Tailoring Electrode/Molecule Interfaces for Organic Electronics

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Tailoring Electrode/Molecule Interfaces for Organic Electronics Surface Functionalization with Amino-based Self-Assembled Monolayers Tailoring Electrode/Molecule Interfaces for Organic Electronics Von der Fakultät für Mathematik, Informatik und Naturwissenschaften der RWTH Aachen University zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Doktors der Naturwissenschaften genehmigte Dissertation vorgelegt von Dipl.-Phys. Dominik Meyer aus Geilenkirchen, Deutschland Berichter: Univ.-Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Matthias Wuttig Jun.-Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Riccardo Mazzarello Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 12.06.2015 Diese Dissertation ist auf den Internetseiten der Hochschulbibliothek online verfügbar. Abstract Control of the energetics at interfaces is one of the key steps that improve the efficiency of light-emitting and energy-conversion devices based on organic materials. In this context, the present work is embedded in the field of organic electronics with a special focus on the elec- trode/semiconductor interface. Efficient electron injection and extraction is still a crucial mech- anism that deserves improvement. Electron transport through this interface is dominated by the energetic injection barrier ¢e. In order to gain control of this barrier, polar molecules have been used in this thesis to tailor the work function of the electrode. Three topics are addressed: (i) Un- derstanding the chemical and electrical interface of N,N-dialkyl dithiocarbamates (CnDTC) on the noble metals Au, Ag and Cu. (ii) Work function tuning using tailor-made dithiocarbamates. (iii) Introduction of first results to generate low work functions of the transparent conductive indium tin oxide (ITO) based on a modified chemical structure of DTCs. To study these systems, a combina- tion of X-ray and ultra-violet photoemission spectroscopy (XPS/UPS) with additional results from density functional theory (DFT) has been employed. Charge transport in electronic devices has been investigated using organic thin film transistors based on the n-type material PTCDI-C13. (i) Prior to this thesis, the class of dithiocarbamates (DTC) have been reported by our research group to produce very low work functions of gold down to 3.2 eV. This result marks the start- ing point for the present work. The assembly of N,N-dialkyl dithiocarbamates on the three noble metals Au, Ag and Cu has been analyzed with XPS. Therein, densely packed monolayers are iden- tified on Au and Ag, while a disordered layer is observed on Cu. Nonetheless, a common work function of 3.5 eV is revealed for CnDTC with n 4 on all metals with UPS. Only those molecules ¸ with the shortest alkyl chains, i.e. n {1,2}, were able to achieve 3.2 eV on Au and Ag. The final Æ work function of the modified metals results from a complex interplay of molecular arrangement (surface coverage, orientation), interface dipole formation and the energy level alignment at the interface. The detailed comparison of C2DTC as a model system on the three noble metals gen- erates a deeper insight into the chemical and electronic structure. Based on experimental and theoretical results, a common hybridization of the frontier S 3p orbital with those of the frontier iii Abstract metal d-states is identified to generate a metal/molecule interface state, that remains irrespective of the initial metal work function. (ii) A new set of dithiocarbamates are introduced and the effect of different polar groups attached to the molecular backbone is discussed. The molecular structure of dithiocarbamates has been modified using, among others, aromatic and fluorinated substitutions to induce different dipole moments. These directly affect the resulting work function of a modified electrode and enables the generation of a broad range of available work function values for noble metals using differently substituted dithiocarbamates. (iii) At last, the step towards modification of transparent conductive oxides based on the molec- ular structure of dithiocarbamates is explored for the commonly used indium tin oxide (ITO) as substrate. For metal oxides, a different linker group is required to bind to this kind of surface. Therefore, amine based carboxylic acids have been investigated as first candidates to lower the work function of ITO. A reduction down to Φ 4.0eV is demonstrated. This result may serve as ¼ guideline to create new surface modifiers that should generate even lower work functions similar to those of dithiocarbamates on noble metals. iv Kurzfassung Kontrolle über die energetischen Prozesse an Grenzflächen ist einer der zentralen Schritte zur Effizienzsteigerung von Licht-emittierenden und -absorbierenden Bauelementen zur Energieer- zeugung auf Basis der organischen Materialklasse. In diesem Kontext gliedert sich die vorlie- gende Arbeit in das Gebiet der organischen Elektronik ein mit besonderem Fokus auf die Elek- trode/Halbleiter Grenzfläche. Effiziente Injektion und Extraktion von Elektronen ist heutzutage immer noch ein kritischer Mechanismus, welcher optimiert werden muss. Der Transport von Elek- tronen durch diese Grenzfläche wird durch die energetische Injektionsbarriere ¢e dominiert. Um die Kontrolle über diese Barriere zu gewinnen, wurden polare Moleküle in dieser Arbeit verwen- det, die eine gezielte Anpassung der Austrittsarbeit der Elektrode erlauben. Dabei wurden drei zentrale Themen behandelt: (i) Verständnis der chemischen und elektronischen Grenzfläche von N,N-dialkyl Dithiocarbamaten (CnDTC) auf den Edelmetallen Au, Ag und Cu. (ii) Einstellung der Austrittsarbeit mittels maßgeschneiderten Dithiocarbamaten. (iii) Vorstellung von ersten Er- gebnissen zur Generation von niedrigen Austrittsarbeiten von transparentem, leitfähigem Indium Zinn Oxid (ITO) auf Basis einer modifizierten chemischen Struktur des DTC. Um diese Systeme zu studieren, wurde eine Kombination von Photoelektronenspektroskopie (XPS/UPS) mit Simu- lationsrechnungen basierend auf Dichtefunktionaltheorie (DFT) verwendet. Ladungstransport in elektronischen Bauelementen wurde anhand organischer Dünnschichttransistoren untersucht, wel- che mit dem n-typ Material PTCDI-C13 betrieben wurden. (i) Vor Anfertigung dieser Arbeit wurde von unserer Forschungsgruppe berichtet, dass die Klasse der Dithiocarbamate (DTC) sehr niedrige Austrittsarbeiten von Gold bis zu 3.2 eV produzieren. Diese Ergebnisse markieren den Startpunkt für diese Arbeit. Die Bindung von N,N-dialkyl Di- thiocarbamaten auf den drei Edelmetallen Au, Ag und Cu wurde mittels XPS untersucht. Dabei wurden dicht gepackte Monolagen auf Au und Ag identifiziert, während eine ungeordnete La- ge auf Cu beobachtet wird. Trotzdem wird eine identische Austrittsarbeit von 3.5 eV für CnDTC mit n 4 auf allen Metallen mit UPS beobachtet. Nur Moleküle mit den kürzesten Alkylket- ¸ ten, d.h. n {1,2}, ermöglichen Werte von 3.2 eV auf Au und Ag. Die finale Austrittsarbeit der Æ v Kurzfassung modifizierten Metalle resultiert von einem komplexen Zusammenspiel von molekularer Anord- nung (Bedeckungsdichte, Orientierung), Grenzflächendipol und Angleichung der Energielevel an der Grenzfläche. Ein detaillierter Vergleich des C2DTC als Modellsystem auf den drei Metallen ermöglicht einen tieferen Einblick in die chemische und elektronische Struktur. Basierend auf ex- perimentellen und theoretischen Ergebnissen kann eine gleiche Hybridisierung des molekularen S 3p Orbitals mit denen der energetisch höchstbesetzten, metallischen d-Bänder identifiziert wer- den. Dies resultiert in einem Metall/Molekül Grenzflächenzustand, welcher unabhängig von der ursprünglichen Austrittsarbeit des Metalls ist. (ii) Ein neuer Satz von Dithiocarbamaten wird vorgestellt und der Effekt von verschiedenen, pola- ren Endgruppen diskutiert. Die molekulare Struktur von Dithiocarbamaten wurde unter anderem mit aromatischen und fluorierten Substitutionen modifiziert, um unterschiedlich polare Momente des Moleküls zu erzeugen. Diese haben direkten Einfluss auf die resultierende Austrittsarbeit der modifizierten Elektrode und ermöglichen ein breites Fenster von verfügbaren Austrittsarbeiten für Edelmetalle auf Basis modifizierter Dithiocarbamate. (iii) Zuletzt wird der Schritt zur Modifikation von transparenten, leitfähigen Oxiden auf Basis der molekularen Struktur der Dithiocarbamate vollzogen. Dabei wird das häufig verwendete Indium Zinn Oxid (ITO) als Substrat genutzt. Zur Modifikation von Oxiden ist eine alternative, moleku- lare Bindungsgruppe nötig, um eine chemische Reaktion mit der Oberfläche einzugehen. Deshalb wurden hier Amino-substituierte Carboxylsäuren zur Modifikation verwendet. Damit konnte eine Reduzierung auf Werte bis zu 4.0 eV demonstriert werden. Diese ersten Resultate dienen als Weg- weiser zur Identifikation neuer Moleküle, um noch geringere Austrittsarbeiten im Bereich derer von Dithiocarbamaten auf Edelmetallen zu generieren. vi Contents Table of Contents ix 1 Introduction1 I What Governs Electronic Processes at Interfaces to Organic Materials? A Theoretical Introduction5 2 Materials and Theoretical Background7 2.1 Molecular Materials....................................7 2.2 Fundamental Processes at Metal/Molecule Interfaces................. 10 2.2.1 Interface Regimes as a Function of Charge Transfer............. 10 2.2.2 Vacuum Level Alignment in the Schottky-Mott Limit............ 13 2.2.3 Fermi Level Pinning............................... 17 2.2.4 Molecule-Metal Interaction Featuring Hybridization............. 21 2.2.5 Chemisorption featuring Bond Formation................... 23 2.3 Charge Transport in Organic Transistors......................... 26 2.3.1 Charge Transfer through Metal/Molecule Interfaces............. 26 2.3.2 Organic Field-Effect
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