefermentation is wine in alcohol The alcoholic. ofcourse, is, Wine Definition of must must (see Box I.1), bythe (seeBoxI.1), action ethanol , other-

INTRODUCTION xvii This page intentionally left blank Viticulture – The Basics

The harvesting of healthy, ripe grapes is the end of a successful annual vineyard cycle and the beginning of the work in the winery. The grower and winemaker are both aware that any deficiencies in the quality of fruit will affect not only quality but also profitability. Although the juice of the grape is seen as the essential ingredient in the winemaking process, other constituents also have roles of varying importance.

1.1 The structure of the grape berry

Fig. 1.1 shows a section through a typical grape berry.

Stem

Skin Pulp

Pip Bloom

Fig. 1.1 Structure of the grape berry

1 WINE PRODUCTION 2 1.1.1 Stalks Stalks 1.1.1 to alcohol, but only up to about 4% alcohol by volume (ABV),by volume sugars toalcohol,butonlyupabout4%alcohol contactconvert these Once in withthegrapesugars, theycan genus (mostly ofthe Wild yeasts andwineyeasts. skins: wildyeasts the yeast presenton skins. Therearetwobasic groupsof on thegrape in the fermentation process.Yeasts attach themselves to the bloom Yeasts are naturally occurring which micro-organisms are essential Yeasts 1.1.3 (2) (1) be dividedinto twogroups: which can further layers containing called polyphenols, complex substances called ents andtannins. The outside waxy layer with its whitishhueis Skins contain colouring matters, aroma compounds, flavour constitu- Skins 1.1.2 task in the pressing operation by acting as drainage channels. ture. However, if the stalks arenot removed, they performauseful theto tannininredwinetogiveextra increase may belefton struc- crushed.are Alternatively, the proportion stalks, orasmall ofthem, they before completely the grapes destem to choose may winemaker Stalks contain tannins that may give abitter taste to the wine. The bloom Klöckera Anthocyanins (black grapes) Gamay have muchGamay lowerlevels. and Nebbiolocontainhighlevelsoftannins, others as such rosé wines. Some varietiesCabernet suchas Sauvignon, Syrah winemaking andwith greater extraction thanin white and inthe stalks and of theskins is made where moreuse wines dried mouth feel on the palate. Tannin levelsare higher in red and pips.They can,if unripe or not handled correctly, give Tannins to wine. they form antioxidants and thus give health-giving properties grapes their colour and asphenolic biflavanoid compounds . Thiscontains yeasts and bacteria. Below this wefind arebitter thatcompounds are also found instalks and Hanseniaspora and ), need air in which to operate. which to need airin ), flavones (white grapes) give • • flesh contains water, sugars, fruit acids, proteins and minerals. exception of a couple of varieties that have tinted flesh.The pulp/ colourless,juicerare withtheveryactual ofthegrapeis almost The blackor skinnedgrape, thecolourof flesh isgenerallythe same. green eithera skin of the you peel If juice. contains orflesh The pulp Pulp 1.1.4 reached, at which point they die naturally. which pointtheydie atreached, sugar left or an alcoholic strength ofapproximately 15% hasbeen then take over and continue to work until either there is no more ofthegenus die. Wineyeasts, theywhich pointat Fig. 1.2 then becomestheprincipal acid.Tartaric acidisnot commonly in unripegrapes. During the ripening process, tartaric acid a higherproportionacid,the latter beingof malic taric acidand Acids in Fig.1.2. illustratedas can measure the rise in sugar levels by using a , producerthe As harvestnears, in thegrape berry. presence no significant the vine,has tubes of and phloem the leaves sented by and . , although present in mainly repre- areoccurs. Grapesugars change part ofthis acidity falling. by Photosynthesis isthemeans whichagreater maturity, sothe balance changes, with levelssugar rising and acids and low levels ofsugar. Asthe fruit ripens and reaches Sugars Refractometer Refractometer : by far the most important acidsfound in grapes are tar- : when unripe, all fruits contain a high concentrationhigh of when unripe,allfruitscontaina : Saccharomyces ,

CHAPTER 1 3 WINE PRODUCTION 4 a blend of varieties include most reda Bordeaux, which are usually from made known wines well of Examples and balance. to taste cooking,with whereeverycan perhapsbecompared adds ingredient blend.This and complex a harmonious makeeach variety helpingto quality winesare madefrom a blend of two or more varieties, with often donot permit the nameofthegrape to bestated. Manytop made from , indeed the rules of e.g. abottle AC willrarely ofChablis inform you that thewineis wines madefromasingle varietyfact donotstatethe onthelabel, in the hasnowbecomecommonplace. However,many 1970s, producers Californian the by heavily promoted and 1920s inthe Alsace may be stated on the label, this concept having been introduced in wine. However, itis made isavital factor in determining thedesign andstyleof the The grape variety, orblend of grape varieties, fromwhichawineis vine grape The 1.2 of this. account take modern presses to their bitter oilsand hard tannins. Aswe shall seelater, today they at astringencytothe can impart If crushed, wine the winery. due Unlike with stalks, there is nomeans of separating them on reception grapetovary variety.and shapeaccording insize Pips orseeds Pips 1.1.5 • a single variety are referredarea singlevariety toas made from Wines otherwise. or believes Sauvignon drinker Cabernet rl rsn,nn a ocnrto fmr hn20mg/l, than200 more of a concentration has none present, erals found inplants other than vines. Acids have an important role acetic and citric. acetic and acids presentingrapes,including of other are tinyamounts give stability and perhaps longevity to the finished wine. There in winegiving a refreshing, mouth-watering tasteandalso but the most significant are calcium and magnesium. and magnesium. significant arecalcium but themost min- theother Of to2500mg/l. ofup aconcentration with pulp, Minerals : potassiumisthe mainmineral present in the grape not theonlyfactor, aChardonnay although many varietals . The name of thevariety . Thename Appellation Contrôlée ’ s cultivated and refined by generations of growers, although some such some although growers, of bygenerations and refined cultivated the genus of genera, including anumber family comprises The Ampelidacae. The grape vinebelongs to afamily ofclimbing plants called is What variety? a grape 1.3 tries, and even pseudonyms in different regions of the same country. within acountry. Manyvarieties have different namesin different coun- world. Others are found in just one country, or even in just one region Some varieties are truly international, being planted in many parts of the e.g. Chardonnay, are very well known. Others are largely unknown. used. can be up to13 where Ch red and varieties, different tofive two from made reader is referred to the Bibliography. information the For furtherbook. this of the scope beyond and is of thecharacteristics ofindividuala detailed grape varieties topic is as Rieslingare probablythe descendants ofwildvines.Discussion remembering thatmostofthevarietiesknowwe that havebeen a made from blend of Corvina, Rondinella andMolinara. It is worth made from thevarietyDOC be Valpolicella PinotNoir.must be must AC red Beaune For example make certainwines. to be used must variety orregion, varieties maybeplanted andwhichvarieties ina may stipulate which wine laws.These determinedbein Europe, by actual choice of variety or varieties planted in any vineyard may well, relevancemediocre. Whilsttheseareallfactorsthe to of grower, the others distinctly class wine, canproduce firstSome shy bearing. do yieldwell,otherstypes of soil,others areextremely not;some climates,warm others prefer coolerconditions; somelikecertain varieties ripen early, others late; some are suitable for growing in tastesSome different.Sauvignon.looks different,and Eachvariety varieties, e.g. all of the world Asian species of grape vine, and it is from this speciesthat almost interbreed.genes andto exchangeto havetheabilityof anyspecies noting that themembers includingprises anumber ofspecies, thatof There are thousands of different grape varieties; the names of some, vinifera Vitis has, as we now believe, some four thousand different four thousand aswenowbelieve,some has, ’ s wine is made. is made. wine s , whichisthegrape bearing vine.This genuscom- Vitis vinifera Vitis Chardonnay, is theEuropean andCentral Vitis vinifera Vitis vinifera â teauneuf-du-Pape . It is worth. It is Cabernet

CHAPTER 1 5 WINE PRODUCTION 6 of the species of thespecies Althoughall theworld nearly grafting for Reasons 1.4 itself a new variety. Forexample thevariety M Boxes 1.1 and 1.2. Chasselas). Gutedel(also knownas father thevarietythethat was Riesling (mother) and (father), although the current beliefis crossingfrom of Thurgauonce thoughtIt inSwitzerland. tobea was 1882 byProfessor M as Rivaner)known acrossing bredin is are growing are usually those of another species. Why is this? Why is species. another growing thoseof are areusually plants. place, but atpresent genetically nowineisproducedfrom modified takingest qualityjuice. Research ongeneticmodificationofvinesis the past 20 years, most growers believe that old vines give the high- ripening, resistance,etc. disease shape, early yield, flavour,goodplant characteristics as obtaincertainto such parent,aiming fromasingle breeding asexually is basically selection Union for quality wine production. twoHybrid: Illegal vinespecies. Acrossing intheEuropean of Box 1.2 with the pollen of another Crossing: Variety produced by fertilising one Box 1.1 It to is possible crosstwovarieties and thusproduce a From anyvariety breeders canselectindividual It is important not to confuse the term In spite ofthe tremendous development with clonal selection during Vitis vinifera Definitionhybrid of Definitioncrossing of , the roots on which the onwhich , theroots Vitis vinifera ’ s wine is produced by variousvarieties produced wineis s variety. variety. crossing Vitis vinifera ü with Vitis vinifera ller-Thurgau (also clones hybrid crossing variety . Clonal

vines – see ü ller , Phylloxera vastatrix the centuries, the comingof the Of all the disasters that have struck the vineyards of Europe over 1.5 them, butthem, of of many parts could beproducedin that wine became obvious is made. which wine dreadful. So them tastes absolutely although these other producespecies grapes, the wine madefrom However,Americas.thewhose originsareelsewhere,particularly in grapevine exist of its origin.Otherspecies because of of vine, illustration of and sexually.An andcan breedbothasexually life cycle, during its shrank considerably. simply gave up,andinmanyregions the amountofland under vines growers crazy.Many of theideas tried,whichnowseem twowere made to finda cure. Poisoning the soil andflooding the vineyards the latter yearsof the nineteenth century, manyattempts were during throughoutof France, intoSpainandelsewhere vineyardsthe to healover afterattack. Asthepest wound itsdevastating way resistant,vinesdeveloped hadbecome therootshaving theability of thousandsso-calledfor ofyears.Naturally the Americanspecies in New Zealand in 1885. in GeelongVictoria, found 1877 ithadarrived Australiaandwas Rh Daktulosphaira vitifoliae which willbedetailedand later, thenfromamost lethalpest, plant material. The vineyardsof Europe sufferedinitially from mildews, their wayfrom theUSA to Europe, upon botanical and specimens found diseases duringpests and these thelatenineteenthcentury, many pests and diseases that existed in the New World. Disastrously, produce sound wines. Of course, in the vines dying. in thevines At thetimethat thecountries intheNewWorldwere colonised,it Vitis vinifera Phylloxera Phylloxera ô ne valley in France in 1868, was by far the most devastating.by farthemost By 1868, was in France valley ne Phylloxera vastatrix Vitis vinifera had lived inNorth America,theof eastRocky Mountains, is an aphid that has many different manifestations different many aphid that has is an Phylloxera hasalready beendescribedasthe European species , thateatsintotherootsof neededtobebroughtin order fromEurope to in its root-living formisshown in Fig.1.3. , see Chapter 5), first discovered in the discovered 5), first Chapter, see Phylloxera vastatrix Vitis vinifera Vitis vinifera had no resistance to the Vitis vinifera is is (reclassified as (reclassified the species from species , resulting

CHAPTER 1 7 WINE PRODUCTION 8 adults. hatch into When reproducing asexually, eggs arelaid onthevine rootsand tasting wine.However, ifa and resultingwine. grapestherather thanthequalityof that must bestressed strangulationItby thecanker.process of can bekilledbya Root tips beingdownwardand synthesisedfoodtransmitted fromtheleaves. cambium and phloem are preventingdestroyed, sapfrom circulating older, thicker, storage roots develop wart-like young, feeder roots develop be to graft the requiredvariety of be in thebud. lies design forthefruitthe graftedbecause tree, that it isquite possibleto produce pears and appleson the same trace elements that willhelpgive thewine flavour. You mayknow including and nutrients, upwater to draw ismerely ofthe roots function winemaking.foryields qualitygrapes perfectlyplantthe The suitable American speciesrootstock, then the root isresistant to attack, and Fig. 1.3 As we have seen, American speciesof vines make unpleasant So the cure tothe plague of Phylloxera Phylloxera crawlers onlyfeedsontheroots of louse louse . Thesedevelopinto eitherwingless or winged Phylloxera Vitis vinifera nodosities Phylloxera vastatrix affects the very life of the affectsthevery vine lifeof Vitis vinifera

– plant is grafted ontoan hook shaped galls. The Vitis vinifera vinestock ontoan tuberosities was found to . Thevine . The ’ s berlandieri clay (suitable for SO4 common usage arehybrids oftwo Americanspecies.Forexample, stock, but also uponthe climate and soiltype. Most rootstocks in choice of forspecies rootstock willdependnot onlyonthe vine the mainones used as rootstocks are shown in Table 1.1. The There are many different American speciesof vines, and someof Rootstocks 1.6 Phylloxera of cost rootstock.The economic appropriate Americanspecies 50 plantingvine beheattreated: materialmustalso 5 minutes.New heated to 45 heat treated. Forexample, tractors maybeputinto achamberand thoroughly disinfectedor must be on equipment,this spreading could spell economic disaster. To prevent any risk of the aphid vineyards the in arrival its for louse, the excluded has programme tine Australia (known as theand inChile Thus,as so inaseason. metresahundred or only spread transported theaphidwill unless plant materials,grapes, clothing, tools,picking binsorvehicles Phylloxera are Australia,and Tasmania SouthAustraliaWestern states of The Phylloxera areas ofArgentina, and most oftheMosel common,areareas whereungrafted includingChile, several vines vast majority of the world nursery may be fourtimesthat ofungrafted material. Although the ° C for 5 minutes iseffective. Vitis champini Vitis berlandieri Vitis labrusca Vitis rupestris Vitis riparia 1.1 Table is huge is willnot liveincertain soiltypes,includingsandandslate. -free. For and ° C for 2 hours; picking bins may be heated be to70 bins may for2 hours;picking C Vitis riparia

Phylloxera – Phylloxera Examplesspeciesrootstocks used of for

the cost of purchasing grafted vines from a cost ofpurchasinggraftedthe vines

’ , whilst rootstock R110 (a plungingR110, whilstrootstock stock (a s vines are now grafted, there are still grafted,are there vinesarenow s to spread, it is usually transmitted on tospread,itisusually ExclusionZones),arigorous quaran- – calcareous soils) calcareous soils) is a hybrid of – Saar Phylloxera – Ruwer inGermany. -free parts of ° C for Vitis –

CHAPTER 1 9 WINE PRODUCTION 10 some biotype of the pastdecade or two there hasevolved anew, even more trouble- learned by many aCalifornian grower. It also arguedis that during years louse duringthepast15 the resistant (e.g. rootstock AXR) have been succumbing to attacks of cut (seeFig. 1.4). common typeofgraft the omega usednowadaysis machine-made hybridrootormost stock.The of pre-grafteda suitablespecies onto order from the nursery a specified clone of a variety of will existing vines, new vineyard,orreplace establish a wishing to but bench grafting isthe usedinvinemethod nurseries.The grower and resistant toshort periodsofdrought) isahybrid of Fig. 1.4 Some rootstocks that were onceconsidered to be In someregions, grafting of vines still takes place in the vineyards, Vitis rupestris Graft Graft Bud (dormant) – omega cut omega Rootstock Phylloxera vastatrix . . – expensive lessons havebeen expensivelessons Vinestoc Vitis berlandieri k Vitis vinifera Phylloxera 1.7 The lifespan of the vine of the lifespan The 1.7 Ungrafted vines can have the longest life of all. can havethelongestlife Ungrafted vines averagehighretain age. a to an individualbasis, vinesdying on replace or willoftenold. Inthebestvineyards,producers diseased vineyard couldbegrubbed up when the vinesare a just 20 years virus, with wherethereareproblems Inareas orso. to 40years thevineyards vineshavereachedacertain when age to replant decide producers some Accordingly, decreases. yield age the that oldervines give particularly goodfruit.with However, greater Grapevines canliveforover 100yearsanditisgenerally accepted – perhaps 30

CHAPTER 1 11 Climate

Climate and weather have a major influence on the ultimate quality and style of wine produced. Most of the world’s major wine-producing regions are to be found between 30° and 50° latitude in both northern and southern hemispheres. Within this ‘temperate zone’, grapes will usually ripen satisfactorily. However, there is a wide range of climatic variation. For example, compare the cool, damp and sometimes humid conditions of Northern Europe with the conditions of the extreme south of Europe and North Africa, where grapes struggle to ripen in the dryness and heat. The overall climate of any vineyard region can be referred to as the macroclimate. However, as we shall see, climate does vary within areas of any region, and even small variations have an important impact.

2.1 Climatic requirements of the grape vine

2.1.1 Sunshine

Ideally, the vine needs a minimum of 1400 hours of sunshine per year, with a minimum average of 6 to 7 hours per day during the growing season (April to October in the northern hemisphere and October to April in the southern hemisphere). Regions with too much sunshine and heat tend to yield wines that are coarse with high levels of alcohol. Too little sunshine leads to unripe grapes, which in turn result in wines that are over high in acidity but light in alcohol. The vine produces its food by the biological process of photosynthesis, using light. However, for grape growing, the vine needs sunshine more for its heat than light.

12 150 days. averages100 days, could but beasshortasor80 aslong as 2.1.2 Warmth Warmth 2.1.2 water reserves underground. Rain in early spring helps the vine necessary. Ideally, rain should fallmainly inwinter tobuild up mm is perhaps ideal; otherwise irrigation will be mmand 700 500 Obviously, vines needwater togrow. An annual rainfall ofbetween Rainfall 2.1.4 replacement. vines grown in this way quickly become exhausted and need seasons are simulated by turning the irrigation on and off. The year period however, vineyards inBrazil wherefivecrops are obtainedinatwo perhaps and kills fungal diseases and insect pests. There are, be shortened. Winter frostcan bebeneficialfor hardening wood, winter rest,the vine might yield twice ayear andits life would The vine needs a rest so that its growth is inhibited. Without a winter Cold 2.1.3 15 the vine to flower successfullyinearly atemperature summer, of place attemperaturestakesGrowth above10 only berries, causing severe damage and diluting juice. split prevented.rainwill usually Heavyundesirable rots aretobe needs to be followedbywarmsunand a gentle drying breeze if irrigation. desert, but the vine flourishes bythe useofflood, furrow, or drip a mmofrain ayear. Thearea istechnically ofwhich have just 10 producingregion in SouthMendozaArgentina, America is in parts irrigation iscommonplace.countries For example, the largest wine nature normally provides sufficient rainfall, but inNew World growth; insummer and early autumn it swells the fruit. In Europe, Just before , a little rain can help increase the yield, but ° C (59 ° F) isneeded.The period from flowering to harvesting – theclimate ishot allyear round, and the growing ° C (50 ° F). For ’ s

CHAPTER 2 13 WINE PRODUCTION 14 2.2 Climatic enemies ofthe Climatic grape vine 2.2 option. option. expensive an is insurance areas, affected in growers For rain. carrying silver nitrate into cloudsmay cause theto ice fall as rockets the of firing controversially, More system. thetrellis against include fine netting, either asan overhead canopy or vertical nets in whole bunches being unusable. Various forms of protection tosusceptible rotor start may toferment on the vine,resulting season), to the splitting of berries. Split or smashed berries are young shoots (the effectsofwhich cancarry ontothe following This can range from scarring of leaves, bruising or breaking of areas, resultingin direct physical damageboth tovines fruit. and Hail can do immense damage over relatively small, localised Hail 2.2.2 base of the vine for planting. as a result. Known areas for frost (frost pockets) are best avoided severity,can bewipedout ofgreatcrop anentire cases shoots; in Frost atbuddingtime candestroy theyoungbudsand splitting. (3 vines. Temperatures below can damage Severe winterfrosts Frost 2.2.1 completely effective. its own igloo of an ice pellet. No frost prevention systemisalways or much of this heat will go into the bud, which willthen be protected in theory issimple:water containsheat, andwhenthe water freezes water onto the budsbefore the temperature falls below 0 whichsprays a sprinkler Thisinvolves installing system protection. Many producers choose to use an ered primitive. Windmachinesthat circulate air can prove effective. now consid- arecirculateto air,butthese atbuddingtime vineyard springfrosts. Traditionally, oilburnerswidelyinthe were used graft. Various canbe to measures used mitigate theeffectsof the However, protection can be given in various ways.In winter, the ° F) can kill the vine by freezing the sap, resulting inroots resulting the sap, by freezing vine kill the can F) ’ s trunkcan beearthedupto prevent to damage ‘ aspersion system aspersion ’ for frost for ° − C. The 16 ° C afternoon sun. afternoon ripening stops.Grapes canbesunburnt andscarredin thehot and photosynthesis ceases.Thus no more sugars are formed and .. Strong winds 2.2.3 the benefit of reflected heat. Water can act asa heat reservoir, the vines orlakes, can bring towater,whetherrivers,seas Nearness Water 2.3.1 area.anyvineyard of influence themesoclimate leaves that surrounds the vine. There are several of factors that vineyard.Microclimate refers to the climate within the canopy a refers to the local climatewithin a particular vineyard or part of There isoftenconfusionbetweenthese two terms.Mesoclimate andmicroclimate Mesoclimate 2.3 and temperatures exceed 40 Heat canbeharmful to stress thevine.Whenthere excessive sun is Excessive heat 2.2.4 protection. measure of offersome ranges andmountain forests wind.Inotherareas, Mistral tohaveplantedtrees breakthedestructiveconifer been forceofthe individually staked, whilst in the flatter southern Rh terracedhillsidesthe northern in Rh in valleys, which can act as funnels. For example, on the steeply and a reduced crop can result. vines. If prevalent whenthe vineisflowering, thenpoor pollination devastating combination foryoung shootsandleaves or very young Springsun andseverewindcanbea shoots andremoving leaves. These can havea dramatic effect bydamaging canes,breaking The detrimental effect of strong winds may be a particular problem beaparticular may winds effectofstrong The detrimental ° C (104 ô ° ne valley,have vines tobe F), the vine can shut down ô ne, rows of rows ne,

CHAPTER 2 15 WINE PRODUCTION 16 water temperature. also decrease the diurnal temperature range and can reduce air have the unwelcome effect of encouraging high humidity. They Groups of trees can also protect vines from strong winds, but can andtrees Woods 2.3.4 dioxide carbon in sucks vine the botany: basic some on reflecting worth haps likely to be a problem since it tends to roll down slopes. It is per- protection from prevailing winds. Frost at budding time is less height ofthe slope are important and could, for example, provide Where a vineyard is not completely flat, the direction, angle and Aspect 2.3.3 Sauvignon Blanc. plant varietiesthat prefer cooler climateshigher at altitudes,e.g. 0.6 approximately by decreases temperature air mean the altitude of metres 100 For every Altitude 2.3.2 more sugars. atmosphere is at its highest level, resulting in the manufacture of are inclined into the morning sun when carbon dioxide in the the greatertheadvantage of asouth-east facing slope.Thevines and is inthesky from theequator,lowersun is situated In atmosphere. the northern the hemisphere, further a vineyard the production of sweet white wines is theobject). is sweet whitewines productionthe of lead to (always unwelcome)or mildews rot (occasionally if sought frost. Water also encourages mistsand high humidity which can double advantage ofmoderating temperature and reducing risk of the heat stored by releasing day during the night. This has the there is spare spare is there assimilation as known is process This sugars. grape of form (H 2 O) from theO) from soilto create (CO oxygen 2 ) from the atmosphere and combines it with ° (O C (1.1 C 2 ) left overwhichtranspired is to the ° F). Thus a grower may choose to choose may grower a Thus F). carbohydrate (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) in the – 2.4 The concept of degree days degree conceptof The 2.4 7.5% and 10% ABV, and a Riesling from Clare Valley, 10%ABV, fromClare Valley, South Australia, 7.5% and a Riesling and Mosel as such climate cool a from wine Riesling a compare us Let climate of Impact 2.5 • • • • the hemisphere: is basedonthe sevenmonths result oftheir research inmatching vinesto A climate. calculation a by the Viticultural School of the University of California at Davis as devised was ondegreedays based classification ofclimatic A system 10 temperature degreeofmean Eachone andtotalled. is counted that10aboveday inthegrowing themeantemperature season is The vine doesnot grow at temperatures below 10 priate measure of mesoclimates. of mesoclimates. measure priate viticulturalists challenge the concept of degree days asan appro- suitable varieties are selectedto match aregion (Region 5) has more than 4000. Based on this classification, hottest(F), whilstthe2500 degree than(Region days 1)totalsless climaticregionUSAthecalculated. thecoolest then Forexample,in like, i.e. importantregions whencomparing different tocompare likewith Degree days are measured ineither Fahrenheitor Celsius, but it is ° C represents one degree day, e.g.: degree days. July 31st degree days May 1st to 30thApril. hemisphere Southern 31st October hemisphere Northern – Saar ° C with – Ruwer, with an alcohol content somewhere between : mean temperature 14 : mean : meantemperature 24 ° C, C, ° F with : theoretical growing season season growing theoretical : : theoretical growingseason ° F. Thetotal number of degree is days ’ annual growing season according to ° ° C, therefore 31st July C, therefore C, 1stMay ’ s climate. Some ° C (50 = 1st November 1st = 1st April to April 1st ° F). Each above = = 14 ° C 4

CHAPTER 2 17 WINE PRODUCTION 18 of those averages. The weather is the great variable in the vine theweathervariableaverages. thegreat in is The of those ured inlong-term averages, weather isthe result ofday-to-day variation Whereas is climate determined by geographical location and meas- Weather 2.6 growth cycle. vine in the time right at the come conditions these grow,produce and ripen grapes. It is, however, importantthat tially,sufficient warmthmoisture andare required tobeableto and agrowing andfruit-ripeningperiod ofabout 7months. Essen- at their bestwhere there isadormant period of about 5months shown in Table 2.1. is wine of styles different very three of regions production the England. A comparison ofthe sunshine hours and temperatures of cooler regions; for example, Germany, Alsace, Loire Valley and higher proportion of white grapes are grown in therefore, that a the physiological ripeness of the tannins in their skins. It follows, grapes needmore sunshine andheatthan white grapes, to ensure acidification isnot permitted in the cooler regions of Europe. Black as happenedintheexceptionallyEuropean hotyearof2003, Union, if it isthoughta derogation isgiven Unless desirable. by the producer is permitted to add acid during the winemaking process the German Riesling is likely to have higher acidity than the fall.Consequently levels acidity process, duringtheripening increase with atleast 12%alcohol.Generally speaking, assugar levels ,Australian although it should be noted that the Australian odax20 1. 54.5 12.5 Average annualtemperature Duration of sunshine (hours) Ch 2000 Bordeaux (average in Germany 2.1 Table wine regions) Climatecan beboth friend andenemy tothe vine. Vinesperform â euefd-ae20 1 57.2 14 teauneuf-du-Pape 2800 Comparisonsunshine ofannual and temperatures 1400 10 50 ° C ’ s annual s ° F ’ s variations in the quantity of production. produced in any given year, but can also acc wine of style and quality the influence only not does Weather thatcanmakeorbreak it a . weatherconditions the is annual andknowninadvance. however, In the or less end, is more constant influence everyothermajor Nearly itsproduction. and season growing ount for considerable

CHAPTER 2 19 Soil

Soil is a critical factor in the production of grapes of the right quality for winemaking, and a variety of factors influence the nature and quality of the soils that are used to grow grapes. This chapter looks at the key factors for consideration in terms of the soil suitability for viticul- ture and grape production.

3.1 Soil requirements of the grape vine

Many types of soil are suitable for successful vine growing with the correct preparation. Essentially, the function of the soil is to provide anchorage, water and nutrients. Vines can and do thrive in the most inhospitable soils and unlikely sites. In considering the soil structure, both topsoil and subsoil have important roles: topsoil supports most of the root system including most of the feeding network. In some regions, such as Champagne, the topsoil is very thin and nutrient additions are required. The subsoil influences drainage, and ideally enables the roots to penetrate deeply in search of nutrients and water. There are several factors that need to be considered when plan- ning and preparing a vineyard site.

3.1.1 Good drainage

Like any other plant, the vine needs water and will probe deep to try and find it, so the best soil is one with good natural drainage and free from obstacles likely to impede the roots. There is a viewpoint that in poorly drained soils the grapes may be inferior because the

20 acid (high pH) soil. acid (highpH) will produce grapes with aloweracidity thanthosegrown onalow soil otheron ahighacid(lowpH) factorsbeingequal,vines grown produced. All animpactonthestyleandquality ofwine soil has biologicalandexamineto thechemical composition. ThepHofthe shouldtakeplace analysis Beforea newvineyard, afullsoil planting providing vigour controlled, is richer cangive soils good quality. nutrients. Some New World producers disputethis,believing that, toandthe poorhardgrapes work vineismade ifthesoil is forits point, stillheldinsomeareas,wasthat vines onlyyieldgood quality has onthequality andstyle ofwine. Thetraditional OldWorldview- There isstillconsiderable overdissension theinfluence that soil quality and soilsof uponwine style Influence 3.2 vine Nitrogen isamost important nutrient requirement, for essential the Nutrient requirementsand mineral 3.1.3 vigour.control vine carefulfertile soils, vineyard management techniques are neededto of humus and organic matter mayneed to bedone annually. In highly and theaddition of nourishment, requirean adequatelevel vines do Although it isgenerally recognised that the vine thrives on poorsoil, Fertility 3.1.2 a drainage system shouldbe installed ifthe natural drainage is rather than the mineral rich deep water. When preparing avineyard plant taking is upsurface water, fromrecent rainfallor irrigation, appropriate nutrients. is well balancedandcontains only beproduced whenthesoil will magnesium, ironand zinc are beneficial.The finestquality fruit phosphorous and potassium. In addition, trace elements suchas include minerals Desirable stimulated. not is growth excessive that so inade ’ s production of green matter. However, the balance is important is balance the However, matter. green of production s quate.

CHAPTER 3 21 WINE PRODUCTION 22 • • • • • • wine regions: We willbriefly considersome of thetypes ofsoilfound in various viticulture suitablefor types Soil 3.3 are thoseare thatgovern watersupply. The most important physicalcharacteristics of different soiltypes Clay months. invaluable,period isforverythe littlerainfallsduring summer soil valuedis forits high chalk content. In thishot,arid region, the Spain southern in region of theJerez soil Thealbariza France. of chalkThe most famous vineyardsareinthe Champagneregion qualities of good drainage whilst providing good water retention. Chalk and nutrients, not cultivated. is easily Apositivequality ofthe loose soil type, in which it is particularly difficult to store water Sand finesse. contributesBurgundy, where it to wines of the greatproducing soil is valued in coolviticultural regions, asfor example in into toseekwaterandnutrients.Thisdeep the fissures typeof carbonate.vine the Inlimestone soils, hastoburrow itsroots Limestone by granitic soils. are influenced and lowfertility. The individualstylesofthe Beaujolais Crus provideGraniticquickly andretains heat. gooddrainage soils Granite vines at night. gravel will absorb the sun Graves) isfamedfor itsdeepgravel banks. During theday the drainage. goodbank Thelefthas (Medoc and ofBordeaux Gravel start tothegrowingseason. ever, clay areslowto soils warmupafterwinter, delaying the forsubsoil, exampleinthe Bordeaux district ofPomerol.How- retention. In areas, some clayisvalued forits role as vineyard ’ s capacity for absorbing and storing water over thewinter : noted for poor drainage, but consequently good on waterpoorgood: notedforconsequently drainage,but on : grains ofquartz,: grains broken rock. downfromsiliceous This : atype oflimestonethat isvery porous andhasthe dual : prevents water from collecting, ensuring thatthe vine : a hard crystalline rock rich in minerals that warms up : a sedimentary rock consisting mainly of calcium of rockconsistinga sedimentary mainly : ’ s heat,dischargings it back ontothe French term is encapsulated bythe and qualitystyle of soilon influenceThe Terroir 3.5 may present a problem. otherwise lime, it importantand Champagne),resistant is toselectrootstocks to (e.g. ofBurgundy inthesoil most of activethere ahighlevel lime is plantingWhen vineyards where vigour vines. fertility,in low resulting chalk soils, although providing excellent drainage, can be lowin the rootstock, shouldbecompatible withthe soil. Forexample, which the vine can be planted, it is clear that the vine, and in particular Having considered the qualities ofjust someof the manysoilsin compatibility Soil 3.4 • • just a few yards in the same vineyard. in thesame a fewyards just result, the vine can experience different growing conditions within local topography (altitude, slope,aspect)and the localclimate. Asa variousits qualities, withall of soil combination essentially a is it soil is that the is soil region Mosel night ontothevines. The blueDevonslatefoundinthe at warming up quickly and retaining its heat, then releasing it advantagetheof holdingmoisture, other elements.Ithas Slate robust wines, suchasthePort wines of Portugal is heat-retaining,thin flakes.It idealfortheproduction ofrich Schist sandy soils. on thecoast to the north of Lisbon iswell known for its : ahard, darkandslab-likeof clay,shaleand rock made – ’ : a coarse-grained crystalline rock that iseasilysplit into ‘ s wines. wines. s Saar terroir chlorosis – Ruwer contributes totheracy character ofthe ’ . Although the conceptof the . Although Phylloxera

– the inability of the vine to absorb nutrients nutrients thevine to absorb of theinability louse does not infest sand. Colares ‘ terroir ’ is controversial, is ’ s Douro Valley. –

CHAPTER 3 23 The Vineyard

Viewpoints on viticulture will sometimes conflict, for what is sound theory and practice is not always universally accepted, and this dis- sension helps contribute to the contrasting styles of wine produced in different regions and countries. One of the Old World concepts challenged by many New World producers is that in order to achieve good quality it is necessary to restrict severely the quantity of grapes produced per hectare of land – see Box 4.1.

Box 4.1 Definition of hectare

Hectare: A measurement of land comprising 10000 m2 = 2.47 acres = 2 football fields.

4.1 Vineyard location

The reasons for the historical situation of the world’s great vine- yards are complex. Producers in the regions will wax lyrically about the outstanding of the greatest sites – aspect, soil, meso- climate, etc. Many of these great vineyards are close to rivers, and we have already seen the influence of these upon the vineyard climate. However, it should be noted that the other great advantage of rivers was that they were the means of transport to the markets. With a strong market outside the region or country of origin, good wines would sell well at higher prices. Higher prices mean more investment in the land, and export markets promote higher quality and the interchange

24 vines are slightly stressed planting, the dense by havingsuch row. Agrowerwill statethat a are designed to ride vineswiththeir above wheels either sideof Mechanical working takes place by using straddle tractors, which metre apart,andthe vinesarespacedat1metre1 intherows. 000per hectare. The rows are vines are planted at a density of 10 of Burgundy and parts of Bordeaux, including much of the M factors of number on a will depend vines plantedperhectare number of The vines of ofplanting Density 4.2 of labour, wine laws and any laws and of labour,wine availability irrigation, for ofwater availability grapevarieties, proposed for the suitability and composition soil orientation, mesoclimate, are manyand complex. The researcher will need to consider aspect, tobeconsidered thefactors vineyards, fornew sites tigating potential grapes maybe trucked hundreds of miles to the winery. Wheninves- road access is still required. Indeed, in countries,some harvested nication tothemarkets less maybe ofaconsideration, butreasonable standards. to improve of ideasbetweensupplierandcustomer,sonecessary loathe to change traditional practices. simply out of practicality, but alsothere are manygrowers who are on live Thus historical influences years. 40 or50 vines mightthe be of averagetheage and by vinebasis, vine on a takesplace times plough; thus the wider spacing. Thereplanting ofvineyardsa some- and historically two animals rather than one were needed to pull Dordogne, the plantings are lessdense.Herethe soils are heavier, Garonneand Rivers the between thedistrict as theEntre-Deux-Mers, same path with eachpass. In othersome areas of Bordeaux, such compaction soil that of important.is Oneoftheproblemsthatcanarisewithdenseplanting hectare, although not necessarily per plant, which is perhaps just as restrict theyieldper dense plantinghelps concentratedThus, juice. is left to go intothe grapes. The growers believe that this resultsin Much ofthe water goesinto the structure ofthe plant,and only alittle and traceelements. alltheminerals to pick up downdeep their roots Today, whendecidinga newvineyard, onthelocationfor commu- – including historical, legal, and practical. InFrance, inmuch – the wheels of the straddle tractor follow the follow tractor the straddle of wheels the – having to fight for their water, and sending and water, their for fight to having ‘ appellation system ’ , and security. , and é doc,

CHAPTER 4 25 WINE PRODUCTION 26 grapes with pronounced greenor grassyflavours. Vineyard areas leaves arethe allowedtoshade grapes,thesystemcanproduce benefitvineheat, will fromreflected givingIf extra the ripeness. armsthe arespurpruned.If iskeptcloseto theground, bush the particularlysystem is appropriatethe forhot,dryclimates.Thevine plant, sturdy a compact, With harvesting. mechanical or trimming e.g. viticulture, mechanised for most suitable are not vines but bush-trained training system, practised most the was this Historically, stakes. more Bush-trained vines are either free-standing, or supported byone or training Bush the training important systems. of will briefly considerthemore We training vine of types Main 4.3.1 (e.g. trellis). usedany support system vines (e.g. low); bythe type ofpruning (e.g. cane); and by the type of ways of classifying training includingsystems, bythe height of the including historical, legal, climatic and practical. There are several maintaining fruiting. controllingyield and of required, ameans cutting andis as shape by of this managementshape oftheplant.Pruning theany, withthe is training the designand combines structure ofthe support system,if Essentially, and pruning. vinetraining between distinguish We should systems Training 4.3 and Colchagua in Chile. and Colchagua just as dense as in France or Germany, for example parts of Aconcagua However,whereare thereis vineyardsintheNewWorld theplanting canhelpand this ofthe reduce mildewsandfungaldiseases vine. circulating, air of plenty keep helps also spacing Open the vines. into ofsunlight andlets plenty down keephumidity helps tural machinery, per hectare. Such a densityallowsfor thepassageof large agricul- many New Worldcountries, plantings might be as low as2000 vines pervines hectareinCh 3000 e.g. The training system used may depend on a number offactors, maydependonanumber The training systemused In other parts ofFrance, plantings may bemuch less dense, â teauneuf-du-Pape. However, in vines as Fig. 4.2. vines as a photographguyot ofrecentlyprunedas Fig.4.1and is shownvine M that practise the guyot systemare much ofBordeaux, including the the bottomwire ofthetrellis. the vineyard Amongst classic areas cane (single orsimpleguyot) ortwo canes (double guyot) aretied to popular methodof A cane training isthe runcanes along wires the according toparticular the system used. ormore One forsupport. system wiretrellis using a are trained Vines training cane Replacement Rh where bush practisedtraining is includeBeaujolais andparts ofthe Fig. 4.1 é ô doc, and the C Canes before ne valley. pruning Double guyottraining ô te d te ’ Or in Burgundy. A diagram of a double guyot a double Burgundy.A diagram of Or in guyot system, in system, whichone Winter pruning cuts Summer foliage

CHAPTER 4 27 WINE PRODUCTION 28 ical pruning and harvesting. They arealsoappropriate in vineyards cordon andspurpruning. The latter isextensively practised inmany many variations of the system,including both replacement cane and thename implies, vine trainingThis requires system four pairs of wires onatrellis. As the Vertical shootpositioning (VSP) guyot. such a system a replacementcane trained in that suffer from strong winds, which would break the canesof vines mechan- including to mechanisation, are wellsuited Cordon systems trunk extension (cordon) may be close to or high fromthe ground. that the trunk of the vine isextended horizontally along wires. The There are variationsmany ofthis but system, all havethe principle training Cordon Fig. 4.2 Vines pruned single guyot ’ s shootsaretrained vertically. There are ancient times There are manyother training Some have systems. been usedsince trainingsystems Other 4.3.2 after pruning. Fig. unpruned 4.3shows VSP vines inwinter, andFig. 4.4vines facilitated. is harvesting, including mechanical mechanisation,Thus the higher.thea compactzone,with shoots contained tipsof in not dense,resulting in humidity less within the canopy. The fruit is eases, as the vinesare notclosetothe ground and thecanopyis higher. cm perhaps15 which is wire,to thenextand another canetied tothebottom wire in eachdirection,withone canes, two there arefour in NewZealand, practised cane system, replacement allowed perhaps ten or twelve spurswhich are pruned. With the approximately 1 metre off the ground) and each of these will be trained inoppositedirections along(whichis wire thebottom includingNew Worldcountries, Australiaand Chile. Twocordonsare Fig. 4.3 Advantages ofVSP training includereducedriskoffungal dis- Vines trainedVSP – theseincludetheuseofpergolasandvinesgrowing – before pruning pruning before

CHAPTER 4 29 WINE PRODUCTION 30 the moreillustrious and precisethe appellation, the restrictedmore this promotesconventionalthat quality.InFrance, seen, the viewis previous year shoots fromthe theonly developfromtheflowersthatgrow on will be woodthatdeveloped in theprevious growingseason. Grapes short spurs with perhaps two budseach. The canes orwill spurs willbepruned toa numberof andcordonsystems will beleft.Bush buds each 6 toperhaps with oneortwo 12 cane system,just canes ous season northern hemisphere, January untilearly March.Mostof the previ- main pruning normallytakes placeinmid to latewinter maintain the shape,manage the vigour and control theyield. The Whatever system of training is used,the vine will need pruning to Pruning methodsmanagement andcanopy 4.4 research istaking place in schoolsof viticulture. and constant refined, or developed recently been have Others trees. up Fig. 4.4 If vines arepruned hard theyield isreduced and,have aswe Vines trainedVSP ’ s growths willbecut away.In the caseofa replacement ’ s wood. s – pruned – in the in preceding the harvest. stressed. Irrigation not should take placeintheweeks immediately there isa view that vines, like humans, work best when slightly Restrictiveirrigation can beusedasameansof vigour control tiny amounta of water directly to the base of each individual vine. dispenses of thetrellis, wire pipe, oftenattachedtothebottom However, the system preferred by most is bling miniature garden sprinklers, placed above the trellis system. involves the vines being watered by tiny rotating nozzles resem- of vines with the benefit of less water usage. irrigation Furrow ages alarge root system, and helps to control certain soilpests. regarded by many as inefficient, but proponents say that it encour- where water is run over the entire surface of the vineyard, is be usedasameans ofyieldenhancement. Theuse of regions, viticulture wouldbe not possibleotherwise, butcan it also In New World countries, irrigation isextensively practised. In many Irrigation 4.5 quality. to let plenty ofsunlight into the vines, which initself promotes good canopy management,control ofthevines hl/ha) or more! However, these growers stress that hectare (200 brands is produced at arate of200 hectolitres (seeBox 4.2) per yields can give good quality. There are parts of Australia, heavily hl/ha). (35 yieldfor Grand Cru Burgundyis35 hectolitres per hectare is the legally permitted yield. For example, the basic permitted irrigated,where juice the that goes into somepopular, inexpensive Hectolitre: 100 litres (equivalent to 133 standard 75 cl bottles). cl Hectolitre: 100litres (equivalentto 133standard 75 Box 4.2 Many growers challengethis traditional and view claimthat high Definitionhectolitre of directs the directsmore along water therows specifically drip irrigation Micro-jet irrigation Micro-jet ’ foliage, iscrucial flood irrigation : aplastic – ,

CHAPTER 4 31 WINE PRODUCTION 32 4.6 The The growing season and work inthe 4.6 may beremoved the tomaximise vine the topsofthe vinesmaybe trimmed and leavesentire shoots summer, the During fruit. under-ripe produce will vines over-stressed for A little light rain from late June through to early August is beneficial, enlargement. cells aremultiplying, butthenthegrowth duetocell is growing the areberries because the weeks orso the firsttwo For whilst others developnormally. tiny bunch remain a millerandage unsuccessful pollination. Such weather conditionscan also lead to develop into grape berries due to them not opening or an otherwise may sufferfrom the vines wine isinthe glass.Ifthe weather atflowering timeiscoldor rainy, most exuberantthe offlowers weather will encourage asuccessful flowering. The flower is hardly indicates that mildewsmight be expected. In June,fairly still, warm (e.g.aweatherstation) theirearlywarningsystem others spray when spraying against mildews begins. Somegrowers spray routinely, areas. in many techniquenow thepreferred last is used. The climate, oilburners,aspersion or techniques maybe windmachines oftheyear outmuch wiping soil and create high humidity and thus encourage mildews. cm at most, as they would deplete the to grow too high, perhaps 60 the rowsto helpmaintainsoilbalance. Theseshouldnot beallowed age growth of coversome crops suchasbarley or legumes between a weed-freelike vineyard;others growers encour- Some this at time. more flexible. Tilling ofthe earth betweenthe rowsmaytake place beginning torise, andthecanesare sap is when theMarch,until operation leave this growers Many trellis system. the wire of bottom tying. thecaneswillbesecured tothe Iftheguyot is used system hemisphere vineyard. sary. Let usconsider the growing seasoninacool climate,northern vineyard, but throughout theseasonvineyard operations are neces- in the labourintensiveactivitiesof themost is one pruningWinter By July the fruit should have set, and the berries begin to swell. During Maythe shootswill grow rapidly. It is inthis month that The vine will normally budin April. Any frost now could be disastrous, Following theFebruary,may need pruninginJanuaryorvines the vineyard vineyard , also known as climatic ’ s crop. As we have seen when discussing seenwhen have crop.Aswe s ‘ shot berries – the vineuntil its the beauty saves the ’ s efficiency.Lateral shoots , the failure, the offlowersto ’ , where someberries in ment of plant energy. areplace- and growth tostimulate commonplace, is irrigation harvest wires replaced, etc. In areas where irrigation is permitted, a post- discussed in Chapter 7. each method andeachhas itsowncharacteristics. Thesewillbe quality ofthe wine.There are advantages and disadvantages to decisions that agrower has tomake, willimpact upon the style and The method andtimingof picking,along withthe other viticultural for Beaujolais, Ch grapes that legislation states must be picked by hand include those laws: Union) wine of theEuropeanparts of factors including(in the grapesare pickedbyhandor machine willdependonanumber mayberued. setinthis rains ness, butifautumn decision Whether extraof alittlegrowersthegood delaytheirharvest ripe- hope in sunburn. theriskof minimise tovine ofthe theeasternfrom side leaves only sound practicetoremove morning, itis thethat so of grapes tobaskinthesun.Theafternoon isgenerally sun hotter than allow the bunches to from aroundthe removeleaves grower may their colour dueto the formation of anthocyanins.Fromthis time the cent due to the formation of ripening.more yellowortranslu-beginning Whiteberries of become area required isbetween 7 and 14cm regarded as the world is RichardDr Smart,who beendevelopedby be calculatedhas to of leafarearequiredamountthe toripenagivenquantity ofgrapes allows which formula A thevine. factoryof food the are for theleaves grapes, inunder-ripe willresult leafremoval much too vine. However, energyason the thesearefeedingbe removed ofthe should always green harvesting or crop thinning may also take place. matic conditions, per gramofripe freshfruit. During the summer, Following the harvest the vineyard will needtidying, stakes and Many may notberipeuntilOctober.grapes the climate In acool In August comes the important stage of â teauneuf-du-Pape, Sauternes and Champagne. ’ s expert in canopymanagement. Theleaf experts in flavones 2 , dependent upon light and cli- and light upon , dependent , and black grapes takeon , and . This isthe

CHAPTER 4 33 Pests and Diseases

As with any other plant, the vine is susceptible to many types of pest and disease. Some pests, such as parasites, will derive their food from the host without causing too much harm. Others can be devastating. Diseases usually attack during the growing season and, unless controlled, can have a drastic effect on grape quality and the health of the vine. Consequently, growers need to be vigilant and face a constant battle. Most vine diseases need heat or humidity, or both, to flourish. The modern trend is to develop an integrated pest management programme that takes into account the environment and aims to reduce the use of pesticides, and this will be discussed in Chapter 6.

5.1 Important vineyard pests

The following list of vineyard pests is far from exhaustive, but includes many of the most serious. Some pose a problem in just a few regions within countries; others are present throughout the viticultural world.

• Phylloxera vastatrix (also known as Phylloxera vitifoliae and now, due to reclassification, more properly known as Daktulo- sphaira vitifoliae): this is the most serious of all pests and totally destructive, as we have already seen. The only reliable solution is to graft a variety of Vitis vinifera onto American spe- cies rootstock or a hybrid thereof. • Margarodes vitis: this is the most important of several species of Margarodes. It is present across large parts of South America, being the major pest of the grape vine in Chile, and also found

34 • • • • • • • can have the positive effect of restraining vine vigour. theyarewith notberesistant as may grafting to try and combat the pest, but American rootstocks irrigation Someproducers arenow canreducepest numbers. stunted, survival ofthevine possible.Heavyrainfall is orflood adepthatmetres, survive, whichthepestcannot prolonged, if However, ifthe vines areencouraged to root to a depthof 3 inevitable. is death vine time, Over ornocrop. low and death, leaf and vine roots, on instuntedgrowth, leaf discolouration, results Like in South Africa. It firstwas recognised around20years ago. isolated. Birds are selective and begin their destruction as fairly are vineyards where especially fruit, of vines stripping Birds animals are partial to the grapes. Rabbitsand hares strip can bark and leaves, whilst larger destructive. very be can and or gnaw, burrow dig, which kangaroos Animals previous biologicalbalance. when the introduction of certain insecticides destroyed the mites were largely unknown in vineyards before the1950s, They causeareduction inyield.It interesting is tonotethat foundontheuppersurface but of the leaves. mite, generally are mites Rust young vines. underside ofleaves, causing gallsthat affectthe growth of Grape erineummites and restrict growth.infest theleaves They mite. yellow and common includetheredmite Species abdomen. ratherhavingmites true than spiders, noseparatethorax and Spider mites rootstocks. nematode-resistant choose should growers problem, a are nematodes where Inareas thevineyard. through diseases and nutritional deficiency. Some species can spread virus stress water including vine, the for of problems a variety causing Nematodes Grape moths ( set in.set the spring and later damage the grapes, allowing diseaseto in ofthe vine thebuds attack insects flying these of caterpillars Phylloxera : can be a serious problem during the grapes : these include rabbits, hares, deer, wild boars, and thesehares, includerabbits, deer, : : these belong to the same species as grape erineum grape as species same the to belong these : : microscopic wormsthatfeedontheroot: system, : thesebelongtotheTetranychidaefamily andare e.g. pyrale( (for which it can be confused), confused), be can it which (for (grapeleaf blistermite):theseliveonthe ), and eudemis ( ), andeudemis Sparganothis pilleriana Phylloxera. Margarodes Lobesia botrana Margarodes ), cochylis ’ ripening, feeds ): the – 4

CHAPTER 5 35 WINE PRODUCTION 36 • below.which areconsidered The vinecan to the succumb manydiseases, most important of Diseases 5.2 • • (usually local people who areexperiencedatselecting the local people (usually may well be at different stages of attack. Thus the pickers known as and is will dryupand appearwrinkled. This isthe state ofperfection, are then knownas Theand take colour.thin andfragile grapes onabrown/plum changes. The fungus then attacks the skins, which become chemical andeffecting thesugars water,thusconcentrating more attacking the oftheripe sugar,but inside grapes. It consumes by particularly susceptibleto . The fungus gets to work duced from grapes affected by Some of the great sweet white wines of the world are pro- toautumn mornings giving verywarm,sunnyafternoons. way occur. Theidealconditions are damp,misty early ditions on some varieties of white grapes when certain climatic con- remedy this by nettingthisscarers.bird theirvinesorusing remedy audible thechoose to grapesstart toripen.Somegrowers as soon undesirable and thrives in wet, humid conditions on vigorously on conditions wet, humid and thrives in undesirable greymost rot dependingoncircumstances.As itis otherwise reducing the strength of the vine. eggs. A leglessgrub then tunnels along the canes,seriously weevils Vine encourage birds. conditions are wet. They will eat buds and foliage but also Snails (often induced by rain) can wreck a vintage.wreck a by rain) can (often induced of colour,loss tanninsandflavour. Outbreaks atharvest time black greatereffect on because itcauses grapesis thanwhite mould. Grey rot will result in offflavours in wine. However, its growing vines.It covers the leaves andthe grapes with agrey The grape varieties S In its benevolent form, : mainly a problem in early spring, especially where : the adult weevils drill holes into the canes and lay and canes the into holes drill weevils the adult : : this fungal: infection may bewelcomedor confit ‘ fully rotted . The individual berries withinabunch é millon, Riesling andChenin Blanc are Botrytis cinerea ’ . Inafurther stage, the grapes ‘ noble rot occurs occurs as ’ . ‘ noble rot ’ • • • • • cinerea is at the mercy of the weather, and in someyears quantityvintages variesquality and of considerably continues untillateNovemberinthenorthern hemisphere.The harvestand thedry,when sometimes be picked grapes must costly.The of course,extremely process is, grapes. This in aseriesofsuccessivepickings inorder to the select confit times to thevineyardsseveral haveto returnberries) desired vine arms dying. vine arms in resultsentering pruning and througholder vines, wounds, lata) (Eutypa dieback Eutypa attack young foliage. this isanother fungal disease that needs wet weather and can Black spot,alsoknownasanthracnose ampelina) (Elsinoe shoots, which can then break off. yellow rings on leaves. Black cracks appear at the base of in wet springs andmanifests asblack spots surrounded by spreads disease found inothercoolregions,this but Zealand, viticola) (Phomopsis Phomopsis surface. on thesoilgravel blue hue, and the spraysevena give a blue tint to pebbles or copper sulphate andlime. Vineyards thustreatedoften show with vines the spraying is treatment treated contact bycontact orsystemicmethods:acommon theberriesup andturncauses toshrivel leathery. may be It underside ofyoungleaves.Whenattacking thegrapes, it Dense whitegrowth onthe there tobeanoutbreak. forms mm of rain in a24 hour period is necessaryAt least 10 for wet weather, tocommon manyNorth European wineregions. grafting stock to combat America around 1878,probably onvinesbeing imported as viticola) (Plasmopara peronospera as known also mildew, Downy sulphur powder. with by dustingthevines treated be leaves. Itmay canopy of shady a dense, where thereis The diseasethrives in mild, cloudy conditions andespecially theinside buds.Eventually thegrapes willsplit andshrivel. toon growleavesspores ofthevineandit canoverwinter North America between 1845and1852.It palegrey causes this fungal reacheddisease thevineyards ofEurope from alsoknownPowdery (Uncinulanecator) as mildew, oidium doesnot develop successfully. : thisisanother North fungaldiseasethatcamefrom Phylloxera : this fungal disease usually attacks usually disease fungal : this : aparticular probleminNew . The disease thrives in in warm, thrives . Thedisease ‘ Bordeaux mixture – thecrop Botrytis ’

– : :

CHAPTER 5 37 WINE PRODUCTION 38 (contact), may start in the spring as the buds swell andsoften. swell the buds (contact),spring as startinthe may infection and mildews forming. and mildews infection early summer,foliage spraying is often done to prevent fungal In • through the The firsttissues. spraying, perhaps using lime freelytransportedtheplant andis agent of entersthesystem the surface of the leaves and other areas, or systemic,inwhich the be categorised as either contact, where the treatment remainson broadly may treatments Spray business. acostly is Spraying manually. tobeundertaken has then spraying steep, is very the terrain however, planes orhelicopters areanalternative. If, small but used forthis, minimise or prevent disease and control weeds.Tractors are usually is carriedoutto season in the growing times Spraying atoptimum treatments and Prevention 5.3 • answer. Nurseries supplying growers must ensure thatmaterial ensure growersmust supplying Nurseries answer. and yield.As there isnocure forviruses, prevention isthe only the kill vine,butgraduallyViruses donotusually reducegrowth fan leaf (court-nou in grapedisorders vines,e.g. of are responsibleforanumber Viruses plants merge. astwodifferent virus infection the risk of rootstock and scion used were virus-free. Grafting doubles nineteenth century, it becamecritical to check that both the combat infected plants. Once the need for grafting rootstocks to spreadmainlybytakingThis typeofdiseaseis cuttings from many vineyards in autumncan be asign ofvirus-ridden vines. Viral diseases water vegetation. otherwithcommonly reedsand associated e.g. lucerne,andis food cropsotherthangrapes, leaf. Thebacteriaaffects to leaf called wingedinsects small caused bytheorganism Pierce vineyards free of viruses, growers must buy certified stock. buy growers must free ofviruses, vineyards their keep to order In material. mother-garden original on heattreatment touse of ensuringthisis virus-free. Oneway is ’ s disease s Phylloxera : thevisuallyattractive in redvineleavesseen : prevalentthis bacterial inCalifornia, disease é had been established at the end of the ), leaf roll, corkyleafroll, barkandyellowmosaic. ), ‘ sharp-shooters is transmitted by istransmitted ’ , which hop from , which – sulphur Environmental Approaches in the Vineyard

Numerous environmental considerations must be taken into account and managed appropriately in the growing of vines and production of grapes for wine. Of growing significance is the production of grapes using environmentally sensitive methods and particularly those encom- passed by the developing concept of environmental sustainability.

6.1 Integrated pest management (IPM)

The days when grape growers were held hostage to the agro-chemical salesman are perhaps forever behind us. It seems that every grower is practising ‘la lutte raisonnée’, ‘integrated pest management’, ‘sustainable viticulture’ or whatever title they choose to use. During the 1960s, ’70s and ’80s it seemed that you could not enter a vine- yard without seeing routine preventative spraying, or applications of yield ‘enhancing’ chemicals. Now, cover crops abound and the gentle hum of ‘beneficial’ insects is the main sound to be heard. And yet the standards of vineyard hygiene are perhaps higher than ever. In 1991, the ITV (Centre Technique Interprofessionnel de la Vigne et du Vin) published Protection Raisonnée du Vignoble (ITV, 1991). It has become both bible and practical guide to thousands of growers needing to fight pests and maladies of the vine, be they cryptogams, bacteria, viruses or mycoplasmata. Conversion to integrated pest management (IPM) is reasonably straightforward. The grower has to identify possible problems, consider the various prophylactic methods of treatment, estimate the risk of the problems occurring (this is the real key to success) and then undertake treatments only as necessary and mindful of the wider consequences. For example, when spraying is necessary, instead of cannon spraying it is possible to use a precise

39 WINE PRODUCTION 40 male, andthus prevent breeding. Beneficial insectsareunaffected. Neoseiulus (spider) mite isdealt with bythe introduction of alarger white spider patroltheyand fertilise thevines.Thered thevineyard beaks intoas burytheiranythingthat they can else eatburritos and of geese around andretreats to the earth. Someproducers employ agaggle leafylunch itgetsstuck orturns up toits burritothe tries toclimb around the vine binding ofplasticmaterial with asticky surface whichiswrapped the plantof nutrients and stunting growth. The organic defenceisa given achancemunchesitswaythrough the leafstructure, starving asdealtwith organicproducers and in Chile. by lems some solutions particular prob- some we willconsider of example, ingenuity. Byway naturalwithdealtcountered using these cannowbe withchemicals, there are alwayspeststhat pose particular problems. At one time is less challenging thanincooler, morehumidareas. Nevertheless, drysummers with warm, inregions viticulture Organic and pesticides. herbicides fertilisers, uponchemical lower cost thanthose dependent ically grown grapes canactually be of higher quality andproduced at organicquality. winegrapes ofhigh Today,manybelievethat organ- farm in Pennsylvania and founded Rodale Press. as recently as1946,byJ.I.Rodale.He createda demonstration once allfarmingOf course, was viticulture Organic 6.2 2 metres on the trellis wires. These create2 metres onthetrellis wires.These be reduced byhanging capsulescontainingpheromones every small effective.thereforeand most be timely, necessary itwill is up thecanopy,butifspraying by opening simply be achievedmight are such that outbreaks of particular diseasesare likely. Prevention lished,producing daily reportswarning subscribinggrowers ifconditions residues in the soil. liquid, therebythe reducingand chemical actualdoseperhectare jet machine, or one with panels that collect andrecycle surplus The ago,years20However, little therewere as as fewproducers of The problem of insectsome pests,particularly grape moths, can In manyregions, networks ofweather stations have beenestab- burrito , harmless , harmless to vines, that feeds on thered mite.Grass (meaning (meaning ’ s trunk about half ametre fromthe ground. When ‘ little donkey ‘ organic ’ ), is a nasty mite thatwhen nasty a ), is ’ , but given thename was ‘ sexual confusion ’ inthe soil compaction. Flowering plants arespecificallyincludedtoattract Alpacas are with blessed theattribute ofsofthooves,thus reducing fowl and alpacaseatsurface pestsandkeep down cover crops. ducks, strutting turkeys andeven alpacas reduced by of sprays liquified grapefruit, as shown in Fig. 6.1. permitted contact treatment) and with asprayof sulphur every ten beforedays veraison (sulphurisa the wasps, which are then trapped. Powdery mildewiscountered into have whichholes beenpunched.Thesugary residueattracts used plastic hanging soft by drink bottles countered are Wasps crushed. and away taken by is ensuring that all pruned material The problem of The problem pr organic in necessary Good vineyard hygiene is particularly on. munch to something spiders white the giving by (IPM) Management plantings between the rows of vines complete the Integrated Pest Fig. 6.1 Organic vineyard canbeparticularly scenes bucolic, withgeese, Vine sprayedgrapefruit withliquified escolito , an insect that lives on the canes, isreduced onthecanes, that lives , aninsect Botrytis cinerea – all for a purpose. The all fora (grey rot) is oduction.

CHAPTER 6 41 WINE PRODUCTION 42 to thepassageof themoon ‘ viticulture, considerbiodynamicsas expertsin scientists, includingsome biodynamic farming.Many versy, scepticism,hostility, or passionate advocacy as the topic of There islittleinthe worldofviticulturethat arouses suchcontro- viticulture Biodynamic 6.3 apparent. project it will take 4to 5 yearsfor the positive effects to become the vinepests lectures entitled entitled lectures Coul Domaine Huetand (Alsace);Chapoutierand Marcel Deiss (Rh Zind Humbrecht Roman wines practise biodynamie. In FrancetheseincludeDomainedela are to the earth. The mixtures will beadded onthe appropriate day quantities of tiniest the in added being before anticlockwise, and wise the plants. Thecompost the moreavailabletraceations, to to elementsinthesoilbecome help biodynamic prepar- alongwithotherthenadded tocompost This is 502No. comprises yarrow flowerheads fermented inastag hectare.in 34litres ofwater)per gofmanure(dissolved 60 rate of months, andthe contents are thensprayed onthesoilat a typical 6 is buriedfor a cow.Thehorn preparedin thehornof duringwinter 500 numbered these, theations, attheappropriateare natural cycle.There timein nineof synthetic, carbon-based pesticides were invented. are not used. Itshould benoted thatSteiner formed hisideas before pesticides course, synthetic fertilisers, herbicidesand and stars.Of but bytheair, terrestrial cycles andthose ofthesun,moon,planets approach whichholdsthat plants are energised not just by thesoil forces died a year later, and the term biodynamic, which translates to by DrRudolfSteiner. He in June1924 groupgiven offarmers toa black magic The birth of biodynamic farming stemsfrom a series of eight Biodynamic producersenhance the soilby applying special prepar- ‘ leaf days ’ was not coined until after his death. Biodynamism is a holistic isa Biodynamism death. untilafterhis notcoined was é e Conti, Domaine Leroy and Domaine Leflaive (Burgundy);Leflaive Domaine Leroyand e Conti,Domaine ’ . However, producers of some of the world ’ ’ , natural predators. From thecreation ofabiodiversity ‘ ‘ root days Spiritual Foundations for the Renewal of Agriculture – 508. For example no. 500 is dung manure, dung 500 is no. For example 508. é e de Serrant (Loire). e ‘ teas ’ , ‘ flower days – ’ andat the are ‘ dynamised dynamised ‘ ’ unscientific tosh unscientific and ‘ correct ‘ fruit days – stirredboth clock- ’ timeofthe day. ’ ’ according s greatests ’ ’ s bladder. , indeed ô ne) and – there ‘ life ’ winery), although some producers are having success with substituting with success are having producers some although winery), viticulture and it operates only in this respect.in this viticulture and itoperates only is, however, making inroads intothe certification ofbiodynamic for allkinds of biodynamicagriculture. A rival organisation, Biodivin, biodynamicfarmers. The organisation operates certification schemes e.V. (seeWebsites which section), is the main certification body for biodynamic agriculture arerepresented byDemeter-International a formoforganicagriculturethose involvedintereststhe with of auditing As thecompliance withtheschemes. ofproducerstoverify as variety oforganicagriculture well of a certification as schemes AssociationWebsites (see section), which isinvolvedthe in definition the Soil UK is from the organisationin and operatingscribe. One sub- which theymay toorganisations tothe choice as thus havea tolife. sulphur areconsideredessential mildew. Bothcopperand counters powdery whey, which milk or with sulphur use vineyard the vineyard(andsulphurdioxideinthe sulphate andsulphurin Bothbiodynamic producers organic areallowedtousecopper and There areThere several certification organic for producers, bodies who

CHAPTER 6 43 The Harvest

This is a critical point during the winemaking cycle when the grapes are picked and transferred to the winery. It is sometimes referred to as ‘vintage’. The grower/producer must decide upon the ripeness of the grapes and when to pick. In the northern hemisphere, picking can begin in late August through to late October or even November depending on the mesoclimate and the year’s weather. In the southern hemisphere, picking can start in late January through to May.

7.1 Grape ripeness and the timing of picking

The quality conscious grower aims for physiological ripeness, which is not simply a matter of sugar and acidity, but also of tannins and flavour compounds. On black grape varieties, a lot can be deter- mined by tasting the grape and examining the pip, which should be completely brown. In the weeks and days preceding harvest, the grapes are tested regularly for sugar content. This is usually carried out in the vineyard using a refractometer. Some growers choose to rely on their own sense of taste to make such judgment by going out into the vineyard and tasting the grapes. The timing of picking is one of the most crucial decisions a grower will make during the vineyard year. This decision is usually jointly made between the grower and the wine- maker, unless they are one and the same person. In cooler climates, the grower may be tempted to delay picking in order to obtain a little extra ripeness, especially of the polyphenols. However, the possibility of autumn rain, which may cause rot, can put pressure on timing. Unexpected hailstorms can also be a hazard,

44 without crushing the grapes are now usedby many growers. These grapes. carefully selected. Gentle handling means minimal damage to the such asSauternes, single berries affected by noble rot can be removed. Invineyards producinggrapes forhigh qualitysweetwines ofthedamaged parts bunchorevenindividualrotten berries be may selective: very be to possible is It stalks. their with along picked whole bunches are essential. Of course, the grapes are usually byparticular vinificationsome typesofwinemade For techniques, pose problems. can sometimes when required so havingtheskilledlabouravailable in advance,and predicted well be accurately cannotalways of andfeeding. harvest The date housing pickers vineyard and on all terrains, however steep or rugged. Of course This method can beused whatever the training system in the picking Hand 7.2.1 factors. several and disadvantages to eachmethod, and thechoice may dependon and the speed of machine picking harvesting. There are advantages Essentially, the difference isbetween slow and selective hand picking usedaffects the styleandquality ofthefinishedwine. of start to deterioratethe from moment theyare picked. The method allow handpicking.Grapes laws only European regions,wine some There are two basic of methods picking: hand and mechanical. In Harvesting methods 7.2 achieve a well balanced wine. and it isnecessaryto undertakerapidly a rapid picking in order to ripening can very quickly accelerate, causing acidity levels to fall different grape varieties ripenatdifferent times.Inhotter climates course, ripen atdifferentrates.Of grapes may the vineyard,within causing anddelay.Wheretheredamage are different mesoclimates Picking by hand is essentially the cutting of part or whole bunches. ofpartorwhole cutting the essentially is by hand Picking Small plastic crates (lug boxes) that stack on top of each othercratesSmall plastic (lugboxes)that stackontopofeach ’ labour costs can besubstantial, and theteam willneed

CHAPTER 7 45 WINE PRODUCTION 46 O arewinemaking, dopickMOGs notavailable.Machines Stalks,in the whichcanactas drainage earlystagesof channels bunches. wholenotpickedthat and onlyberriescanbe means between grapes. The healthyanddiseased actionofmachines the unselective process is receivethatmechanical harvesting hotgrapes. Adisadvantage is of thetowinemakernot wineryingoodcondition.The wantto does thatdelivered grapesarepickedatcooltemperatures and ensuring regions, hotter in important is This night. at picking undertake to can operate 24 hours a day and have the advantage of being able harvesters Also, mechanical forecast. limited, e.g.badweatheris team needs, which is important where picking time is hand-picking precise fruiting zone iscontrolled on the trellis hedge. a damage to vinesandeven thetrellis system.It important is that a receptioncollectedarecause hopper.Thevibrating in armscan terrain. The berries are pickedby being vibrated offthe vinesand ing seasonhasbeen abnormal. available at the required time, especially if the weather in the grow- may notbe butgrowersa picking relyonthehiring this machine, of and the installation of appropriate trellis training Some systems. machines butalsothepreparation ofthevineyard withwiderows The capitalcost issubstantial most advanced to becrudeandrefuse to machines utilise them. ades, although there are many producers who considereven the Machine picking hasbeengaining popularity inthepastfewdec- picking Machine 7.2.2 eliminate unsuitablegrapes. table either in thevineyard orat thewinery reception inorder to sorting employ ateamat Quality producers may winery. conscious straight dumped into the lorryor them to the thatwilltransport trailer be may simply grapes important,and, whenqualityisless grapes crates of common tosee thathold50kilograms still However, itis enable thegrapes tobe transferred tothewineryingoodcondition. vineyard debris. ther than Machines can pick a vineyard in a fraction of the time that a sloping or gentlyflat on be used can only harvesters Mechanical G rape. These canrape. These includeladybirds,snails, leavesand – the unable machine is to distinguish – it is not just the cost of of the cost the just not is it –

M aterials 7.3 Style and quality and Style 7.3 loss ofaromatics. phenolics andthe to excessive particularlywines, canlead white for juice, the with contact skin prolonged and in set will oxidation wine.Ifthegrapes damaged, are qualityofthefinished the styleand timingtheand speedoftheir arrivalthe at winery, willimpact on Ultimately, the method ofpicking and handling ofthe grapes, the

CHAPTER 7 47 Vinification – The Basics

The process of turning grapes into wine is called vinification. It is a highly developed process, full of scientific complexity if one looks deeply enough. It is not the intention of this chapter to explore vinification in detail or engage with difficult concepts, but to draw the reader into the subject.

8.1 Basic principles of vinification

The sugars contained in the pulp of grapes are fructose and glucose. During fermentation enzymes from yeast convert the sugars into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide in approximately equal proportions and heat is liberated:

C6H12O6 → 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2 + Heat Additionally, tiny amounts of other products are formed during the fermentation process, including glycerol, succinic acid, butylene glycol, acetic acid, lactic acid and other alcohols. The winemaker has to control the fermentation process, aiming for a wine that is flavoursome, balanced and in the style required. The business of winemaking is fraught with potential problems, including stuck fer- mentations (the premature stopping of the fermentation whilst the wine still contains unfermented sugars), acetic spoilage, or oxidation. The amount of sugar in must, and the (glucose and fructose) in fermenting wine, can be determined by using a dens- ity hydrometer. A number of different methods can be used to meas- ure density, which can be directly related to sugar content using appropriate formulae or, more readily, prepared tables. Different countries tend to use one or other of the methods available. The

48 stages ofthe process. Somewineries winemaking have beenbuilt onlyby gravitysubsequent to orwinemoves Thecrushing. must flow, with grapes arriving at or being hoisted to the top level for aim forgravity Somewinerydesigners be minimised. tances should more than20 insulation isrequired, forthe idealambienttemperature isno inside theside, facingdows onthewestern hot afternoon Adequate sun. win- bebeneficialnottohave It canalso walls intothemiddaysun. building should be sited on a north climate, the a hot consideration. In major a cool is the building ing inFig.8.1. norroof,asshown been built that haveneitherwalls have wineries orsomany twentyyears Duringthepast businesses. ofmany to the profits contribution amajor havebecome door sales andcellar- tourism wine inanage when especially property, ancient envytheneighbour may winery,theproducer his or hernewly built of hangar sterile with a faced when Conversely, project. an embryonic with available to those canvas theblank may long for and dampness ch inherited theancestral whohas Thewinemaker wineryarchitect. ofaspecialist the design builtto perhaps constructions, to the modern practical appearance oftimeless externally buildings oldstone varyfromcenturies Wineries anddesign location Winery 8.2 hours. Consequently, a little colour is leached into the juice.the little leachedinto hours. Consequently,a colouris in contact withthe skins foralimitedamountoftime, e.g. 12to18 the Champagne region. in practised blackgrapes,from commonly be made wine can white becauseand skins it canadd a degree ofcomplexity. Ofcourse, winemakers choose to havealimitedskin contactbetween thejuice must beextracted fromtheskins.For white wines,however, some wines. Grape juice isalmost colourless. For red wine, the colour readings. to maintain accurate records, including temperature and gravity essential Throughoutvinification itis theOechsle methods. process use aretheBaum in commonly methods most When planning a new winery, practicalities usually dictate. Keep- Ros There areimportant differences inthe making ofred,white andros é wine is usually made from black grapes whose juice has been has juice whose grapes black from made usually is wine ° C (68 ° F). Pumping of must or wine over longdis- or must F). Pumpingof â teau with all its low ceilings, narrowdoors lowceilings, withallits teau – south axis, with the shorter é , , Balling and , Brix, Balling ’ é s

CHAPTER 8 49 WINE PRODUCTION 50 • • includes: utilised some ofthe items are usedfor a just few daysayear. Equipment Equipping orre-equipping awinery very is capital intensive,and equipment Winery 8.3 consequently deaths in wineries can occur. wineries can consequently deathsin and asphyxiatinggas is of carbondioxide.The 40 litres about duces in the vat rooms and areas where equipment washing takes place. used in the winery. Adequate drainage isrequired throughout, especially general rule, forevery 1litre of wine produced 10 litres ofwater will be poses. Although water isnot normallyan ingredient inwinemaking, asa ambient temperature. the minimise flow principleand tofacilitatethegravityhillsides into Fig. 8.1 Ventilation is vital. Every litre ofgrape whenfermented,juice, pro- Wineries use copiousamounts of water, particularly for cleaning pur- fermentation and storage vats crusher/destemmer(s) Winery withoutroofwalls or • either shallowstonetubscalled used, particularly for white wines. Traditionally, wine wasmadein in vats,althoughbarrels aresometimes fermented usually Wine is Fermentationvats 8.3.1 • • • • • • • • resistant, is ideal for both reds and whites. Stainless steel vats may steelvatsand whites. Stainless redsresistant, idealforboth is morecorrosion andis and harder molybdenum whichcontains grade, whilst thebetteronly suitableforredwinefermentations,really 316 Theresteelused forconstruction: aretwogradesis 304grade of build incoolingsystems. ofcleaning,andtheability toeasiness becoming commonplace. The great advantages of the material are were using steel, stainless but now its presence inwinemaking is into a dairy! At the start of the 1970s only three Bordeaux properties owned the property at the time)ofturning the illustrious ch Ch acceptance. When,inthe 1960s, stainless steelwasinstalled at to note that it is only fromthe late 1970sthat they gained universal whennecessary. be re-lined and thevatscan betterA much liningmaterial epoxy is resin,whichiseasilycleaned, wine getting behind themwould present a serioushygiene problem. and damage, prone to they are but purpose, this for used were often be lined,for theacidsinwinecan attack thematerial. Glazedtiles winery, utilisingallavailable space.Concrete or vats cement should in asingleordoubletiercanbe builtThey againstthewallsof vessels. fermentation excellent as regard these still and many century became verypopularwithproducers intheearlytomid-twentieth wines. Cuboidvatsmade ofconcrete (b inPortugalsome producers ofPortby stillare used sometimes be trodden, the gentlest ofcrushing, or inopen wooden vats. Lagars Stainless steel (inox) vats are now commonplace, but it is interesting is it but commonplace, now are vats (inox) steel Stainless â teau Latour in Bordeaux,British the (who thelocalsaccused press(es) press(es) cleaning equipment. laboratory equipment bottling line, if wine isto be bottled on the property utilised barrels, if refrigeration equipment filters and hoses moveable pipes fixed and pumps ‘ lagars ’ , inwhichthe grapes would é ton) orcement(ciment) â teau

CHAPTER 8 51 WINE PRODUCTION 52 Fig. 8.2 Fig. 8.3 Winery withassortedvats Winery withstainless steel vats containing various vats are shown in Figs 8.2 and 8.3. Figs 8.2 shown in arecontaining variousvats reductivity,aswill discussed be inChapter17. Illustrations ofwineries ever riskofthewinebeingaffectedby are present,butthere less is sized wineries. The difficulties ofmaintaining and sanitising the vats and medium- small materialsome at forvatconstructionlarity a as their wooden vats with stainless steel, wood isagain gaining popu- sionally used as a costlyless alternative to stainlesssteel. inflatable plastican tyreby atthe perimeter. Fibreglass vats are occa- when only partly filled. These have a floating metal lid, held in place lock. Variable capacityvats are alsoavailableand usefuleven fermentation and lid hatch asealable with closed, or topped be open Although in the late twentiethlate producers replaced centurymany in the Although

CHAPTER 8 53 Red Wine Making

This chapter describes the processing of grapes to make red wine. Various approaches can be, and are, taken in the production of red wine and many different processes may be used. The following processes are usually undertaken, but it should be borne in mind that the list is neither prescriptive nor exhaustive.

9.1 Destemming and crushing

On arrival at the winery, the stalks may be removed to prevent any bitterness tainting the juice. Following this, the grapes can be lightly crushed. Both these tasks can be performed by the same machine, a crusher–destemmer, as illustrated in Fig. 9.1. The grapes

Fig. 9.1 Destemmer, crusher and pump

54 55 are fed via a hopper into a rotating slotted cylinder. As this rotates, the berries pass through the slots, leaving the stalks behind – these are then expelled from the machine and can be used for fertiliser. The grape berries are passed through a series of rollers that can be adjusted to give the chosen pressure in order to release the juice. For certain wines, where whole bunches are required for pressing, e.g. Beaujolais, the grapes will not be destemmed or crushed. There is a growing trend amongst some red wine makers to include at least a percentage of whole grapes in their fermentations. CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER

9.2 Must preparation

The resultant mixture of grape juice with seeds, skins and pulp (must) now has to be prepared for fermentation. Various additions and adjustments may be undertaken.

• Sulphur dioxide (SO2): this is the winemaker’s universal antioxidant and disinfectant, and is used at many stages in winemaking. To prevent fermentation starting prematurely, it may be added to inhibit the action of wild yeasts and bacteria. These organisms require oxygen for growth, and are naturally found on grape skins. Wild yeasts (which can cause off flavours) die when 4% alcohol is reached. Naturally occurring wine yeasts found in the vineyard and the winery work without the action of oxygen and thus can work even if the must is blanketed with sulphur dioxide. In many parts of the world, winemakers now prefer to use selected cultured yeasts for greater control, reliability and for specific flavours. It should be noted that producers often speak of wild yeast fermentation, when refer- ring to use of the natural yeasts that come into the winery on the grapes. • Must enrichment (chaptalisation): in cooler climates, grapes often do not contain enough sugars to produce a balanced wine. This may be addressed by chaptalisation – the addition of sucrose to the must or the juice in the early stages of fermen- tation. It is important that only the minimum necessary amount is added or further imbalance will be created. The practice is not permitted in many, hotter, countries. The European Union WINE PRODUCTION 56 • • • • • • able. Its use is common inNewWorldcountries,able. Its useiscommon particularly when the mustsare nitrogen deficient. must must is usedinstead of sugar. concentratedto countriesaccordinggrape thezone.Insome and theamount, if any,of chaptalisation allowed varies conditions, climaticzones accordingtocrude dividedinto is undertaken with caution. thiamine togrow,needs andadditionsofthisneed tobe It as a spoilage yeast and, therefore, is generally undesirable. yeast The theirlife. prolong populations and yeastfermentation tohelpincrease stages of including calcium carbonate (CaCO carbonate calcium including There areUnion. beused, that ofmaterials anumber may European the of regions warmer in not permitted Itis low. too De-acidification exceptional (hot) weather conditions. 1687/2003 permitted acidification on account of the are possible. For example, in 2003 Regulation (EC) No. as regions EU the in A and B),(classified but derogations erally not permitted Union European the of regions cooler in uncommon in Argentina. Acidification is gen- not is it although malic acid isnot permittedwithin theEuropean Union, tartaricacidis the usual method employed. The additionof too high, that is,if the acidity istoo low. The additionof is Acidification Thiamine fermentation, ofhydrogen sulphide (H sugars are fermentedand out to stopthe formation, during mg per litre ofmust, tohelp ensure that allthe a rate of200 phosphateDiammonium (DAP) and B group vitamins maybe added to promote their growth. Yeast nutrients skins. the natural presenton the yeasts utilise simply Yeast chalk, potassium bicarbonate (KHCO (K tartaric acid. grapes of high acidity. NB: Calcium carbonate onlyreduces the developed in Germany, where the cool oftenclimate produces both tartaric andmalicacids in must or wine. The product was a seededcalcium carbonateis double-salt designedto reduce 2 CO : cultured yeastsmaybeadded, or the may winemaker 3 ). Another agent that may be utilised is Acidex Anotherbe utilisedis that agent). may : thiamine(vitamin B : thismaynecessary be if theof pH the must : this may be necessary if the pH of the must ispH ofthemust the necessary if may be : this : asliving yeastsneednutrients,organisms, Brettanomyces : this maybe added, usually at 1 ) bemay addedinthe early 3 3 ), perhaps better knownas better ), perhaps ), andpotassiumcarbonate 2 S), whichundesir- ismost is regarded by most regarded is ® , which 57

9.3 Fermentation, temperature control and extraction

As we have seen, the process of fermentation results in the conversion of sugar by the enzymes of yeast into alcohol and carbon dioxide.

9.3.1 Fermentation

The fermentation of red wine takes place with grape solids present, CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER in order to extract colour from the skins. Initially the fermentation can be very tumultuous, but as more sugar is converted, the rate slows down. In the majority of cases the fermentation is continued until the wine is dry or off dry, and depending upon the richness of the must, the final alcohol concentration is generally in the range 11% to 14.5% by volume.

9.3.2 Temperature control

The fermentation process is a turbulent one and creates heat naturally. During red winemaking, fermentation may begin at about 20 °C, but temperatures may rise to 30° to 32 °C. Yeast ceases to work if the temperature rises above approximately 35 °C. Therefore some form of temperature control may be necessary, especially in warmer regions, to prevent this happening before the sugars are fully fermented. It is only in the past few decades that wine- makers have had the equipment and ability to be able to have real control. One hundred grams of sugar in a litre of juice has, when fermented, the theoretical potential to heat the juice by 13 °C. If grape must of 11.1° Baumé commences fermentation at 15 °C, the potential tem- perature increase could be to 41 °C. If fermentation of must with a Baumé of 14.5° commences at 20 °C, the potential temperature increase is to 54 °C. Of course, some of this heat is naturally dissi- pated during the period of fermentation through the walls of the vat and with the rising carbon dioxide, through the juice to the surface. Good colour extraction requires warm fermentations. However, cooler fermentations aid the growing of yeast colonies and give higher alcoholic degrees. The warmer the temperature, the less time the WINE PRODUCTION 58 with the skins after completion of the alcoholic fermentation, until of thealcoholic skins aftercompletionthe with Depending onthestyle required, the wine may beleft to soak Maceration 9.4 CO the with thesurface to rise skins and solids The openvats. in fermented be The traditional process for red wines isfor the grape to mass Extraction 9.3.3 precariously suspended over thefermentationvats. suspended precariously hand with sticks, orofthe woodenpaddles, eventhefeet cellarstaff pigeage equipment, in manywineriessubmerging the cap isdoneby mechanical extractionwithnow befittedprocess. Although vatscan for some varieties, particularly which needsa very gentle This techniqueof colonies. to the yeast ofaeratingthe which helps boost benefit must, as known This process, submerge it. the bottom of the vat and pumpedup and sprayed over the cap to juice. thrivewarm, insuch moist a environment,riskingspoilageofthe begood extraction ofcolour andtannins. Also, acetic bacteria because the skins need tobe incontact with the juice for there to device (drapeau) can be inserted or built in. In vatsametalcooling or running downtheoutside. concrete wooden Alternatively,ofcold water they may becooledbyshowers jackets. tanks are now commonly wrapped with water or glycol cooling exchangers to reduce (or increase) temperature. Stainless steel requiredmay be for larger vats. Wine can be pum small vats or barrels can be self-regulating. Cooling equipment likeBurgundy,of thetemperatureof regions underground cellars cool the In dryness. to fermentation complete toensure so, cooled to25 vat be latteraid extraction. may stages,the Inthe 20 cool, atsay a trickyvatquitestartdecideto exercise. fairly a Awinemakermay fermentation takes. Accordingly,temperature managingthecan be Consequently, during the process, the juice is the is drawn out fromnear theprocess, juice during Consequently, 2 and create afloating cap. This is adisadvantage ° C, and allow it to riseto around30 naturallyallow itto C, and pigeage , simply punching down the cap, is used down thecap,is punching , simply remontage , hasthe additional ped through heat ° ° C to C or 59 sufficient colour, flavour and tannins are extracted. This maceration could vary from 2 or 3 days up to 28 days. If an ‘early drinking’ red is required, the juice may be drained off the skins just before completion of the fermentation. Alternatively, if the winemaker believes that a post-fermentation maceration would not be beneficial, with the risk of hard tannins being extracted, the tank may be drained hot, that is, immediately after the alcoholic fermentation, before the wine has cooled.

9.5 Racking 9 CHAPTER

Racking is the process of transferring juice or wine from one vessel to another, leaving any sediment behind. After the fermentation and any maceration the wine, known as free-run juice, will be run off to another vat. The skins and other solids are left behind in the fermentation vat. These will be transferred to the press to obtain further juice. Between 10 and 15% of the total juice comes from the pressing process. Free run juice has less tannin and is usually considered superior to pressed juice. Some producers choose to make their wine only from free run juice. Racking will also take place at various other times in the winemaking/maturation process to remove the wine from lees and sediment, and clarify it. Aeration can also take place during the racking process, and an addition of sulphur dioxide may be made if necessary.

9.6 Pressing

The juice released from the press will naturally be higher in tannin and colouring pigments. More than one pressing may be carried out, but with each pressing the press wine becomes coarser. Some presses are controlled to exert varying levels of pressure at different stages, often gentle at the beginning but harder with each subsequent pressing. There are a variety of types of press available, including basket press, horizontal plate press and pneumatic press. The characteristics of these will be considered later. WINE PRODUCTION 60 . Malolactic fermentation 9.7 unpleasant. A period of maturation isrequired during which the Immediately after fermentation, winesmaytaste rough and fairly Maturation 9.9 well be rejected and used in a lower quality wine or sold off in bulk. may vats some theobject, particular Wherehighqualityis season. a the blend.Some varieties or vineyard blocks may perform better in considerswhatproportion ofeachvariety includedin is winemaker parts.Where different grape varieties areblended together, the a brandstyle.maintain and perhapsto sistencies incon- even out toparts, its of sum greaterthea productthatis than forprime reasons blendingaretohave wine.The style andqualityof various vatswillthentake placeinorder toachieve thedesiredfinal ripeness, will have been fermented separately. Blending of these of vine. Individual grape varieties, having beenpicked according to districts or even ofvineyards, ages sections vineyards, from different has finishedthere willbe variousvats or barrels containing wines This isan in wineproduction. Once fermentation important operation Blending 9.8 complexity. amount of the wine aslight wine with sulphur dioxide and/or keeping the wine cool. It gives lactic acidbacteria. Alternatively, it canbeprevented bytreating the can be induced bywarming thevats, orinoculating with strainsof gofcarbon dioxide.Malolacticfermentation 0.33 of lactic acidand g 0.67 acidproduces inmilk). gram ofmalic One (as lactic acid found Harsh malic acid(as found in apples) is converted into softer tasting bacteria of the genera strains of atransformationcaused bytheactionof be describedas involved.can Itis not Yeastsecondary fermentation.referred toas sometimes is and so alcoholic fermentationthe follows usuallyThis This selection process could involve a great number ofcomponent involveagreat number could process This selection ‘ buttery Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc ’ and/or toasty nose andsometimesa certain and Pediococcus . 61 tannins soften and acidity levels fall. The choice of maturation vessel and the period of time depend upon the style of wine to be produced and quality and cost factors. There are many types of maturation vessels, including stainless steel vats and wooden barrels. Some wines which are intended for early drinking, such as inexpensive or branded wines, need little or no maturation. Stainless steel is an ideal storage material because it is impermeable to gases such as oxygen. The wine therefore is stored until required for bottling. Of course, stainless steel is ideally suited to temperature control and is used where long-term, oxygen-free storage is required, for example when inexpensive wines are held prior to being ‘bottled to order’. 9 CHAPTER Most high quality red wines undergo a period of barrel maturation – usually somewhere between 9 and 22 months. During the time in barrels, the wine will undergo a controlled oxygenation and absorb some oak products, including wood tannins and vanillin. Barrel size has an effect on the maturation of the wine; the smaller the barrel the quicker the maturation. Temperature also plays an important part; the lower the temperature, the slower the maturation. When the barrels have been filled they will be tapped with a mallet to dislodge air bubbles, which rise to the surface of the wine, thus removing oxygen. During the period in barrel the wine will be racked several times to aid clarification – for example red Bordeaux wines are normally racked four times during the first year’s maturation, and perhaps once or twice in the second. Many producers regularly top up the barrels to replace wine lost to evaporation, but there is a viewpoint that if the barrels are securely sealed the ullage at the top is a partial vacuum and topping up may not be beneficial. The processes of preparing the wine for bottling will be considered later. Dry White Wine Making

Although the techniques used for making white wine are similar to red, the sequence of operations is different.

10.1 Crushing and pressing

10.1.1 Crushing

On arrival at the winery, white grapes should be processed with minimum delay to avoid deterioration and the onset of premature fermentation. In hot climates, ideally grapes are chilled before the crushing stage. In most cases, they will be destemmed and lightly crushed before pressing. It is becoming increasingly popular for the winemaker to allow some hours or even days of skin contact with the juice at low temperatures before the grapes go to the press. This may extract more aroma compounds and enhance flavours. When white wine is being made from black grapes, crushing must be avoided to prevent any colour being leached into the juice, and whole clusters are sent to the press. Many winemakers like to do this with clusters of white grapes too, believing this gives a great purity of juice.

10.1.2 Pressing

Unlike in the red wine process, pressing occurs before fermentation. Gentle pressing, avoiding the crushing of pips, results in better quality juice. The skins of white grapes are not used during the fermentation process.

62 63

10.2 Must preparation

The juice is drained from the press into settling tanks. If the must is not cleared of solid matters, then off tastes can result. A simple settling over a period of 12 to 24 hours, a process known in France as débourbage, may take place. The must is then racked to another tank for fermentation. Clarification can also be achieved by using a centrifuge, which speeds up the process, or by filtration. Very fine particles can also be removed by treating the must with bentonite. This is a form of clay earth which acts as a flocculent, attracting and binding fine particles which then settle out of suspension. If the CHAPTER 10 must is over clarified, fermentation may proceed slowly and the wine may not ferment to completion. Yeast nutrients attach to solid matter within the wine, making them accessible to yeasts. The removal of solid matter can reduce the availability of nutrients, with detrimental effects on yeast growth. The must may then be passed through a heat exchanger to lower the temperature. This not only prevents a premature onset of fermen- tation, but also preserves freshness and flavours. The must is treated with sulphur dioxide to prevent aerobic yeasts and spoilage bacteria working. Selected cultured yeasts may then be added.

10.3 Fermentation

The must is then pumped directly to the fermentation vats or barrels. With careful winery design, this process can be achieved simply by gravity, for pumping is by nature a harsh process. Selected cultured yeasts may be introduced and are often used in white wine making. White wine is usually fermented cooler than red wine, at around 10° to 18 °C and over a longer period to preserve primary fruit flavours. Each vat is under temperature control, usually with its own chilling system. Cool fermentations are desirable for aromatic whites, with less cool fermentations used when full-bodied wines are desired. Some white wines are fermented in barrels to give particular charac- teristics to the wines and a better integration of oak flavours. Barrels also give a better supply of oxygen, required by the yeast in the early stages of fermentation. The choice of new or used oak from particular origins will have been made. It may be that different lots are fermented, WINE PRODUCTION 64 more oak flavours. Barrel and other forms of oak maturation will be will maturation ofoak forms other and Barrel flavours. oak more obtain to too, barrel, in its maturation continues it that be may it orcarbon dioxide.Even if white wine has been fermented in barrel, vats shouldbekept either completelyfull orblanketed with nitrogen and the important excluded, bottling. thatoxygen is Itis ready for until vats orconcrete steel stainless in stored is wine white Much Maturation 10.5 fermentation,or barrels. vatsracked intoclean is thewine can be much appreciated for its lively acidity. Following the malolactic fromSauvignon Blanc, a winemade inFrance,Valleyfrom theLoire a Sancerre example, For feature. desirable a is fermentation malolactic thathavenot the ofwines undergone the countries crispness in some Also, fermentation. malolactic undergo usually not do Blanc, Sauvignon varieties which are valued fortheir crisp acidity, suchasRiesling or work well with malolactic fermentation, whereas others may not. Other Chardonnay, e.g. varieties, grape white Some acidity. aggressive any Malolactic fermentation mayfollow alcoholic fermentation tosoften Malolactic fermentation 10.4 known as is operationThis bestirred. totime,may time from lees which, the on left togetherfermentation,may be a laterstage.Afterat thewine for example,innew, second fillandthird filloak barrels andblended may also take place in vat in place take also may Stirring oflees on thetexturessought. depending gross or fine lees, been racked for the first Ageing on lees time. may take placeoneither tation pre-racking,and the distinguish betweenlees thegross lees,thelargefromfermen- to the wine. stirring, whilstothers willsufferiftheleesareroused. (e.g.Riesling) noted that some varieties (e.g. Chardonnay) maybenefit with lees through the side of the vat to rouse the settled sediment.be should It discussed later. Vat matured wines may also be left lying on the lees. We should lees.the We also beleftlyingon winesmatured may Vat b â tonage andgives ayeasty,and perhaps creamyflavour – a fine ‘ propeller lees that will fall after the wine has will fallafterthewine that lees ’ type of device may be inserted be may device of type Preparing Wine for Bottling

To ensure that wine is of the clarity expected and remains stable in the bottle for its life, various treatments may be undertaken; however, many makers of fine wines believe treatments should be kept to a minimum. We have already seen that racking is one of the operations necessary to achieve clear wine and to reduce the risk of off flavours. It is important for the wine to be protected from oxidation during the racking process, and vats or barrels may be sparged with inert gases to achieve this. A number of operations may be undertaken to ensure the clarity of wine.

11.1 Fining

With the coarse sediment removed by racking or centrifuge, there remains other lighter matter suspended in the wine known as colloids. These are capable of passing through any filter. If not removed they will cause the wine to look ‘hazy’ and then form a deposit. The colloids are electrostatically charged and can be removed by adding another colloid with the opposite charge. Examples of such fining agents are egg whites, gelatine, isinglass (obtained from swim bladders of fish) and bentonite. Quantities need to be carefully controlled otherwise the fining agent itself will form a deposit, or a further, opposite, electric charge may be created. Fining may also be used to remove excess tannin and so improve the taste of the wine. Phenolic compounds are absorbed by the substance PVPP (polyvinylpolypyrrolidone). This may be used at the fining stage to remove colour from white wines and help prevent browning.

65 WINE PRODUCTION 66 11.2 Filtration Filtration 11.2 drawn onthecylinder andthekieselguhr is water.kieselguhrinitially Avacuum trough and whichcontains a in rotates cylinder The surface. curved the over stretched is cloth filterperforatedAcurvedscreen covering surface.drum witha the Fig. 11.1. shown in have to be completely replaced with fresh material. An earth filter is increases in depth. Eventually it willclog andthe kieselguhr will passes. passedWine throughis the filter andthe bedgradually wine throughwhichthe filtrationsurface the to ously replenish more earth ismixedwith wine toformaslurry that usedis continu- precoating.Secondly, to developthefilterbed.Thisis known as used be may kieselguhr of waterand mixture a filtertank. A screen within supporting on a deposited is medium, the filter as used commonly stages. Firstly, a coarse grade earth called and other matter from the grapes. The filtration takes placein two large quantities of remove and can initial roughfiltration for used method is This filtration filtration Earth 11.2.1 at different stages in the winemaking process: ping the body choose filtration minimum toavoidwhattheysee as touse winemakers some Today, expertise. and care requires Filtration ble. bottling. The processes for offiningand filtrationare not interchangea- lees filtration. However, inthe oneofits mainusesis preparation take place at various stages inwinemaking, for example must or Filtration is the process usedto removesolidparticles, andmay reduces the risk of oxidation damaging the wine,but withthis type enclosed rotaryfilter foundinthetotally vacuumfilter,which is A sophisticated rotates. cylinder the as by blades off scraped is which layer, thefouled toreplace tothewine beadded can more kieselguhr the trough and filtered through the kieselguhr. As the surface fouls, kieselguhr onthe clothto actasafinefilter medium.Wineis fed to the cloth. The water is drawn into the cylinder, leaving alayer of The maybeused offiltration,which categories There arethree principal rotary vacuum filter ’ away from thewines. from away ‘ gummy ’ consists of a large horizontala large cylinderor of consists whichconsistofdeadyeastcells solids, – water mixisdrawn onto kieselguhr , which is ‘ strip- 67 CHAPTER 11

Fig. 11.1 Earth filter the fouled earth has to be removed manually. Two open vacuum filters are shown in Fig. 11.2.

11.2.2 Sheet filtration (sometimes called plate and frame filtration)

A series of specially designed perforated steel plates are held in a frame. Sheets of filter medium (cloth or paper) are suspended between the plates, which are then squeezed together by screw or hydraulic methods. The filter sheets are available with various ranges of porosity. Wine is pumped between pairs of plates to pass through the filter sheets into a cavity in the plates and then to exit the system. Yeast cells and other matter are trapped in the fibres of the filter media. A sheet filter is shown as Fig. 11.3.

11.2.3 Membrane filtration

If undertaken, this is the final filtration process and used just before bottling. The wine needs to have been well clarified by other filtration WINE PRODUCTION 68 Fig. 11.3 Fig. 11.2 Sheet filter with a four-headbottlerSheet filterwith vacuumWinery withtwofilters 69 methods before using this process. Membrane filters are constructed of plastic or ceramic materials which are porous to water and com- pounds of small molecular size, e.g. alcohol, colour and flavour compounds found in wine. Large compounds such as proteinaceous materials will not pass through. Wine is passed under pressure across the membrane surface to filter through, leaving undesirable materials trapped on the membrane. The process is not used for full-bodied red wines as it can reduce body and flavour. A double membrane filter is shown in Fig. 11.4. CHAPTER 11

Fig. 11.4 Double membrane filter WINE PRODUCTION 70 shown in Fig. 11.5. shown in removal just24 takes hours orso.Vats beingcold stabilised are then attract further crystalsto themandthe entire processof stirring.a vigorous Theseeds tartrates,finely groundfollowed by 13Stabilisation 11.3 Fig. 11.5 the temperature ofthewinetoapproximately 0 cleared wine can be bottled. Another method ofremoval isto reduce After approximately 8 days the crystals will have formed, and the chilled to unwarranted concernto consumers. cause sometimes sediment inthebottle,and foundonthecorkoras sometimes calcium saltsoftartaricorThey acidand are totally are harmless. after thewine been has bottled. The tartrates are either potassium Stabilisation maybecarried out toprevent tartrate crystals forming To inhibit theprecipitation oftartrate crystals inbottle, thewineis Cold stabilisation Cold − 4 ° C, or colder in the case of liqueur (fortified) wines. ofliqueur(fortified)C, orcolderinthecase ° Cit andseed with 71

11.4 Adjustment of sulphur dioxide levels

As we have seen, sulphur dioxide is the winemaker’s generally used antioxidant and disinfectant. However, only a percentage of the sulphur dioxide in the wine, the ‘free’ SO2, acts in this way. The other proportion becomes ‘bound’ with the wine and is inactive. Before bottling, the free SO2 levels should be adjusted to between 25 and 35 mg/l. Higher levels are needed for sweet wines to inhibit further fermentation of the sugars.

11.5 Bottling CHAPTER 11

A number of treatments may be carried out immediately prior to bottling to ensure the wine’s final stability. These include pasteurisation or sterilisation. Four systems of treatment are available to the producer and use is dictated by the wine’s specification.

• Cold sterile filtration: this process does not utilise heat. The wine is filtered through fine sheets or a membrane filter to remove all yeast cells. It is then aseptically bottled in a sterile environment. The method is particularly suitable for wines containing residual sugar and with modest alcohol levels. Such wines would otherwise risk re-fermentation in the bottle. • Thermotic bottling: the wine is heated to 54 °C and bottled hot. At this temperature the yeasts are killed, and the alcohol becomes toxic to any bacteria. • Flash pasteurisation: the wine is heated to 95 °C for one or two minutes, then rapidly cooled and bottled cold. • Tunnel pasteurisation: the wine is bottled cold, and then passed through a heat tunnel where the sealed bottles are sprayed with hot water to raise the temperature to 82°C for 15 to 20 minutes.

11.6 Closures

Corks are the traditional way of closing wine bottles. Cork is a natural product which comes from the bark of a type of evergreen oak tree, Quercus suber. Portugal produces over half the world’s cork. A very WINE PRODUCTION 72 cation, particularly when the buyer is a major supermarket group. choice of type of closuremaywell depend upon the buyer producers are now turning to this,particularly for white wines.The best meansofexcluding oxygen, andarapidlyincreasing numberof as a cork, which beenhas marketed forsomeyears,isoften described pers to thecomplement labelling. Another substitute for natural corks, andindeedsomeproducers choosevivid coloursfor thestop- Aesthetically,confusion there that canbeno thesearenotnatural cando to corkscrews. stoppers plastic that ofthe damage is complaint years,but arestillprovingsome consumer controversial. common A cork.now beenonthemarket Plasticstoppers have for natural Chapter 17. in discussed wine, as the quality is variable a and sometimes taint can beimparted to the cork from drying out. However, becausecorks are a natural product, bottles should therefore bekept lying ontheir to sides prevent the Wine itis moist. kept longas so a seal tight provide will it bottles, wine try to regain itsoriginal size.Hence, whenusedasaclosure will for important quality of cork isits elasticity, soif it iscompressed it similar qualitiestonaturalincluding cork, aminute porositytogases a from polymer closed-cell itmixture, isclaimedthat the closurehas more than apassingresemblance to natural cork. Manufactured and water vapour, enabling the wine to Synthetic materials have been developed asan alternative to The metal screw cap(Stelvin screw The metal ‘ look-a-like ’ cork product. At a distance, this this a distance, At cork product. ® ) closure is regarded by many as the as regarded bymany is ) closure ‘ breathe ’ ‘ . artificial cork artificial ’ s specifi- s ’ bears Detailed Processes of Red and White Wine Making

So far, we have studied the basics of red and white wine making. Now we will consider in more detail some of the equipment that may be used and processes that may be undertaken.

12.1 Wine presses and pressing

We recall that in red winemaking the press is normally used near the end of the fermentation to extract juice from the grape skins, and that in white winemaking the press is used before fermentation. The grapes may initially be gently bruised or crushed before pressing. Alternatively, whole clusters of grapes may go straight to the press. There are many different types of press, and the type used will depend on a number of factors, as discussed below. A wine press may be categorised as either a continuous press or a batch press.

12.1.1 Continuous press

There are many variations of the system of continuous pressing, but all work on the principle that grapes are fed into one end, carried along the length of the press by an Archimedes screw, and are subjected to ever increasing pressure as they continue their journey. Must can be collected at various points, with better juice coming from the earlier collection points. However, none of the must will be of very high quality. As long as grapes are being fed in, the machine will work. Continuous presses are mostly used in large ‘industrial’ wineries, having the advantage of efficiency in processing copious quantities of fruit.

73 WINE PRODUCTION 74 12.1.2 Batch press Batch 12.1.2 the entire slotted cylinder against pressed are grapes air.The ofcompressed bymeans inflated 12.2. Fig. as shown is press pneumatic a of illustration An operation. Pressing in a pneumatic press is a relatively gentle, low pressure, manufacture. of companies original the of names the after again press, This type of referredpress issometimes to as a Willmes or Bucher press Horizontal pneumatic 12.1.4 a referredtoas isveryoften This type Horizontal plate press 12.1.3 press. basket vertical the and press; pneumatic horizontal the press; plate horizontal the types: basic three into divided be can category This cleaner aHoover.(NB: The present daycompany Vaslin of the original company of manufacture, just aswe often callvacuum a plate press.Again, several operations will take place toextract all Fig. 12.1. shown as red making wines. An illustration ofa horizontal plate press is properties withsmaller popular and are particularly most expensive, juiceis releasedinthefirstpressing. Plate are that presses notthe Zone 2 In each grapeberry, the best quality juicethe isin area called the grapes. The press may operate three or times more in this way. return to thecentre forcing more juice, butofalower quality,from The cylinder then rotates in the opposite direction, and the platesand are direction, opposite the in rotates then cylinder The juice. goodquality andreleasing them thegrapes between squeezing themove fromeachendalongascrewtowards centreofthepress, stage, highquality free run juice isextracted. Then two metal plates Atthis grapes. the tumbling rotates, thepress and closed, then is loaded intothepressa hatchwhich are throughGrapes and chains. hoops plates, of system a containing cylinder a perforated of consists makes anumber of different types of press.) A horizontal press rotates, and therotates, and returned to the ends of the press. For the next press the first pressing, The press rotates, andacentral rubberbag, bladderorsheetis

– this is neither close to the skin, nor the pip, and it is this ‘ cake ’ of pressed grapes is broken up. Theplates brokenof pressedgrapesis – amuchlarger surface area than in the ‘ Vaslin press Vaslin ’ , being thename , being – Bucher 75 CHAPTER 12

Fig. 12.1 Horizontal plate press

Fig. 12.2 Pneumatic press WINE PRODUCTION 76 at all interested. loverwhoappears visitingwine to any theirrecentpurchases display year. Thus,the owners ofsmallwineriesare very keen to proudly Ages. Awoodenplate lowered is ontograpes contained in a basket by asdeveloped the monks of the Middle press, This is the traditional basket press Vertical 12.1.5 capacity areexpensive Pneumatic presses capitalcosts). efficiency(and controlled,addingto be computer grapes. Nowadays,the or press even a whole bank may ofpresses the gentle cation, process helping to retain aromatics from the of oxidationof themust. riskthe thus helpingtoeliminate dioxide, can beflushedbefore usewith aninert such gas asnitrogen orcarbon which pneumatic press, fully enclosed a is tank (Fig.12.3) press A the usable juice,withthe finest must beingthe from first pressing. Fig. 12.3 Pneumatic presses are particularly suitable for white wine vinifi- – and theyare onlyusedfor a fewdaysinthe winemaker Inert intotank gasinjected press – u o£0000dependingupon up to£40 ’ s 77 usually made up of wooden staves. There are several variations on the basic theme, including deep or shallow baskets, the latter still being extensively used in the Champagne region of northern France. Basket presses are very gentle. The press can be used for whole clusters of grapes in white wine making, or for the remaining solids for reds. The larger the diameter of the press, the more quickly the juice will run away from the bed of grape skins. The stalks help provide drainage channels. However, the draining juice is exposed to the air all along its route, and it is import- ant to process it without delay in order to limit oxidation. A basket press is shown as Fig. 12.4.

The use of basket presses is a particularly slow process, both in CHAPTER 12 pressing and cleaning. With horizontal presses, once the operation is complete, the cylinder is inverted and the cake of dry skins is emptied through a hatch so the press can be cleaned. Vertical presses require the remaining pips and skins to be removed manually and the basket must be cleaned thoroughly. Nevertheless, they are gaining in popularity again, particularly with many New World winemakers. One

Fig. 12.4 Vertical basket press WINE PRODUCTION 78 to 600 litres! case of Australian wine is 100 litres The average amount of gasusedin producing a (9litre) container. the airfrom all the to flush arerequired amounts considerable used, withthegas.Dependingupongas beflushed may also may beblanketed; and atracking andbottling times empty vessels advantages. does diffusequickly. Accordingly, mixtures oftwo ofthe gases have weight, molecular lower having a however, Nitrogen, making. wine red finished winea finished Carbon dioxide is highly soluble in wine, and its use can give the risky to use. Control isthe aim,and cultured yeastscan be selected the wines. ‘ yeasts, particularly forred believing wines, that theyareapart ofthe OldWorldproducersspeaking,the ofnatural favour most use yeasts. Generally these andwork withculturedinhibitto skins or A madewhether decision is to the use natural yeastsonthegrape yeasts cultured or Natural 12.3 nitrogen (N are used commonly The gases stage. pressing the at considered theiruse toused prevent oxidation have andotherspoilage. already We be At many stages during the winemaking process, inert gases may spoilage prevent to gases of Use 12.2 replacing their stainless steel vats with wood! withvats replacing steel theirstainless to begoingfull circle varietiesin winemakingseems Much technology toprevail. certain of flavours spicy the can allow This press. aplate from obtained resulting in a press-wine that maybe less bitter than would be nature ofthepressing, thegrape reasonably remain solids static, of the Because red wine. a particularstyle of for is specialty use terroir Before fermentation, vats may be sparged; partially filled vats In the NewWorld,most producers consider naturalyeasts far too ’ of the vineyard, and contribute to the individual character of ‘ prickle 2 ), carbon dioxide and, increasingly, argon (Ar). argon increasingly, and, dioxide carbon ), ’ – onthe tongue manyquality arenowalso winemakers – for high quality wine this rises – particularly undesirablein 79 for their individual characteristics, including flavours, ability to perform at various temperatures and formation of lees.

12.4 Destemming

There are winemakers who believe that stems can perform a valuable function. For example, in the Rhône valley, stems are often retained in the vinification process. They help keep the cap of skins on top of the fermenting must less compact, and do add firm tannins to the wine and suppress any tendency for overt jammy fruitiness. CHAPTER 12

12.5 Fermenting sugar-rich musts to dryness

In hot climates, grapes are sometimes so sugar rich that difficulties may arise in achieving fermentation to dryness. The problem may be overcome by the (normally unmentionable) addition of water to the must or in the early stages of fermentation. Winemakers may refer to ‘flushing out the picking bins very well’, or using the help of ‘the black snake’ or ‘the white horse’.

12.6 Colour extraction, concentration and tannin balance

There are several methods that may be used to extract colour, concentrate flavours and achieve tannin balance.

12.6.1 Must concentrators and reverse osmosis

Grapes may be picked that are wet from rainwater or that have not reached complete ripeness. The inclusion of rainwater at pressing can cause dilution of juice solids (sugars and other components). When under-ripe grapes are pressed the sugar-in-juice level may be lower than required to make a good wine with the right level of alcohol and the required balance. In both instances the solution may be to remove water. WINE PRODUCTION 80 fermented must. over concentratedbe usedtoreduce thealcohollevelin can also capable ofcreating fullbodied,complexandhigher quality It wines. areetc.)must yieldcan thenconcentrated. which Reverse osmosis molecules topassthrough, but trapping larger molecules(sugars, watera molecularsieve,allowing membrane actsas microporous a reverse osmosis. This is a membrane separation process in which inFig.12.5.Analternativeuse REDAtechnique to isshown is must concentratormust. Aand tannins inthe by manufactured flavourcomponents colour and levelofsugars, the thereby increasing Fig. 12.5 Must concentrators use vacuum evaporation to remove water,evaporationconcentrators toremove vacuum Must use Reverse osmosis equipment 81

12.6.2 Cold soaking (pre-fermentation maceration)

Many producers hold the must at a low temperature and carry out a pre-fermentation maceration on the grape skins. This method was introduced in the Burgundy region of France by Guy Accad, an oenologist who from the late 1970s has had much influence upon the winemaking at many top estates. Accad showed that soaking the skins in the pre-fermentation (watery) juice results in fresher, cleaner wines with greater finesse than when the skins are macerated in the post-fermentation (alcoholic) liquid. CHAPTER 12

12.6.3 Pump overs

Crucial to the quality and style of red wines is the extraction of colour and flavour giving compounds from the grape skins. There are several methods for achieving this which we will consider further. Remontage (pumping over) is very widely practised. In its simplest form, fermenting juice is drawn from near the bottom of the vat and pumped to the top, where it is sprayed over the cap of skins, pushed to the surface of the wine by the rising carbon dioxide gas. The operation may be carried out manually, including physically moving the hose to spray and soak all the skins. Vats may be fitted with timed automatic systems that pump the juice up a fixed pipe at the side of the vat; the juice then falls onto a rotating diffuser, which gives a more gentle spray onto the cap. When additional aeration is required, as the juice is drawn from the vat it is allowed to splash into a large vessel from where it will be pumped up, as is shown in Fig. 12.6. The number, timing and method of pump overs will impact upon the style and quality of the finished wine.

12.6.4 Rack and return (délestage)

Historically, even relatively inexpensive red wines would often be laid down for a few years to soften the tannins; for the classic reds an extended period of bottle maturation was essential. Nowadays, most wine is consumed within a few days of purchase, and often within a few months of bottling. Accordingly, techniques to extract WINE PRODUCTION 82 astringency. greater in a result it can as process, fermentation the in stage a late d that feel winemakers Most areleached. hardtannins less that advantagebeing overs,the pump total tanninsextracted usingd top, leaching much colour in the process. It should be noted that the so. The fermenting then juice is returned, and the caprises to the tobreakingloosens andfalls thebottom, asitdoes upsomewhat racked to another vat, leaving behind the cap of grape skins,which rackof thevattheof thecontentstechnique, andreturn are most in the wine, beating out hard tannins from the adjacent skins.With nelling effect chan- be a thereover thatproblems can withpumping is the One of is undertaken widely now One procedure are required. tannins, butwithsoft flavours, maximum Fig. 12.6 Aeration during pump over over pump during Aeration – the descending juice flows down the same channels juice thedescending flowsdownthesame rack andreturn é lestage should not be undertaken at be undertaken not should lestage é lestage may be greaterlestage maybe thanwith , also known as as known also , d é lestage . 83

12.6.5 Rotary vinifiers

These are large, horizontal, cylindrical vessels that rotate during the fermentation process, thereby tumbling the grapes and promoting contact between the skins and juice. They eliminate the need for punching down or pumping over, and quicken fermentation and maceration. Such processing is particularly suitable when the aim is a soft, easy drinking red of medium body.

12.6.6 Thermo-vinification – heat extraction CHAPTER 12

The name thermo-vinification is often used for the process of extrac- ting colour for red wines by heating crushed grapes for 20 or 30 minutes to a temperature of between 60° and 82 °C. This breaks down the vacuoles of the skin cells that contain anthocyanins and tannins, rapidly releasing the pigments into the juice. After pressing and cooling of the juice, the fermentation takes place off the skins, in the manner of a white wine. Wines made using this method often have a vibrant purple colour. They can sometimes taste rather ‘cooked’ and lack definition, so the process is not used for fine wines.

12.6.7 Whole grape fermentation, carbonic and semi-carbonic maceration

Most Beaujolais and many other light bodied red wines are made by a distinctive method, which we shall call whole grape fermentation. Whole bunches of grapes are tipped into a vat that has been sparged with carbon dioxide. To a degree, the grapes in the bottom of the vat are pressed by the weight of those above. Within the berries that remain whole, an enzyme is secreted resulting in a fermentation up to approximately 3% alcohol, without the action of yeasts, and this contributes to the jammy style of the wines. There- after the yeast enzymes take over to complete the fermentation. The fermenting wine is allowed to macerate or soak on the grapes for between 4 and 10 days, depending on the style of wine required. The activities taking place in the different levels of the vat are very complex. WINE PRODUCTION 84 bottle ageing. lengthyfor wines thatarenotdestined for this period,especially producers haveshortened 20 years,many mouth. During the past structure, but the resulting winewouldoften bevery firm in the absorbed, which would help to fix the colour and gives the wines period macerating onthe skins.During thistimetannins wouldbe Historically, after fermentation red wine often had avery lengthy Post-fermentation maceration 12.6.9 a vat. staves beforeinstallation in inner shows Fig.12.7 Europeanthe Union. in wines made permitted for process isoften usedinNewWorld countries the tanninsreleasedbythewoodbinding colourtothe wine.The The useofinner staves in a vat of wine is one wayof achieving this, Steps maybetaken to ensurethat a red wine will holdits colour. colour Fixing 12.6.8 Fig. 12.7 Staves before insertion in vats – it is not generally not it is 85

12.7 Macro-, micro- and hyper-oxygenation

As we have seen, oxygen can be both friend and enemy to wine. It is now generally accepted that during fermentation there is little chance of the wine oxidising, and indeed oxygen is necessary to maintain healthy yeast colonies. After fermentation, wines may benefit from absorbing tiny amounts of oxygen, for this will help polymerise the polyphenols and help fix the colour of the wine. There are three methods by which wine may be deliberately oxygenated, depending upon the purpose. CHAPTER 12 12.7.1 Hyper-oxygenation

This is adding large amounts of oxygen to white must pre-fermentation. The benefits are a reduction in volatile acidity and acetaldehyde.

12.7.2 Macro-oxygenation

This is adding large amounts of oxygen during the fermentation. It may be undertaken as ‘rack and splash’, in which the wine is aerated when returned to the vat, or can be incorporated during pump overs. Alternatively a machine known as a ‘cliquer’ may be used. Macro- oxygenation can also be used to try and restart stuck fermentations, but it is commonly undertaken to soften harsh tannins.

12.7.3 Micro-oxygenation

Micro-oxygenation is the continuous addition of tiny amounts of oxygen to wine in order to improve aromas, structure and texture. It may be carried out before or after the malolactic fermentation, with the former perhaps giving the greatest benefits. The process replicates the absorption of oxygen through the wood that occurs naturally when wine is matured in barrels. The process must be carefully controlled. It is essential to know the amount of dissolved oxygen in the wine at the outset, and the rate and amount of the addition, for there should be no accumulation of dissolved oxygen in the wine during the process. WINE PRODUCTION 86 California, operatetheworld bulk.the and blendedbackinto winery The aromasare then returned to the extracts the volatile aromasandthe secondremoves the alcohol. column through twice. whichwineispassed Thefirst distillation adistillation is This (SCC). column cone spinning a thatutilises facility proportion of anover alcoholic wineand a send thisto aspecialist An alternativemethodistodrawoff fromwines. excess alcohol isonerelativelyReverse osmosis inexpensive methodofremoving Removal of excess alcohol 12.8 characters. It also helpsto stabilise the wine. Micro-oxygenation canreduceundesirableherbaceousorsulphur ’ s largest SCC plant. ‘ wine ConeTech ’ , which is returned to the returnedwhich is , atSantaRosa, Barrel Maturation and Oak Treatments

There is no doubt that oak maturation is very fashionable. The back labels of countless bottles contain such phrases as ‘subtle hints of oak’ or ‘wonderful oaky superstructure’. Visions immediately come to mind of row upon row of barrels of wine gently maturing in cool, dark cellars. However, inexpensive wines are very unlikely to be matured in oak barrels, for economic reasons. The cost of a new French oak barrique, which hold 225 litres (300 bottles) of wine, is in the region of £380–£500. When barrels are new, they impart many oak products to the wine contained therein, including vanillin, lignin and tannin. When the barrels are used again (second fill), the amount of oak derived by the wine is reduced. After the barrels have been filled four or five times, they become merely storage containers that allow the wine to mature as a result of a very slow, controlled, oxygenation. Achieving a fine balance of oak aromas and obtaining the right level of oak influence is the art of a skilled winemaker. Over-oaked wines may well smell of burnt toast, fatty butter and marmalade, and taste pseudo-sweet, with all the fruit of the wine enveloped in a sea of coarse wood products. In other words, oak is a tool for adding complexity, and should not be the predominant feature in a wine.

13.1 The influence of the barrel

The impact of the barrel upon the style and quality of wine will depend on a number of factors, including size of barrel; type and origin of oak (or other wood); manufacturing techniques, including toasting; amount of time spent in barrel; and where the barrels are stored.

87 WINE PRODUCTION 88 willabsorbed, be the more oxygenation, possibly resulting inoxidation. more oakproducts wood. The longertheperiod, yearsthree in Nowadays itisexceptionalfor foranywinetobekept more than in thebarrel.stored consequently thewine wood usedto fuelthe fire willhave animpactupon the toasting, and in place. Later the barrels may be stored with the sealed bung hole top,on with the bung looselyinserted orfermentationa with lock stages ofstorage. Initially barrelswillbestored withthe bunghole The barrels will need topping-up shortly after filling andinthe early 13.1.1 Size ofthe Size barrel 13.1.1 for shipping Historically wineswere often kept inbarrel until they were required Amount of time spent in barrel 13.1.4 ‘ a greater or lesser degree, to i.e. the insides,or maybejust the USA.In the latterstages ofmanufacture, barrels will be veryfrom, andoftenpreferred different to,thosecoopered inthe country. Barrels made of American oak but coopered in France are The techniquesusedinthecoopering ofbarrels vary fromcountry to Manufacturing techniques, including 13.1.3 Bertagne,Limousin, Nevers,Tron Allier, the various forests: inthe oakfrom distinctive difference a is wood. WithinFrance,therethe grain split alongthenatural of is whilstsawn,usuallyFrench oakbarrels made fromwoodthat are American oak iscoarser grained than French oak, and the woodis Type and origin of oak (or any other wood) 13.1.2 barrel.300 litre wine thana more oakproducts toa 15% will give and thus the greater the influenceofthe oak.A225 litre barrique thesmaller thebarrelThe greaterratio thesurface tovolume(wine) heads ’ (ends),willbecharred overasmallwoodenfire.The typeof toasting – in some instancesthismightbeaslong10years. insome ç ais, Vosges, etc. ais, Vosges, ‘ toasted ’ 89 on the side, the contact with the wine ensuring the bung remains expanded in the hole. During the first year in barrel, the wines may be racked four times, and during the second year, they may be racked twice.

13.1.5 Where barrels are stored

Barrel maturation is an interplay between the wine, the wood and the atmosphere in which the barrels are stored. Wine evaporates through the wood and is replaced by oxygen, and oak products

are absorbed. The process is temperature and humidity dependent. CHAPTER 13 For example, in a warm, dry atmosphere, the volume of wine that evaporates is greater than in a cool, damp atmosphere. However, in a cool, damp atmosphere, a greater volume of alcohol evaporates. Thus a wine from an individual property that is barrel matured in an underground cellar may be subtly different to a previously identical wine that is matured in a warehouse above the ground.

13.2 Oak treatments

As we have seen, maturation of wines in new oak barrels is an expensive process. It is not just the high cost of the barrels, but also the extra labour in racking and working with small individual batches. Thus inexpensive wines from New World countries are likely to have been matured in vats, and if ‘oaked’ this usually consists of oak chips, the waste from cooperage, being soaked in the wine. There is not, of course, the interplay between the wine, the wood and the atmosphere, and chipped wines often exhibit a sweet, vanilla sappiness. The level and style of oakiness depends upon the amount and size of the chips, the source of the oak, how the chips have been toasted and, of course, the length of time of the maceration. More subtle oaking can be achieved by the insertion of oak rods, planks or oak staves into vats of wine. The staves may be new and fire toasted, or may have been ‘reconditioned’ from broken down old barrels. They can be built into a tower, or inserted into the tank as a module, rather like an inner lining to the sides of the tank. This system allows for a high level of extraction together with total WINE PRODUCTION 90 Alternatively, the barrels may have undergone a undergone have may barrels the Alternatively, through the bunghole, andmoved from barrel tobarrel, asrequired. barrels. besuspended inperforated Oakchipsorrods may sleeves the actual that comefrom alltheoakinesshas mean necessarily maturation. barrel over savings cost considerable course, of with, yet control barrel maturation. by oak flavours, but are not prepared topay theprice for genuine consumers, andwinemakers,havebecometooobsessed that many sad perhaps it is . However,Romanian a delightfullybalanced barrel matured toproduce and 10% 10% stave treatedtreated, chip thatare 80% ablendof wines Reh-Kendermann winery,uses J example, For be combined. may methods different many and art, an tainly oak sticks. insertion ofnewstaves inside the barrel, or the building ofagrid of Even if bottle labels refer to Producing aninexpensive wine with subtletones oak iscer- ü rgen Hofmann,chiefwinemakerat theaward winning ‘ barrel maturation barrel ‘ renewal system renewal ’ , this doesnot ’

– the Making Other Types of Still Wine

So far, we have discussed the procedures for making red and dry white still wines. Now we will look very briefly at ways in which other styles of wines are made.

14.1 Medium-sweet and sweet wines

Generally speaking, following natural fermentation, most or nearly all of the sugars will have been consumed by the yeast. The European Union has legal definitions for the description of the terms and dryness. For example, wines containing less than 4 grams of residual sugar per litre are described as ‘dry’. At the other end of the scale, a wine described as sweet must have not less than 45 grams per litre. If medium-sweet or sweet wines are required, there are several ways they can be produced. The method used will depend upon the ripeness of the fruit available, and the style, quality and cost of the wine aimed for. Fermentation can be stopped deliberately while a quantity of sugar remains in the wine. Historically, winemakers would use a heavy dose of sulphur dioxide to kill off the yeasts. Nowadays, the quantity used is strictly controlled by law. One method of stopping fermentation is by cooling the must so that the yeast becomes dormant and inactive. The wine will then be filtered to remove the yeast cells. Another way is for the alcohol level to be raised by the addition of grape spirit (as in Port winemaking). Depending on the yeast strain, 15% alcohol is about the maximum level to which fermentation is possible. Particular techniques can be used for making medium-sweet or sweet wines.

91 WINE PRODUCTION 92 considers that thewineshave thecorrect balance ofalcohol and it may be necessary toheat the barrel cellar. Whenthe winemaker fermentation vats.During the in remain others to continue; barriques fermentingwines are thentransferred to two- to three-year-old of the vats. Some 125 hectolitrestarted in the fermentations are All richness. wine bodyand thehelp give temperatures fermentation high relatively The must. the of richness the upon depending tation temperature is 20 assessment. Natural yeasts are used, and even though the fermen- thewinemaker toaccording areblended sugars. Thepressings andthe third,lastpressing givesjuice withthe highest aromatics most with the must gives first pressing The press. horizontal a Lamontagne.grapes The aresuccessivelypickedandpressed in components being blended shortly before bottling. bottling. before shortly blended being components takes place in both vat and barrel for 14 months or so, with the 4 to these by chilling ofthevatcomponent inthe case stopped, is fermentation the sugar 14.1.1 Medium-sweet wines wines Medium-sweet 14.1.1 enbeerenauslese, may only ferment to around 8% alcohol. around onlyferment to enbeerenauslese, may per litre. However, some very sweet German wines, such asTrock- around 13 has Bordeaux,from in Sauternes, which as forexample achieved, verted.can be highsugars Highalcohollevelsand residual beencon- all the sugar stopbefore has may Thus fermentation ance. temperatures, highsugarlevels canreduce theyeast erea by havebeen increased sugarsmay concentration of the have seen, As we levels. tohaveveryhighsugar anextentas to such can ripen grapes vintages, exceptional in and/or vineyards In certain Sweet wines 14.1.2 is knownas addedwines, wherethejuice forinexpensive inGermany followed commonly a tion. Thisis practice fermenta- finished has the wine after must grape unfermented sterile of Thesecanby bemade addition the smallofa amount (10 maintain freshgrapeyflavours. reduce anyaggressive acidity (and the alcoholic degree), andhelps Let us consider the making of a typical Sauternes: Ch themakingofatypicalSauternes: Let usconsider in the form of noble rot. Just as yeast struggles to work at low at work to struggles yeast as Just rot. noble of form the in – 14% alcoholandsugar levelsinexcessof150grams ° or 5 ° to 22 to ° C and adding sulphurdioxide. Maturation ° C, thiswill take from3 to 6 weeks, S ü ssreserve ’ s alcoholtoler- â . This helps . This teau Bastor Botrytis cin- – 15%) ’ s 93

Traditionally, in some parts of the world, grapes are dried or ‘raisined’ as a means of concentrating sugar levels. This may take place on grass mats in the fields under the sun. An alternative practice is carried out in some areas. For example, in Veneto in Italy, Recioto Della Valpolicella is made from grapes that have been laid on trays or hung from rafters in ventilated lofts. During the 4 months or so that the grapes are stored this way they lose up to 50% of their water content, thus resulting in a concentration of sugars. With such high sugar levels, fermentation is a very slow process and can take months. CHAPTER 14 14.2 Rosé wines

Rosé wines can vary in colour from the palest of pinks to light red. ‘Blush’ is another term for the palest rosés that became popular in California in the 1980s. The Spanish use the term ‘rosado’. ‘Clairet’ is a style of deep rosé from Bordeaux. The sweetness levels of rosés can vary from dry, to off dry, to medium-sweet. Alcohol levels vary considerably too, depending on grape ripeness and vinification techniques. There are several methods used for producing these wines:

• Blending: the blending of red and white wine together is now permitted in the European Union. Historically this method could not be used, except in the Champagne region where it has long been the main method for the production of rosé Champagne. • Skin contact: this style of rosé is made from red grapes or white grapes with heavily pigmented skins, such as Pinot Gris, using the white grape method of winemaking. Some grapes are crushed and strained; others are pressed. The free run juice together with the lightly pressed juice is then fermented without the skins. Pigments from the skins give some degree of colour to the juice. Quite pale rosés often result from this method and are sometimes labelled as ‘vin gris’ (grey wine). Many rosé wines from the Loire are made in this way, as are California’s ‘Blush’ wines. If extra colour is required a little red wine may be blended in. • Saignée: this French term means ‘bleeding’. The wine may be made by a short (6 to 12 hours) fermentation on the grape skins; then the juice is drained. It is also possible to produce a rosé WINE PRODUCTION 94 fully dry, they areinitially classified as either made in that area. Once fermentation has ceased, leaving the wines wines to apply that those are now detailed and theprocesses Spain, in south-westernAndalucia theliqueur wineproduced in Sherry is production Sherry 14.3.1 Indeed,theyareoftenreferredto as discussed. previously This category ofwineshashigher alcohollevelsthan thelight wines (fortified) wines Liqueur 14.3 since a quantity of grape spirit is addedto is ofgrapespirit aquantity since to dryness; Port hasthe spirit added during the fermentation. timing ofthe addition ofthe grape spirit. Sherry is initially fermented the wines is of making the in themethod differencePort. Acrucial sweet wines.in naturally resulting work, will yeasts which at that above degree alcoholic the taking process, fermentation the during spirit grape of addition the involves method other basic The spirit. grape of addition the before to dryness will consider the we topic verybut briefly here. Detailing the production of liqueur wines is an extensive subject, preservation and of stabilisation, especially on long sea voyages. Historically, brandy was added to light wine inbarrels asameans ABV.canvary and22% between15% these wines alcohol levelsin The mostwell-known examplesofthesewinesare Sherry and One methodof production ofliqueur wines involves fermentation often some tannins. showing Cabernet Sauvignon. This style of ros especially ifthe grapes used have deep coloured skins, e.g. method canproduce quitegooddepthofcolour, This begins. offand fermentationis thendrainedinto thejuice. Thejuice to areallowed flavourings and pigments thecolour time tomacerateforbetween12and24hours, which during allowed crushed just sufficiently to release their juice. They are then red wine.Alternatively,lightlyred grapescanbechilledand behind agreat concentration ofskins to produceafull-bodied ‘ by-product ’ , by draining part, by aros ofavatfor ‘ fortify é islikely to be firmer, ‘ Finos ’ them. Theresulting them. ’ or é andleaving ‘ Olorosos ‘ fortified ‘ bleed ’ ’ . ’ , 95

Wines are transferred into barrels known as ‘butts’. The butts are not completely filled, leaving a small air gap over the top of the wine. A feature of Sherry production is a naturally occurring yeast (Saccharomyces beticus) which may grow on the surface of wines in some barrels or vats, creating a yeasty crust known as ‘flor’. Flor tends to grow thickest in cooler coastal areas. After fermentation, wines destined for the Fino style are lightly fortified to 15%, which is the ideal alcoholic degree at which flor develops. Flor also requires oxygen and nutrients (which are naturally present in the wine) to live. The crust of flor protects the wines from oxidation – the ageing of the wines is microbiological. If flor dies back, microbiological ageing will cease and chemical changes will take place. Oxidation will occur CHAPTER 14 and the wines will naturally darken. These wines may be designated as ‘Amontillados’. Wines of the heavier Oloroso styles will have been fortified up to 17% or 18% after fermentation. Flor will not grow at these alcoholic degrees and thus the wines will age in an oxidative manner. They may ultimately be sweetened, as for ‘cream sherries’. Sherry wines will then mature in a ‘solera system’, which is a means of blending young wines with old to ensure consistency of style and quality. In order to be legally sold as sherry, the wines have to be aged for at least three years in the solera system.

14.3.2 Port production

The Upper Douro River in Northern Portugal is home to the vineyards producing grapes for . A most important feature of Port making is the extraction of colour and tannin from the grape skins. Traditionally, this was done by treading the grapes by foot, still considered by some to be the gentlest way. More mechanised methods are now generally used. During the early stages of fer- mentation, it is critical that the skins are kept in contact with the juice to continue the extraction of colour and tannins. The fermen- tation process is then interrupted, when there is somewhere between 6% and 9% alcohol, according to the house style. The juice is drained off and fortified to between 18% and 20% ABV. Yeasts will not work at this level of alcohol and so fermentation is stopped. There are various styles of Port, including Ruby, Tawny, Late Bottled Vintage and Vintage. Each of these styles has its own particular length and style of maturation. Some styles involve WINE PRODUCTION 96 • • • • • • of these. an array of production methods. Wewill very briefly consider a few Liqueur winesare madeinmanywineproducing countries using well-known Other liqueur wines 14.3.3 decades in bottle. decades ofbarrel maturation;others are bottled early and need Vins Doux Naturels Vins Doux M cotto). mosto (known as must boiled down with usually sweetened with grapespiritand Marsala drierafterfermentation. arefortified styles whilst Madeira Moscatel deS 20%. of alcohol final givea to added is spirit grape this, Following the sugar hasbeen consumed, leaving anaturally sweet wine. are the fermentations arrested. had having sweet, naturally are They Grenache. from made are France south-west from fewreds a although grapes, Muscat from in many parts of southern France. These are mainly white, made Portugal in a similar manner toPort.a similarPortugal in Sherry. manner toPort, but isoftenaged inthesolerasystemasfor á laga ‘ raisined : this classicwinefromSpain isvinifiedinasimilar : this : sweeter styles are vinified in a similar manner toPort, manner a similar in are vinified styles : sweeter : from Sicily, a fully fermented wine which is fortified ’ in the sun. Fermentation usually stops beforeall Fermentation inthesun. usually : produced in Cyprus. After picking,: producedinCyprus.After thegrapes é tubal : a range of of range a : : produced in the S ‘ naturally sweet wines é tubal Peninsula in tubal Peninsula ’ produced Sparkling Wines

The bubbles in all fizzy drinks, including sparkling wines, are carbon dioxide. In the case of most drinks other than wine, the CO2 is injected into the liquid before bottling. Whilst it is true that some wines (e.g. Lambrusco) are given a spritz by this injection method, the sparkle in all quality sparkling wines is a result of retaining in the wine the natural CO2 produced by fermentation. There are two basic methods by which this may be achieved: fermentation in sealed tank and second fermentation in bottle.

15.1 Fermentation in sealed tank

To retain carbon dioxide in the wine from the fermentation, this may take place in a sealed tank. There are two variations according to the style of wine required: the continuous method, one fermentation as in the case of Asti DOCG; and the Charmat method, a second fermentation as in the case of Veuve du Vernay.

15.2 Second fermentation in bottle

A second fermentation may be undertaken in a bottle. There are two variations: the traditional method, a second fermentation in the bottle in which the wine is sold, as in the case of Champagne; and the transfer method, a second fermentation in a cellar bottle (not the bottle in which the wine is sold), as in the case of many Australian sparkling wines.

97 WINE PRODUCTION 98 in a traditional shallow vertical vertical shallow traditional in a This may take place in a horizontal press (either pneumatic or plate) or Pressing 15.3.1 Champagne region. practised inthe traditionalwine as method a We willconsider thesequence of eventsundertaken to produce method traditional The 15.3 known as yeast sediment must beremoved. In the unless agitation takes place to keep it in suspension. finished the yeast willfalltothe bottomofthe lees, vessel as is dependsinsuspension.cells ontheyeastfermentation Whenthe in the blend used for cheaperChampagnes. used for in theblend 80% ofthejuice extracted (2000litres) iscalledthe nearly 1.5kilograms of grapes isneeded for each bottle). The first (1 litre per 1.6kilograms which, allowing for rackings, that means of grapes per 160kilograms juice to100 litres of This equates for Champagne used be may thatof juice theamount the Champagneregionon in 4000 kilograms (4metric tonnes) of grapes. There isalegal limit of abasket (and sizeforhorizontal is press acommon presses) by this method (or variations upon it,e.g. (orvariationsby thismethod Champagne. All other FrenchACsparkling wines have alsotomade be referred to by the French terms of andis region often intheChampagne was invented which removal, method tered andrebottled, stillunderpressure.However, the fil- is wine the and pressure, vatunder a into decanted are bottles the yeast and bottling the wine under pressure. In the 20% (500 litres) is called the called is (500litres) 20% elsewhere in the world. usedtheit themethod for finestqualitysparkling is winesproduced We know from our study of winemaking that fermentation generally fermentation that winemaking of our study from know We Before themaking ofa sparkling wine isfinished,theyeast or The traditional method has, by law, to be used formakingof law, tobeused has, by The traditional method requires a much more complicated system ofsediment requires system complicated amuchmore cuve close – 2500litres per press charge of4000 kilograms. , this is simply amatter offilteringis simply outthe , this tailles ‘ cocquard r é (tails) and is likely to be included tobe islikely and (tails) muage ’ basket press. The capacity The press. basket m and é Charmat method thode gaillacoise d é gorgement transfer method cuv é traditional e ; thelast . , also ), and 99

When pressing the grapes for Champagne it is important not to extract colour from the two red grape varieties (Pinot Noir, and its relative Pinot Meunier) that form the backbone of most Champagnes.

15.3.2 Débourbage

The juice is pumped into vats, which are chilled, and sulphur dioxide (and perhaps some bentonite) may be added to assist solids to settle. It is particularly important to ferment clear juice for sparkling wines.

15.3.3 First fermentation CHAPTER 15

In most cases this takes place in vats – stainless steel, cement or concrete. A few Champagne houses ferment in barrel, e.g. Krug, Alfred Gratien and the vintage wines of Bollinger. The fermentation is undertaken at relatively warm temperatures, 18° to 20 °C, as a warm fermentation reduces the unwanted aromatics. The first fermentation (to a level of 10.5% or 11%) will take approximately 2 weeks, after which most wines undergo a malolactic fermentation, although some houses block this. The wines will be racked and are now called vins clairs.

15.3.4 Assemblage

This is the blending of the vins clairs. Champagne is usually made from a blend of varieties: Pinot Meunier, Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, and the grapes grown in different parts of the region will have been vinified separately. Except in the case of Vintage Champagnes, reserve wines (vins clairs from previous harvests) may also be added: thus 30 or 40 different base wines may go into the blending vats.

15.3.5 Addition of liqueur de tirage

Tirage is the French word for bottling. Selected cultured yeasts and between 22 and 24 grams per litre of cane sugar are added to the vats of blended wine before bottling in the heavy sparkling wine bottles. Nowadays these are usually sealed with crown corks containing a small plastic cup (bidoule), although the finest wines and those WINE PRODUCTION 100 by a computer, the machine replicates ofthe the movements by a the r replicates computer, machine 504bottles. Controlled each holding ofwoodencontainers, number a gyropalettes ofr process an automated now use traditionalthe method) sparkling by wines its way into theneckfirst,followedbyheavier. sediment makes thelighter this system, of thebottles intothenecks.Using sides of r period of the end Atthe vertical. more are slightly thatthey so them move (r skilledcellarmonths a and three day forbetweensixweeks worker Every first. neck horizontally, almost inserted are bottles The 15.1. Fig. pupitres called easels wooden into placed are bottles the Traditionally bottles. of the sediment intothenecks theof riddling the process is This R 15.3.8 from sticking to the glass. poignettage three years. From time Champagnes to time the bottlesmayundergo legal period maturation 15months,andforVintageminimum is the development of including tomature, forthewine horizontally be stored will bottles The Maturation 15.3.7 longer andslowerthe fermentation, thebetter the resultant quality. The temperature. upon dependent threemonths, and 14days between take process may 6 bar).The(5 to lbpersquare inch 75 to90 to in the wine. The dissolves gas increasesthe pressurein the bottle making anextra 1.3% to1.5% alcohol, and carbon dioxide which for thesecond fermentation. Theyeastswork onthe , horizontally laid theyare where cellars tothe cool aretaken The bottles fermentation Second 15.3.6 ( traditionalcork thesmallerproducersareoftensealedwitha from li é è All the large Champagnehouses(and other wineriesthat make muer) will give the bottle a twist (one-eighth of a turn), a shakea a turn), of and (one-eighth twist bottle a givethe will muer) ge ) and staple ( , each side of which contains 60 slanted holes as shown in ofwhich contains 60slantedholesas , eachside é muage, the yeasty sediment will have been coaxed from coaxed have been will the sediment theyeasty muage,

– é , asshownin Fig. 15.2. Thesemachines comprise shaking and restacking restacking and shaking é muage. The most commonly used system is thatof system commonly used muage. Themost muage muage agrafe autolitic ). (yeasty)character. ForChampagne the – to prevent the yeasty sediment theyeasty to prevent é muer. 101 CHAPTER 15

Fig. 15.1 Pupitres

Fig. 15.2 Gyropalettes WINE PRODUCTION 102 shipment, in order to avoid damage in thecellars. to avoiddamagein in order shipment, Thecork finalnow inserted, is and wired on.Labellingthe and Corking 15.3.12 to the required style of wine. ofcanesugar,small amount theprecise amountvarying according The bottles are now topped up with amixture of identicalwine anda (liqueur Dosage d 15.3.11 is removed manually and the sediment expelled into a hood. held pointing upwardsanangle at of30 sediment. the crowncork. The pressureof the carbon dioxideejects the yeast removes a machine and up, therightway turned are removed, bottles pellet.iceyeast The becomes encapsulatedinaslightly slushy the into tubs containing afreezing mixture. After approximately 6 minutes, the necks,are transported (stillinverted) andthe necksare inserted today is used system usual The oftheyeasty sediment. This is the disgorging D 15.3.10 period of up to three months. verticallythe withof another neckofonebottleinto fora thebase by others forthebestwinesonly.Thebottles arestackedalmost This undertakenis bysomeChampagne forhouses allwines,and sur Stacking pointes 15.3.9 pupitre hand, andsomeuseamachinethat looks like an automated by Somehouses smaller have gyropalettes that have tobecranked additionof foil the will always only beundertaken just before A few smaller houses stilldisgorge houses A fewsmaller – d

pupimatic é gorgement é gorgement gorgement . à la glace . Thebottles, with the sedimentin ’ expedition) ° a lavol andthecork orcrowncork é e . Thebottlesare Problems and Solutions

16.1 Vintages – style and quality

The expression ‘vintage wine’ is frequently misused, especially in the popular press, implying wines of quality and age. Any wine, unless it has been blended with wine from previous years, is ‘vintage’, however young or poor. However, it should be remembered that in the European Union it is illegal for simple Table Wines (without geographical origin) to state the vintage on the label. ‘Was it a good year?’ is one of the questions most commonly asked of wine merchants, especially when the customer is considering laying down the wine. Vintages vary in quantity, style and quality. We have already seen that frost at budding time, or cold and windy weather at flowering time, can result in a considerably reduced crop. Whilst plenty of summer sunshine is clearly desirable, if it gets too hot, above 40 °C (104 °F), the vines’ metabolism can shut down, resulting in under-ripe fruit. A little rain in spring or early summer is also generally desirable, for if the vines are too stressed quality will also be reduced. Perhaps most desirable of all is a period of dry, warm sunny weather in the weeks before harvesting. Many otherwise great vintages have been wrecked by the autumn rains arriving whilst the fruit is still on the vine. Vintages vary in style: big rich wines in years when it has been hot, but when perhaps there has been less sunshine, the wines may be perfectly good, but lighter. Grape varieties ripen at different times; for example Merlot ripens up to three weeks before Cabernet Sauvignon. Thus in Bordeaux, for example, if the rains set in during late September the will probably already be fermenting, and wines dominated by this variety may be excellent, whilst the Cabernet-dominated wines will be much less good. On the other hand, if August and early September have

103 WINE PRODUCTION 104 spraying. spraying. in mildew outbreaks, and are thus able to undertake preventative that result may theconditions and haveadvancewarningof this to reporting to acentral monitoring service: growers can subscribe vineyardhave areas, of weather inmany stations beenestablished can helpreduceoutbreaks.lettingtheinto thebreeze Series vines unwelcome form ofgrey rot. Opening upthe canopyof leaves and in attack of the grapes by the fungus result any time of the growing season. Damp, humid autumn days may at conditions damp in thrive mildew powdery and mildew Downy Coping with problems in the vineyard 16.2 climates there are fewer climates any year. However, it istrue to say that even in less favourable Cabernetexcel. Sauvignon thatmay later in the month andinto October, it isthe winesmajoring on summer Indian an thereis but then rain, excessive with cool, been of the techniques used. of thetechniques weather isunfavourable. Wewill consider just afew the when years quality fruit, and makers inprocessing less than perfect fruit, in higherin theknowledgeof growers aboutachieving improvements been advancehas However,thereal quality. onwine impact modest There islittle doubt thatclimate changehad has avery warming? the reduction of very pooryears? Is this a consequence of global Table 16.1. in for redBordeaux, shown as past fourdecades the years of good least the consider us Letthe case. once thanwas mediocre wines 90 90 90 1990s 1980s 1970s 1963 1960s 16.1 Table 1965 1968 Many New World regions boast that they can ripen fruit in almost fruitripenthat in theycan New Worldregionsboast Many Whathappened has inthe pastyears 40 thathas resulted in – – – dssru 1972 disastrous dssru 1974 disastrous dssru 1977 disastrous The forredBordeaux leastgoodyears – – – vr or1980 very poor po 1984 poor vr or1987 very poor ‘ poor years ’ resulting in lowerquantities of – – – fil or1991 fairly poor fil or1992 fairly poor fi 1993 fair Botrytis cinerea – – – fairly poor fairly fair fair , in its in , 105

Green harvesting of fruit is generally regarded as good policy; in wet summers when the grapes swell rapidly and the amount of sunshine is reduced, many growers consider it to be essential. Rain at harvest time is a nightmare, invoking a mood of depression throughout a vineyard area. Grey rot can set in very quickly as the grapes expand by taking up water from the soil, resulting in those in the middle of the bunch being compacted and damaged. Bunch thinning can help reduce this problem. If fruit comes in wet it will be dilute, each grape skin holding water – you have only to shake out a mackintosh after being out in the rain to appreciate how much! Growers at the best of properties have occasionally gone to extra- ordinary measures to dry out wet grapes – helicopters hovering over CHAPTER 16 the vineyards and giant blow-dryers at the reception in the winery, for example. Mechanical harvesters can prove their worth here, for if rain is forecasted they can get in the crop very quickly. However, many small properties may rely on the use of a contract machine, and this will not be available to them at the time it is most needed. Provided the fruit is healthy, a grower may take a gamble and delay picking until after the rain, hoping for an Indian summer to achieve more ripeness. If hand harvesting takes place, growers may be instructed to leave damaged or rotten fruit on the ground. Sorting tables may be placed at the ends of rows of vines or at the winery reception.

16.3 Handling fruit in the winery

The elimination of unwanted fruit is the first stage of improving quality in the winery. There may be sorting tables at grape reception, or new techniques may be undertaken, such as immersing the grapes in water – the rotten ones fall to the bottom – and then drying the remaining sound fruit. If excess acidity is a problem, the must may be de-acidified using calcium carbonate. As briefly discussed earlier, one recent and very expensive technique is the employment of must concentrator machines – these cost up to £80 000 so they are not for the small producer. Vacuum evaporation of excess water results in a concentration of sugars. Machines employing the principle of reverse osmosis, a technique only authorised in the European Union since 1999, concentrate flavours and remove excess alcohol. The largest must concentrator machines can extract 1500 litres WINE PRODUCTION 106 than grape isnecessaryto ensure good wine. In countries where Inspection andeliminationofunwanted grapes or materials other will besomerotten or otherwise poor grapesarriving atthe winery. Even ifthefruit isbasically ripe and diseasefree, invariably there of fruitselection Lack 16.4.2 climate. where the processofdeterioration much faster is thana cool in spoilage or oxidation. This particularlyis important inahot climate, ofbacterial riskthereis themore theyareprocessed, waiting before crush itself under its own weight. The longer the grapes are left the fruit should be transported in small containers, soit does not Ideally, harvested. are they as soon as processed be should Grapes Delay inprocessing fruit 16.4.1 below. loss quality of a fewpotentialcauses just can be lost atany and every stage ofthe process.Wewillconsider process, quality However, duringthewinemaking free. and disease Itis obvious thatto make top qualitywine, the grapes mustbe fully ripe winemaking in Problems 16.4 with the level of fruit. will alsobereduced insuchyearsorder tobalance the tannins flavours. Thelength ofpost-fermentation macerations on theskins which maybevery sunnyyears, andalsoreduce hardinless tannins, soften help will musts fermenting ofthe Oxygenation flavours. to continue the maceration on the grape skinsand concentrate quantity areduced behind leaving juice, some off running by the vats, as AC (resulting in the world during the2000 growing season, theresulting wines were not accepted properties covered their vineyards withplasticBordeaux sheeting consider thatthis negates the concept of of rainwater per hour. It is interesting that the authorities do not During the fermentation of red wine, the maker may decide to to decide may themaker wine, red of fermentation the During ’ s mostexpensive Vins de Table). terroir , but when two ‘ ‘ green bleed ’ ’ 107 labour is cheap, the cost of staffing a selection table can easily be justified, but in France, for example, many producers of inexpensive wines simply cannot afford such a ‘luxury’.

16.4.3 Problems with crushing, destemming or pressing

If the crusher–destemmer or press is old, out of adjustment or not operated carefully, several problems can ensue. For example, it is important that if a destemmer is used the equipment should remove and eject the entire stems. Poor equipment may break up the stems, CHAPTER 16 giving a wine which is very stalky and harsh as a result of the presence of stem tannins. If the rollers of the crusher are out of adjustment, the pressure may be too great, crushing the grape pips and releasing bitter oils into the must.

16.4.4 Lack of control of fermentations

It is important that the temperature is controlled throughout the fermentation period. Winemakers dread a fermentation ‘sticking’ – stopping before all the sugar has fermented out. This can happen for several reasons: the temperature may have exceeded that at which yeasts will work (approximately 35° to 38 °C), or the juice may be deficient in oxygen or nutrients.

16.4.5 Delays in post-fermentation racking

If, due to delays in racking, the lees start to decompose, then off flavours will be imparted to the wine.

16.4.6 Lack of attention to barrels

Barrels must be clean and sterilised. Sulphur is the traditional means of sterilisation. The belief that wines must be topped up regularly during the first year of maturation is now challenged, but all would accept that oxidation is the great enemy. Fig. 16.1 shows topping up taking place at Château d’Yquem. WINE PRODUCTION 108 flavour defects and the rejection of products by consumers. by consumers. productsand therejection of defects flavour bottles arrivingat bottling lines, which canresult in aromaand Chapter 17) has been found in pallets of supposedly clean, new be washed before use.2,4,6-Trichloroanisole (TCA; discussedin arrive at the plant shrink-wrappedbottles on pallets, they should again Although stage. this at oxidation unwanted any prevent to dioxide emptied, manybottlers blanketare thewinewithnitrogen orcarbon It isimportant that thebottling process takes placequickly. As vats bottling Careless 16.4.8 wine. theand longevitybody, structure in of a loss resulting in bottlers over-filter the wine. The filter sheetsused maybetoo fine, in the bottle which mayconfuse or annoy the sadly,many consumer, wine. In the bid to make wines squeaky clean, with no risk of sediment as necessary. Poor filtration can lead to cardboard-like flavours in the Filters must beregularly flushed out, andthe filter material replaced Poor or over-filtration 16.4.7 Fig. 16.1 Topping up barrels Common Faults and their Causes

Every day many faulty bottles of wine are opened and, sadly, nearly as many are consumed. Perhaps the drinker is not aware that the wine is faulty, or believes that it is not to his or her taste. Very often there is a strong suspicion that something is wrong, but the buyer does not have the confidence to complain. Detailed below are some of the most common faults encountered in bottled wine. The list is by no means exhaustive.

17.1 2,4,6-Trichloroanisole

‘Excuse me, this wine is corked’, is a complaint often heard: indeed, to many consumers any faulty wine is ‘corked’, whatever the actual fault. What is commonly referred to as corkiness is a fault caused by the chemical compound 2,4,6-trichloroanisole. Tribomoanisole (TBA) is a possible cause of similar taints. This fault can be recognised instantly by nosing the wine – there is usually no need to taste. Upon raising the glass to the nose, the smell is instantly one of a damp cellar, a heavy mustiness, a smell of a wet sack, perhaps with tones of mushrooms or dry rot. If the wine is tasted, it will be dirty, fusty and earthy: rather like biting into a rotten apple. The fault is particularly noticeable at the back of the tongue. TCA is a chlorine compound and its presence in affected wine is usually, but not always, the result of the bottle cork being contami- nated with the substance. Interestingly, wines from bottles sealed

109 WINE PRODUCTION 110 bottled and do notrepaykeeping. bottled and astheyare be drunk assoon to almost areusuallymade particular, life, and should not be allowed to get too old. Inexpensive wines, in finite a have wines All neck. the in expanded and moist cork the sealed with anatural cork be should always kept lying downto keep togettooold.Bottles orallowed badly, beenstored bottlehas wine in the winery. However, in the most common cause wine is when the to delays before processing, or dueto careless handling ofthe result ofthegrapes having orhaving beendamaged, beensubject a as may havehappenedthatThisdamaged.been itsstructure has and short. lackingSherry. infruit,bitter,wine istasted,itwillbe Ifthedirty very have aromasof or, in severe cases, the smellof an Oloroso and burnt,bitter smell wines will the the nose tones. On on brown and start to lookcolour brown. A red wine will also look dull and take ‘ winewill look white a wine.A of detectableonthenose certainly Oxidation isafault that isoftenapparent onappearance, and Oxidation 17.2 of corks. corks. of manufacturers cork the Clearly, causes. its identify TCA,and by affected bottles of associations andotherinterested parties to quantify the number Research is now being undertaken by cork manufacturers, trade of alternative bottle stoppers, and the pro- and anti-cork lobbies. manufacturers and the cork of themanufacturers being the adversaries taint. of level actually soak up TCAfrom aninfected wine, andthus reduce the Research has shown that corkcan act like blottingpaper and to winery can lead TCA taint. migrateseasily. is very volatile and The useof chlorine based disinfectants and eventap water in the plants. bottling and equipment winery filters, barrels, oak include sources ofTCA that givemay risethe tocontamination ofwine exposing the myththat contaminated cork isthe only cause.Other with closures other thanreal corkcan also exhibit the fault, thus flat Atpoint some in the life ofthe wine it has absorbed somuch oxygen There has been muchdebate about cork taintin recent years, ’ , not at all bright, and in severe cases will deepen considerably in considerably willdeepen severecases atallbright,andin , not ’ aim is to eliminate the sources of contamination 111

17.3 Excessive volatile acidity

The total acidity of a wine is the combination of non-volatile or fixed acids, such as malic and tartaric acids, and the acids that can be sepa- rated by steam, the volatile acids. Generally thought of as acetic acid, volatile acid is composed of acetic acid and other acids such as carbonic acid (from carbon dioxide), sulphurous acid (from sulphur dioxide) and, to a lesser extent, acids such as butyric, formic, lactic and tartaric. As the name suggests, volatile acidity is the wine acid that can be detected on the nose. All other acids are sensed on the palate. All wines contain some volatile acidity. If the level is low it increases CHAPTER 17 the complexity of the wine. If the level is too high, the wine may smell vinegary, or of nail varnish remover. On the palate the wine will exhibit a loss of fruit and be thin and sharp. The finish will be very harsh and acid, perhaps even giving a burning sensation on the back of the mouth. Acetic acid bacteria, such as those belonging to the genus Acetobacter, can multiply rapidly if winery hygiene is poor, thereby risking an increase in the volatile acidity of contaminated wines. The bacteria can develop in wine at any stage of winemaking. The bacteria grow in the presence of air. If a red wine is fermented on the skins of the grapes in an open top vat, the grape skins will be pushed to the top of the vat by the carbon dioxide produced in the fermentation and will present an ideal environment for the growth of acetic acid bacteria. The bacteria can also be harboured in poorly cleaned winery equipment, especially old wooden barrels. Careful use of sulphur dioxide in the winery inhibits the growth of these bacteria, but over use can give another wine fault, as discussed below.

17.4 Excessive sulphur dioxide

Excessive sulphur dioxide can be detected on the nose – a wine may smell of a struck match, or burning coke, that may drown out much of the fruity nose of the product. A prickly sensation will often be felt at the back of the nose or in the throat. The taster may even be induced to sneeze. Sulphur dioxide is the winemaker’s universal antiseptic and antioxi- dant. As stated above, its careful use inhibits the development of WINE PRODUCTION 112 makers addaminute amountofcoppertomust,which canprevent the problem, but can lead to problems of copperhaze. lead toproblems butcan problem, the oxygen (O oxygen present intheskinsofgrapes andcauseawinedefect recognisable Saccharomyces cerevisiae Brettanomyces Brettanomyces 17.6 (H sulphide hydrogen comprise faults Reductive Reductivity 17.5 Table 17.1. detailedin areThese greater wines is thanthatfordrywhites. white permitted thanred,andthepermittedlevelforsweet forwhitewines states is strictly regulated by EUwine regulations. Higher levels are member European Union soldin used inwines thatdioxide canbe sulphur of amount The above. described effects unpleasant the to lead acetic acid.However, use,particularly careless before bottling, can should take pains to keep sufficient levels of nitrogen(N should takepainstokeepsufficientlevelsof sulphide inwinemaking bytheactions of theyeast.The winemaker sulphur (S) used asa vineyard treatment isreduced to hydrogen rottensweat, cabbageorgarlic. those of are and theodours smell ofrotten eggs or drains. Mercaptans are even more severe, pronounced a has sulphide Hydrogen nose. the on recognised are and Reductive defects are caused bycareless winemaking. Often 2 ) in the fermenting must to counteract reduction. Some wine- Some reduction. counteract to must fermenting inthe ) r ht ie 210 160 400 260 210 350 specified wines,Certain white e.g. Barsac specified wines,Certain white e.g. specified wines,Certain white e.g. Sp g/l or sugar more winewithWhite 5 g/l sugar or more Red winewith 5 Dry white wine Dry red wine 17.1 Table spp. (also known as Brett) are yeasts that resemble that yeasts are Brett) knownas (also spp. EUpermitted sulphurdioxidelevels , butwhich aresmaller. Theyare often ä ls 300 tlese 2 S) andmercaptans, S) 2 ) and 113 on the nose as a pronounced smell of cheese, or perhaps ‘wet horse’. Brettanomyces contamination is a result of careless winemaking and, particularly, poor hygiene management. They are very sensitive to sulphur dioxide and can be inhibited in winemaking by its careful use. Barrels can become impregnated with Brettanomyces and thus contaminate wine during maturation. Indeed, whole cellars can be contaminated, a situation that is very difficult to rectify.

17.7 Dekkera CHAPTER 17 Dekkera is a sporulating form of Brettanomyces. It causes defects in wine recognisable on the nose as a pronounced ‘burnt sugar’ smell, or a ‘mousey’ off flavour. It is a consequence of poor hygiene in winemaking and can be inhibited by the careful use of sulphur dioxide.

17.8 Geraniol

Geraniol is recognisable on the nose, as the wine smells like gerani- ums or lemon grass. It is a by-product of potassium sorbate, which is very occasionally used by winemakers as a preservative. It is important to use only the required quantity or the geraniol defect can arise.

17.9 Geosmin

Geosmin is a compound resulting from the metabolism of some moulds, bacteria and blue-green algae. It is recognisable on the nose as the earthy smell of beetroot. Faults which can be attributed to geosmin are normally caused by the contamination of barrels with the micro-organisms that give rise to it, or their growth on cork. Glossary

Acetobacter. Genus of bacteria of the family Bacteriaceae. The organisms oxidise alcohol to acetic acid. Acetaldehyde. Product of the oxidation of alcohol, giving a certain aroma to wine. High concentrations give a ‘sherry like’ smell. Acid. Essential component – in malic (appley) and tartaric form – of wine, giving freshness and bite. Malic acid is naturally converted to the softer (yogurty) lactic acid via malolactic fermentation, which naturally tends to follow the alcoholic fermentation which has turned sugar into alcohol. Tartaric acid is often added in warm regions. Alcohol. The product of fermentation, created by yeasts working on sugar. Alcohol is also added in neutral form during or after fermen- tation to produce liqueur (fortified) wines. Measured as percentage of volume. See Ethanol. Alcohol by volume. The amount of alcohol expressed as a percent- age of the total volume of wine. Anthocyanin. Grape-skin tannin responsible for colour and flavour in red wines. Aphid. Small insect which exists by sucking the juices from plants, the most serious of which in viticulture is Phylloxera vastatrix (q.v.). Appellation Contrôlée. Legal status within France’s wine grading system (under European Union wine regulations) that guarantees the geographical origin and specifies production criteria for the wine. Assemblage. French term for the blending of different vats and parcels of wine to make up the final blend. Autolysis. Interaction between wine and solid yeast matter giving a distinctive flavour, encouraged by ageing the wine on its lees, as in Champagne and some Muscadet. Balling. See Brix.

114 Baum winemaking. B regions worldwide. in other used inBordeaux;nowincreasingly used traditionally of wine, Barrique toast flavours, and allow a controlled oxygenation. Barrel-ageing maturation. and/or fermentation(of whitewines) for (see Barrique), usually from oak,andare now increasingly used storing andtransporting wine.Barrels are madeinvarious sizes Barrel in this way. in this yeasts continues. light bodied, Many fruity red winesare produced unrelated to yeast.Following this,the conversion by of sugars individual berries take the place, resulting ina short fermentation of black grapes. Under ablanket of CO Carbonic maceration wines. method, and otherwise induced in,or injected into, allsparkling in wineasbubblesbysparkling winemakers using thetraditional Blending Bentonite indicating a potential alcohol by volume, commonlyused in France. Carbon dioxide for vintageparticularly Port. protects the cork and bottle neck. Wax is also sometimes used, Capsule Cap and fruit. Canopy of trainingused. orange-brown. Canesarecutaccording back inwinter tothe system Cane including phloem (q.v.). Cambium used in the USA. Brix rot.as noble beneficial way in a or greyrot, undesirable wayas Botrytis cinerea assemblage. called Also â tonnage . The floating skins in a red wine must. a redwine skins in floating The . . Scale for measuring concentration of grape ofgrape commonly formeasuring sugars, Scale concentration . Mature shoot ofavine that overwinteredhas andturned . é . Curved cylindrical wooden container, historically used for wooden container,historically used cylindrical Curved . . Scale for Scale measuring the concentration ofgrape sugars, . Part ofthevine that isabove ground,including leaves . Once lead,nowplastic-film, foilor covers which and . . Small oakbarrel Small holding225litres (300 . The mixing of several wines to create a balanced cuv . . A layer of cells in plants that can produce new cells, can producenew plants that cells in layerof A . . A A type of clay earth for fining. . . French during French term thestirringoflees for in barrels . Maturationbarrelto inorder in addoak,vanillaand .

(CO Fungus that canattack grapes intwo ways:inan . 2 ) . Fermentation method using wholebunches Fermentation using method . By-product offermentation. CO . 2 , enzymic changes within × 5clbottles) 75 2 istrapped é e. 115 GLOSSARY WINE PRODUCTION 116 Cordon Congeners neutralised. An alternative to using sugar in chaptalisation. 20% of its volume by heating. If Concentrated grape must are not removed by filtration, and so maycause haze in wine. Colloids genetically identical. towhich theyare parent single Clone lime-rich soils. found in Chlorosis in tank.fermentation takesplace Charmat of Napoleon. theInterior atthetime Minister of who was a chemist afteralcohol levels. Dr Theprocessisnamed Antoine Jean Chaptal, Chaptalisation wines. low-alcohol some of production in the be used also May fermentation. Centrifuge the of region. maturing wine and made in varying sizes according to the tradition Cask D Cuve Cuvaison Crushing weather conditions at flowering time (seealso Millerandage). Coulure the vine. D fermentation. usually in Europe expressed as the number of vines per hectare. ofplanting Density and deepercolours. givingpumping over,than softer tannins process gentler be a to by many considered Itis of skins. cap the drained ofred wine andthen the fermenting wineisreturned over D California atDavis. of by theUniversity developed Degree days end of the traditional method of making sparkling wine. é é é bourbage gorgement lestage . Wooden container (usually cylindrical) used or used forfermenting cylindrical) container (usually Wooden . . Commonly used French term for a vat or tank.ora vat used French termfor Commonly . Group oforganisms produced byasexual meansfrom a . Horizontalarm that extends from the . Poor setting ofthe flowers on avine, usually due to adverse . Ultramicroscopic particleswhichdonotsettle outand . Process ofbreaking open the grapes ready forfermentation. . Sparkling wine production method in which the second . Periodoftime ared wine spendscontact in with itsskins. . Vine disorder resulting from iron deficiency in soil, often . Translated as . Machine used to separate wine from the lees after . The colouring and flavouring matter in wines. . Settling ofsolidsin must or wine either pre- or post- . System classification ofclimatic viticultural areas . . Removal of Removal yeasty sediment from the bottle at the . Enrichment of must (q.v.) with sugar to increase . . Number of vines planted in a given area of of land, agivenarea in planted ofvines Number . . Grape juice that has beenreducedto Grape that juice . ‘ rack and return rack and ‘ rectified ’ , it has also hadits acidity ’ , the vat iscompletely ‘ woody ’ trunk of (C Ethanol Vitis vinifera Hybrid crop. the remainingripening of and the developmentare removedtoencouragegrapes bunches of Green harvesting vat. press or juiceFree run eitherand Port)fermentation. before,duringorafter Fortification of which are plant pigments. Flavones include bentonite, egg whites and gelatine. be usedforfining thewinebeforebottling.from Materials whichmay Fining removed. also be Flavours can and solids. Filtration action of yeasts. Fermentation É be crushed. which theymay Egrappoir intended style. method sparkling wine with sweetened wine, according to the Dosage the alcoholic fermentation, in which bacteria convert harsh malic in which bacteriaconvertalcoholic fermentation,the harsh Malolactic fermentation wines, colour and tannins. post-fermentation. Maceration willhelpextract flavours and,forred wines, of red thecase cold soaking pre-fermentation or,in form of Maceration wine production.method sparkling intraditional fermentation secondary toinduce ofbottling time at the Liqueur de tirage leescoarse are sediment andfine lees may settle after initial bottom ofthe vat once the fermentation process finishes. Gross Lees Isinglass racking. racking. levage 2 H 5 Sediment,including deadcells, yeast which settles atthe . OH). . Removal of microscopic troublesome matter (colloids) of microscopictroublesome matter Removal . Result ofthe crossing of two different . Alcohol inwine,otherwise known as ethylalcohol . Following d . The . . Colourless crystalline tricyclic compounds, the derivatives the compounds, tricyclic crystalline Colourless . Fining agent derived from fish. . Passing the wine through a medium to remove bacteria . Machine which removes stalks from grapes, following . . The soaking cantake This The ofgrapesolidsinjuice. the . and . The additionofalcoholtocertainwines (e.g.Sherry The . . The conversion of sugars into alcohol throughsugarsinto the conversionof The . . Juice naturally drained from solids, fromcrusher, Juice solids, from drained naturally . ‘ rearing Vitis labrusca . Mixture of sugar and yeast added to wine base ofsugarandyeastadded Mixture . Crop thinning before normal harvest. Unripe . ’ é or maturing of wines beforebottling. of wines ormaturing gorgement, the topping up of traditional . A fermentation A placeafter thatmaytake . . Vitis species, e.g. species, 117 GLOSSARY WINE PRODUCTION 118 also Baum (see juice crushed grapesor levels containedin indicates thesugar Must weight law in the European Union (see alsoChaptalisation). climates wheregrapes struggle toripen.This isstrictly controlled by raise the alcohollevelofthewine.to practice incool Itiscommon increased is must ofthe content sugar natural the whereby tation Must enrichment vintage.wet used followinga be ofgrapes.May thejuice from Must concentrators climates. cool in berequired may Deacidification climates. in hot include additions oftartaric acid (acidification), commonly practised may this For example, balance. chemical desired the ensure tation to Must adjustment Must Coulure). also fails todevelop(see berryconsequently thegrape Millerandage reductivefrom over winemaking. that canoccurinwinefollowing fermentation, resulting possibly Mercaptans method M distilled intoBrandy. Marc red wines. acid into soft lactic acid. Almost without exception, it is desirable in Oxidation affecting vines. Oidium Oenology Germany. in used commonly weight of grape juice to measure the final alcohol level of wine, Oechsle character and imparts flavour. Oak fortified wines. make sweet Mutage affecting vines. Peronospera Pasteurisation destructive inexcess. process; maturation é thode champenoise Preferred type of wood in which to mature wine. Provides . Unfermented grape juice and solids. . Skins, stalks and pipsleft after pressing grapes. May be . . Fungal disease, commonlyknownaspowderymildew, Fungal disease, . ’ The additionofalcohol tostopfermentation . . Scale used for measuring the gravitymust orfor specific measuring used Scale . . . The science of winemaking. of winemaking. science The . Resultcontact ofair with wine.Controlled inthe . é , Brix, Oechsle). . Group of volatile Group chemicalcompounds bad-smelling . . Fungal disease, commonly known as , downy knownas disease, commonly Fungal . . Measurement of richness of must. In practice In this of richness ofmust. Measurement . Poor offruit, setting resulting frompoor pollination; . . Destruction of micro-organisms in wine by heating. inwinebyheating. ofmicro-organisms Destruction . . The addition of various substances before fermen- before substances various of addition The . Process before orin the early stages offermen- . . Ingenious machines used to remove waterused toremove Ingenious machines . . Now-defunct term replaced by Now-defunct termreplaced . ‘ Traditional – usedto pH period into the juice. Often usedto produce ros of skins of blackgrapes hasbeenallowed to Saign from the skins. Sometimesan aeration isincorporated. floating capofskins.The topurpose is extract colour andtannins the isdrawnfromthebottomandsprayedonto must ofthevat the Remontage measuring must weight of grapes (grape ripeness). Refractometer liquid. the clarifying doing inso and orsediment lees any ing behind Racking Seealso Remontage. flavour. and colour more obtain to of skins over Pumping of thegrapes. matter andothersolid from theskins Pressing This may be usedin maceration. blending. Press wine Press (q.v.).tannins anthocyanins (q.v.)and which includes Polyphenols mechanically. matter and tannins. It can be done either manually or colouring fermentation toprevent dryingandout encourage the release of Pigeage Europe Phylloxera vastatrix sunlight. from the photosynthesis, utilisingenergy a catalystin acts as and sugars). Chlorophyll, thecompoundthat pigments plant leaves, dioxide andwater are combined to form carbohydrates (starches Photosynthesis sugars arestored. wheregrapes importantly, tothe metabolism, from the leaves of vines to the trunks and roots and, sugars derived photosynthesis from andother products ofplantleaf Phloem tannins and flavour compounds. cyanins, Phenolics alkaline. 0 from to 14,where 7isneutral, below7isacidicand above7is ascale on measured pHis oftheliquid. theacidity and,hence, liquid . A measure of the hydrogen ion (H ion hydrogen the of measure A . é Machine usedto squeeze out juice from grapes. . e ’ Tubularcarry structures plantcellsthat ofspecialised . s vineyardsduring thelatter part ofthe nineteenth century. . Transferring juice or wine from one vessel to another, leav- toanother, vessel one from orwine juice Transferring . . A term A usedto describe theprocess in whichthe colour . Punching downofthe during capofgrapeskins formed . Process inwhichthe inwinemaking pressed juice is . Group of chemical compounds which includes antho- . . Process in red wine makingin red Process duringfermentation wine when . Wine obtained bypressing the grape skins after . . Group of chemical compounds present on grape skins grape on present compounds chemical of Group . . The process of pumping the must over the floating cap the over floating must the of pumping process The . . An optical instrument used in the vineyardthe for used in opticalinstrument An . . A biosynthetic A process of plants bywhich carbon . Root-burrowingdevastated aphidwhichfirst . + ) concentration ina polar ) concentration é wines. ‘ bleed ’ fora short 119 GLOSSARY WINE PRODUCTION 120 of cells. Sugars increase and acidity levels fall. thanthe reproduction rather totheexpansion now due of berry is size the thegrowthin veraison, Following starts tochange. colour and the Veraison vats are closed,others open topped. materials including cement, concrete andstainless steel. Some ofwine. Historicallyageing madefrom wood, but now from other Vat Varietal bottle, cork. Ullage and the resultant effect on the vines. site climate, landscape and environment within aparticular vineyard Terroir crystals. before bottling, but somemaylinger in the form ofharmless tartrate sium bitartratemost isremoved wine;all isnaturallypresent in Potas- subsequently. or period maturation the during form may which Tartrates tannin. due to is cold blackteas mouth drying qualityof Thewine structure. Tannins England. prior to bottling to sweeten wines. Oftenpractisedin Germanyand S making asa preservative, antiseptic and antioxidant. Vitis vinifera Vitis Scales ofsugarmeasurementinclude:inFrance,Baum of wine. contentdetermine andstyle thealcohol tation thiswill as Sugar all sugars. stopped beforetheconversion of Stuck fermentation wines. whitefrequently particularly beingused, for Stelvin varieties, e.g. Chardonnay.varieties, e.g. most oftheworld Sulphur dioxide it.strength butnottosweeten be added to chaptalise the must may sugar regions Oechsle. Insome Germany,New World,Brix; in ü ssreserve A large vessel which is used for fermentation, storage or . . Grape-bearing genus of the Ampelidaceae family. Grape-bearingof theAmpelidaceaefamily. genus . . The The sugar in fresh grape juice is measured before fermen- . . The air space between the wine and the roof of cask, or in or of cask, roof and the betweenthewine airspace The . A French term bringing together the notion of soil,micro- . ® Extracts fromredgrapewhich give andoak skins red . Wine madefrom a single grape variety. . . Brand name for Brand name thebest-known screw capclosure,now . . The beginning of grape ripening, at which the skin softens skin the atwhich ripening, grape of beginning The . Crystal tartrate or depositsofeither calcium potassium . . Sweet, unfermented grape juice that may be added may that juice grape unfermented Sweet, . . European species of the species European .

(SO ’ s wine is made. There areat wineismade. s least 4000known . Alcoholic Alcoholic fermentation that hasprematurely . 2 ) . Chemical compound used widely in wine-widely compoundused Chemical . – to raise itspotentialalcoholic raise to Vitis genus from which from genus é ; inthe juice. juice. skins, or addedincultured form, toferment the sugars ingrape convert sugars into alcohol. They are naturally present ongrape Yeasts cause excessiveamounts aroma; alcohol to aceticacid(acidinvinegar). amountsenhance Small Volatile acidity Single whichproduce that cellmicro-organisms enzymes . Presentoxidation the inallwine,resultingfrom of . ‘ vinegary ’ smell and taste. and smell 121 GLOSSARY Bibliography

Allen, M., Bell, S., Rowe, N. and Wall, G. (eds) (2000) Proceedings ASVO Seminar, Use of Gases in Winemaking. Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology, Adelaide. Allen, M. and Wall, G. (eds) (2002) Proceedings ASVO Oenology Seminar, Use of Oak Barrels in Winemaking. Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology, Adelaide. Bird, D. (2000) Understanding Wine Technology. DBQA Publishing, Newark. Fielden, C. (2004) Exploring the World of Wines and Spirits. WSET, London. Foulonneau, C. (2002) Guide Practique de la Vinification. Dunod, Paris. Galet, P. (2000) General Viticulture. Oenoloplurimédia, Chaintré. Galet, P. (2000) Grape Diseases. Oenoloplurimédia, Chaintré. Galet, P. (2000) Grape Varieties and Rootstock Varieties. Oenoloplurimédia, Chaintré. Halliday, J. and Johnson, H. (1992) The Art and Science of Wine. Mitchell Beazley, London. Iland, P., Bruer, N., Edwards, G., Weeks, S. and Wilkes, E. (2004) Chemical Analysis of Grapes and Wine. Winetitles, Adelaide. Iland, P., Bruer, N., Ewart, A., Markides, A. and Sitters, S. (2004) Monitoring the Winemaking Process from Grapes to Wine: Techniques and Concepts. Winetitles, Adelaide. ITV (1991) Protection Raisonnée du Vignoble. Centre Technique Interprofes- sionnel de la Vigne et du Vin, Paris. ITV (1995) Guide d’Établissement du Vignoble. Centre Technique Inter- professionnel de la Vigne et du Vin, Paris. ITV (1998) Matérials et Installations Vinicoles. Centre Technique Inter- professionnel de la Vigne et du Vin, Paris. Magarey, P., MacGregor, A.M., Wachtel, M.F. and Kelly, M.C. (2000) The Australian and New Zealand Field Guide to Diseases, Pests and Disorders of Grapes. Winetitles, Adelaide. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (1997) Catalogue of Selected Wine Grape Varieties and Clones Cultivated in France. ENTAV (Établissement National Technique pour l’Amélioration de la Viticulture), INRA (Institut

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National de Recherche Agronomique), ENSAM (École Nationale Supérieure Agronomique de Montpellier), ONIVINS (Office National Interprofessionnel des Vins). Nicholas, P., Magarey, P. and Wachtel, M. (eds) (1994) Diseases and Pests, Grape Production Series Number 1. Winetitles, Adelaide. Official Journal of the European Communities (1999) 14.7.1999L179 Council Regulation (EC) No. 1493/1999 of 17 May 1999 on ‘the common organisation of the market in wine’. Peynaud, E. (1984) Knowing and Making Wine. Wiley-Interscience, New York. Rankine, B. (2004) Making Good Wine. Macmillan, Sydney. Robinson, J. (ed.) (1999) The Oxford Companion to Wine. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Smart, R. and Robinson, M. (1991) Sunlight into Wine. Winetitles, Adelaide. Vigne et Vin (2003) Guide Pratique, Viticulture Biologique. Vigne et Vin, Bordeaux. BIBLIOGRAPHY Useful Websites

Association of Wine Educators (www.wineeducators.com) The Association of Wine Educators is a professional association whose members are involved in the field of wine education. The website includes a directory of members, many of whom are specialists in different aspects of wine production.

Blackwell Publishing (www.blackwellpublishing.com) The website of this book’s publishers, which includes details of publica- tions and links to numerous resources.

CIVB – Conseil Interprofessionnel du Vin de Bordeaux (professional section) (www.bordeauxprof.com) The CIVB represents, advises and controls the wine industry of Bordeaux, which is the largest fine wine region in the world. This sec- tion of their website (in French) includes ‘Les Cahiers Techniques du CIVB’ – notebooks containing practical information to assist growers and winemakers.

Decanter (www.decanter.com) Decanter is a monthly wine magazine, aimed at consumers but widely read by the wine trade and wine producers.

Demeter-International e.V. (www.demeter.net) Demeter is an ecological association that has a network of certification bodies for biodynamic production.

Grainger, Keith (www.keithgrainger.com) This website contains contact information for the co-author of this book.

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Harpers (www.harpers-wine.com) Harpers is a weekly journal for the UK wine trade. The website includes précis of recent articles.

The Institute of Masters of Wine (www.masters-of-wine.org) The qualification of Master of Wine (MW) is regarded as the highest level of achievement in broadly based wine education. The website includes a list of the Institute’s members.

ITV – Centre Technique Interprofessionnel de la Vigne et du Vin (www. itvfrance.com) ITV provides technical information for growers and winemakers in France. The website (in French) includes details of their publications.

Lincoln University Centre for Viticulture and Oenology (www.lincoln.ac.nz) Lincoln University, based at Christchurch, New Zealand, is a centre of excel- lence for studies and research in viticulture and oenology. Searching under ‘wine’ on the website links to courses and staff members. WEBSITES USEFUL

Office National Interprofessionnel des Vins (ONIVINS) (www.onivins.fr) ONIVINS is a public organisation that helps develop the rules of vine growing and winemaking in France. This is a comprehensive site, con- taining statistics and general information, and updates about the French wine industry.

University of California at Davis (wineserver.ucdavis.edu) The Department of Viticulture and Enology at Davis has been at the forefront of research for over 30 years.

Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, Faculté d’Oenologie (www.oenologie. u-bordeaux2.fr/) Centre of excellence for studies of oenology in France.

Wine and Spirit Education Trust (www.wset.co.uk) The Wine and Spirit Education Trust designs and provides wine courses, and is the awards body whose qualifications are recognised by the QCA in the United Kingdom under the National Qualifications Frame- work (NQF).

The Wine Anorak (www.wineanorak.com) A lively website containing both objective and subjective views of the wine world. WINE PRODUCTION 126 Wine International papers. pub Australian isan Winetitles Winetitles (www.winetitles.com.au) International Wine (www.wineint.com/) is a monthly magazine for magazine is a monthly wine consumers. lisher ofwinejournals books, and seminar Index

acetaldehyde, 85 calcium, 4 acetic spoilage, 48 calcium carbonate, 56 acidification, 56 cambium, 8 acids, 3 carbon dioxide, 16, 48, 76, 81, acetic acid, 4 97, 108 aeration, 81–2 carbohydrate, 16 agrafe, 100 carbonic maceration, 83 ampelidacae, 5 chalk, 22 anthocyanins, 2, 33 Champagne, 97 antioxidants, 2 chaptalisation, 55 argon, 78 charmat method, 97–8 aspersion system, 14 chlorosis, 23 assemblage, 99 citric acid, 4 autolitic, 100 clay, 22 clones, 6 Balling, 49 cochylis, 35 barrique, 87–8, 92 cold sterile filtration, 71 bâtonnage, 64 colloids, 65 baumé, 49 Commandaria, 96 bentonite, 63, 65 confit, 36 bidoule, 99 continuous method, 97 biodynamic preparations, 42 copper haze, 112 black spot, 37 copper sulphate, 43 bloom, 2 cordon training, 28 blush, 93 cork, 71–2 Botrytis cinerea, 36, 41, coulure, 32 92, 104 crawlers, 8 brettanomyces, 56, 112 crossing, 6 Brix, 49 crusher-destemmer, 50, 54 burrito, 40 crushing, 51, 54 bush training, 26 cuve close method, 98 butts, 95 cuvée, 98

127 WINE PRODUCTION 128 Daktulusphaira vitifoliae, 7 grafting, 6, 8 48 3, glucose, 113 geraniol, 113 geosmin, genetic modification, 6 gelatine, 65 furrow irrigation, 31 fructose, 48 3, 59 juice, free-run flood irrigation, 31 95 flor, 2, 33 flavones, flash pasteurisation,71 65 agents, fining fermentation, 48 fan virus,38 leave extraction, 57 37 dieback, eutypa ethylxvii, alcohol, ethanol, xvii escolito, 41 enzymes,48 xvii, drip irrigation, 31 58 drapeau, 37 Mildew, downy dosage, 102 56 phosphate, diammonium destemming,107 79, 54, d dekkera, 113 d d de-acidification, 56 grey 41 rot, 36, green harvesting, 105 22 gravel, grape pips,107 4, grape spirit,91 grape moths,35 35 mite, erineum grape granite, 22 é é é lestage, 81 gorgement, 102 98, 99 63, bourbage, – – – 9 8 2 microjet irrigation, 31 m 69 filter, membrane Marsala, 96 4 magnesium, malolacticfermentation, 60, 64 malic acid,60 3, M Magarodes34 vitis, 96 madeira, macroclimate, 12 maceration,81 58, liqueur detirage,99 limestone, 22 li lees, 107 64, lagars, 51 lactic 60 acid, 66 kieselguhr, isinglass, 65 inert gas,78 76, 48 hydrometer, 6 hybrid, gyropalettes, 100 guyot, 27 Moscatel de S minerals, 4 millerandage, 32 37 mildews, 7, nodosities, 8 noble rot,36, 45 nitrogen,21, 112 78, 40 neoseiulus, 34 nematodes, must, xvii 55 enrichment, must must concentrators, 79 mosto 96 cotto, è é á ge, 100 ge, thode gaillacoise, 98 laga, 96 105 é tubal, 96 – 80, 80, oak, 84, 87 sand, 22 saign Saccharomyces, 3, 112 95, rust 35 mite, rotary vinifiers,83 rotary66 vacuumfilter, reverse86, osmosis,80,105 replanting, 25 replacement cane27 training, r remontage, 81 58, refractometer, 44 3, reductivity, 112 rack and return,81 Pyrale, 35 PVPP, 65 pupitre, 100 pupimatic, 102 41 37, mildew, powdery potassium carbonate, 56 potassium bicarbonate,56 potassium, 4, 21 Port, 94 polyphenols,85 2, poignettage, 100 58 pigeage, Pierce Phylloxera vastatrix, 7 photosynthesis, 3,15 12, 21 phosphorous, phomopsis, 37 phloem, 3, 8 pH, 56 21, peronospera, 37 oxygenation,88 85, oxidation, 48, 108, 110 omega cut,10 37 oidium, oechsle, 49 é muage, 98, 100muage, 98, cerevisiae, 112 beticus, 95 é ’ e, 93 s disease, 38 – 6 – 90 – 2 – 10, 34 skin contact (ros skin contact,62 94 Sherry, traditional method,97 thiamine, 56 thermo-vinification, 83 thermotic bottling, 71 TCA, 108 tartrate70 crystals, tartaric acid,56 3, tannins, 2 tailles, 98 synthetic closures, 72 s sulphur dioxide, 55, 63, 71, 41,107 sulphur, 37, 43, sugars, 3 stuck fermentation, 48 vat, 51 varietal, 4 evaporation, vacuum ullage, 61 tunnel pasteurisation, 71 tuberosities, 8 97 method, transfer training systems, 26 Stelvin spinningcolumn, cone 86 spider 35 mite, solera, 95 soil 21 types,20, slate, 23 sheet 67 filter, screw cap72 schist, 23 sexual40 confusion, ü vertical shoot positioning, 28 replacement canetraining, 27 cordon training, 28 bush26 training, ssreserve, 92 ssreserve, 92, 111 80, 105 ® , 72 – – 110 5 – 8 é wines), 93 – 8 129 INDEX WINE PRODUCTION 130 veraison, 33 Vitis, 5 viral38 diseases, vins naturels, 96 doux vins 99 clairs vine weevils,36 verticalshoot positioning, 28 labrusca, 9 9 champini, berlandieri, 9 yeast56 nutrients, yeast, xvii, 56 volatile85, acidity 111 saccharomyces,112 95, 3, kl 2 hanseniaspora, vinifera, 5 rupestris, 9 riparia, 9 ö ckera, 2 – 8