DOCSLIB.ORG

WIDER Research Paper 2006/131 Women and Food Security in South

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
WIDER Research Paper 2006/131 Women and Food Security in South Research Paper No. 2006/131 Women and Food Security in South Asia Current Issues and Emerging Concerns Nira Ramachandran* November 2006 Abstract The food security scenario in South Asia has witnessed rapid progress over the last few decades, yet nutrition outcomes, especially those related to women and children, have failed to keep pace. This paper contends that the role of women in providing food and nutrition security at the household and individual level needs to be examined, if the paradox of persisting malnutrition amid macro level food sufficiency is to be resolved. Food security, in its broader connotation, results from the availability of adequate food, effective consumption, and desirable nutrition outcomes. As such, it is intricately linked with a woman’s multiple roles expressed in her productive, reproductive, and caring functions. However, even focussed efforts aimed at resolving the problems faced by women in performing one or other of their roles, may fail to produce expected results, if the issues underlying each function and their inter-linkages are not fully understood. The paper thus attempts to review various aspects of the relationship between women and food security in South Asia, highlight the issues that require urgent focus and indicate emerging concerns in the region. Keywords: food security, gender bias, gender food security, women farmers, female workforce, feminization of poverty, wage differentials, malnutrition, empowerment JEL classification: Q15, Q18, J16, J43 Copyright © UNU-WIDER 2006 * UNICEF, New Delhi; email: [email protected] This paper was prepared for the UNU-WIDER project on Hunger and Food Security: New Challenges and New Opportunities, directed by Basudeb Guha-Khasnobis. The project was carried out in collaboration with the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). UNU-WIDER gratefully acknowledges the financial contributions to its research programme by the governments of Denmark (Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs), Finland (Ministry for Foreign Affairs), Norway (Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs), Sweden (Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency—Sida) and the United Kingdom (Department for International Development). ISSN 1810-2611 ISBN 92-9190-915-7 (internet version) The World Institute for Development Economics Research (WIDER) was established by the United Nations University (UNU) as its first research and training centre and started work in Helsinki, Finland in 1985. The Institute undertakes applied research and policy analysis on structural changes affecting the developing and transitional economies, provides a forum for the advocacy of policies leading to robust, equitable and environmentally sustainable growth, and promotes capacity strengthening and training in the field of economic and social policy making. Work is carried out by staff researchers and visiting scholars in Helsinki and through networks of collaborating scholars and institutions around the world. www.wider.unu.edu [email protected] UNU World Institute for Development Economics Research (UNU-WIDER) Katajanokanlaituri 6 B, 00160 Helsinki, Finland Camera-ready typescript prepared by Liisa Roponen at UNU-WIDER The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s). Publication does not imply endorsement by the Institute or the United Nations University, nor by the programme/project sponsors, of any of the views expressed. The educated and socially empowered Asian woman is the key to improving the nutrition and mental acuity of young children and that improvement sets in motion lifelong prospects for heightened learning and earning with benefit streams to families, communities and nations. www.geocities.com/wduminder/healthinsouthasia 1 Introduction The last few decades have witnessed a sweeping change in the food production scenario of South Asia. India, the largest of the South Asian economies, is now largely self- sufficient in foodgrain and an emerging exporter.1 While the other countries of the region remain dependent on cereal imports, the per capita availability of cereals has increased in every country (with the exception of the Maldives) from the 1980s to date (FAO 2002). Yet endemic pockets of hunger remain, seasonal shortfalls are manifest and malnutrition is widespread across the region, women and children being the greatest sufferers. The ‘Asian enigma’, as it is termed, of food scarcity and malnutrition amidst plenty, has defied all attempts at resolution so far. Poverty alleviation strategies, livelihood generation programmes and direct food interventions have all been tried, to little avail. Food security researchers have often commented on the fact that, while most South Asian countries have available food stocks and better health and education services in comparison to many other developing countries, even most countries of food-deficit Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) score higher in terms of the nutrition levels of their women and children. It is thus evident that a fresh approach to the issue is warranted, if the millennium goal of a hunger-free world by 2015 is to be achieved. Over the past decade, international agencies have made efforts to internalize gender concerns in all development issues. In many areas such as education, health and micro- finance, for example, impressive results have been achieved with this approach. The issue of women and food security, however, which has also received similar attention, has failed to translate into the expected results. The slow-paced response to gender- based food security efforts reflects the complexity of the relationship between the two. Food security, in its broader connotation, results from the availability of adequate food at country level, household and individual access to adequate and nutritious food, effective consumption and adequate nutrition outcomes—all in a sustained manner. As such, it is intricately linked with a woman’s multiple roles expressed in her productive, reproductive and caring functions. Even focussed efforts aimed at resolving the problems faced by women in performing one or other of their roles, may fail to produce adequate results if the issues underlying each function and their inter-linkages are not fully understood. This paper attempts to review the various aspects of the relationship between women and food security in South Asia, highlight the issues requiring urgent focus and indicate emerging areas of concern. The paper is organized in nine sections. Section 1 provides the background to the issue; section 2 deals with food security, nutrition and health indicators in the region and draws international comparisons; section 3 discusses the 1 Buffer stocks in India tend to fluctuate sharply as agriculture is still heavily monsoon dependent. 1 issues faced by the woman farmer; sections 4 and 5 bring out gender disparities in livelihood options and differential wage structures, while section 6 highlights the positive nutritional impacts of women’s contribution to household income. Section 7 reveals the existence of gender disparities in food security within households, while Section 8 focuses on the inter-generational consequences of unequal access to food and healthcare. The last section summarizes the findings of the review. 2 The South Asian region: inter and intra-regional comparisons As compared to other developing regions, South Asia ranks below average with respect to several human development indicators (HDI). Table 1 brings out the position of the region vis a vis other developing regions with reference to four selected indicators reflecting food security, health, education and the combined impact of these as mirrored in life expectancy at birth. It is clear that the region ranks only above SSA and well below developing-country average in all aspects. In fact, country-level comparisons reveal an even more dismal picture with the countries of South Asia consistently recording lower values on nutrition, health and education indicators, particularly with reference to women, than many of those in SSA (Table 2). A point to be noted is that all the countries selected from SSA rank lower on the HDI than those from South Asia, yet women and child specific nutrition indicators such as infants born with low birthweights and the percentage of undernourished children below five years are consistently better in the former region. Even income poverty indicators fail to adequately explain the difference in food and nutrition security. Countries with similar poverty ratios score very differently on child nutritional outcomes. In every case (with the exception of Ethiopia), the South Asian countries exhibit lower scores. That South Asia’s poor showing in human development indicators can be traced to the vicious cycle of malnutrition, ill-health, illiteracy and poverty which persists in the region is well-known. That globalization and structural adjustments have led to an economic upswing at macro level in most of South Asia, but the observation that disparities in incomes, livelihoods and human development are accentuating is also accepted.2 However, the realization that the roots of the problem lie in the gender discrimination, which is prevalent in most of South Asia, is only now gaining credence. Table 1 Inter-regional comparisons Undernourished people Life expectancy as % of total Infant mortality Adult literacy rate at birth (yrs), population, rate (per ‘000 (% of 15-yr olds Region 2002 1999-01 live births) and above),
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Integrating Gender Issues in Food Security, Agriculture and Rural Development Mainstreaming:Tryouts 10/21/10 4:06 PM Page 3
    Mainstreaming:Tryouts 10/21/10 4:06 PM Page 1 Integrating gender issues in food security, agriculture and rural development Mainstreaming:Tryouts 10/21/10 4:06 PM Page 3 Integrating gender issues in food security, agriculture and rural development Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome, 2010 Mainstreaming:Tryouts 10/21/10 4:06 PM Page 5 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of FAO. All rights reserved. FAO encourages the reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product. Non-commercial uses will be authorized free of charge, upon request. Reproduction for resale or other commercial purposes, including educational purposes, may incur fees. Applications for permission to reproduce or disseminate FAO copyright materials, and all queries concerning rights and licences, should be addressed by e-mail to [email protected] or to the Chief, Publishing Policy and Support Branch, Office of Knowledge Exchange, Research and Extension, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy.
    [Show full text]
  • Feminization of Poverty in Sri Lanka
    Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies (ISSN: 2220-6140) Vol. 7, No. 5, pp. 55-64, October 2015 Examining the Evidence of the Feminization of Poverty in Botswana Khaufelo Raymond Lekobane, Keneilwe S. Mooketsane Botswana Institute for Development Policy Analysis (BIDPA), University of Botswana [email protected] Abstract: Poverty in Botswana is more pronounced in female-headed households (FHHs) especially those residing in rural areas where employment opportunities are limited. Similarly, the proportion of the FHHs to the total poor increased between 2002/03 and 2009/10. However, no study has so far analyzed whether feminization of poverty has occurred. This paper therefore, examines feminization of poverty in Botswana using the 2009/10 Botswana Core Welfare Indicator Survey and the 2002/03 Household Income and Expenditure Survey datasets. The results indicate no evidence of feminization of poverty (at both national and regional levels). However, the results reveal evidence of feminization of poverty amongst the married couples, the widowed, the divorced, the unemployed, those working in own farms and the self-employed. Therefore, public policy should focus on gender sensitive poverty alleviation strategies, with specific focus on the vulnerable FHHs, especially the divorced/separated and the widowed, in order to fully address the feminization of poverty amongst these groups. Keywords: Botswana; feminization of poverty; female headed households 1. Introduction The concept of feminization of poverty was first introduced by Diana Pearce in the early 1970s, when it was discovered that FHHs in the United States were growing at an alarming rate (Pearce, 1978). Feminization of poverty may be defined as a situation where women, especially FHHs, are concentrated amongst the poor.
    [Show full text]
  • Discussion Paper No. 2002/37 Gender and Education As Determinants of Household Poverty in Nigeria
    Discussion Paper No. 2002/37 Gender and Education as Determinants of Household Poverty in Nigeria Christiana E.E. Okojie* March 2002 Abstract The paper examines the linkages between gender of household heads, education and household poverty in Nigeria between 1980 and 1996. Data analyzed were obtained from four national consumer expenditure surveys conducted in Nigeria in 1980, 1985, 1992 and 1996 by the Federal Office of Statistics. Adjustments were made for price differentials over time and across regions of the country. However, only aggregated data for households were available. Per capita expenditure was used as the indicator of poverty, while the unit of analysis was the household. Two poverty lines were set: a moderate poverty line equal to two-thirds of mean per capita household expenditure, and a core poverty line equal to one-third of mean per capita expenditure. The Pα index proposed by Foster, Greer and Thorbecke was used to generate the headcount ratio as well as the depth and severity of poverty. Trends in inequality were analyzed using Gini coefficients and the Theil’s index. Multivariate analysis was used to examine the relationships between gender, poverty and other household variables, including education, for all households as well as for subgroups of male-headed and female-headed households respectively. …/… Keywords: gender, education, poverty, Nigeria, households JEL classification: I32 Copyright ã author(s) 2002 * Department of Economics and Statistics, University of Benin This study is linked to the theme of Growth and Poverty discussed at the WIDER Development Conference, 25-26 May 2001, Helsinki. UNU/WIDER gratefully acknowledges the financial support from the governments of Denmark, Finland and Norway to the 2000-2001 research programme The analysis showed that poverty increased substantially in Nigeria between 1980 and 1996.
    [Show full text]
  • Female Headship, Poverty and Vulnerability in Thailand and Vietnam
    A Service of Leibniz-Informationszentrum econstor Wirtschaft Leibniz Information Centre Make Your Publications Visible. zbw for Economics Klasen, Stephan; Lechtenfeld, Tobias; Povel, Felix Conference Paper What about the Women? Female Headship, Poverty and Vulnerability in Thailand and Vietnam Proceedings of the German Development Economics Conference, Hannover 2010, No. 43 Provided in Cooperation with: Research Committee on Development Economics (AEL), German Economic Association Suggested Citation: Klasen, Stephan; Lechtenfeld, Tobias; Povel, Felix (2010) : What about the Women? Female Headship, Poverty and Vulnerability in Thailand and Vietnam, Proceedings of the German Development Economics Conference, Hannover 2010, No. 43, Verein für Socialpolitik, Ausschuss für Entwicklungsländer, Göttingen This Version is available at: http://hdl.handle.net/10419/39987 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Terms of use: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. personal and scholarly purposes. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle You are not to copy documents for public or commercial Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, If the documents have been made available under an Open gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you genannten Lizenz gewährten Nutzungsrechte. may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence.
    [Show full text]
  • The Global Food Challenge Towards a Human Rights Approach to Trade and Investment Policies Table of Contents
    The global Food Challenge Towards a Human rigHTs approacH To Trade and invesTmenT policies Table of ConTenTs The Global food Challenge: Introduction 3 Sophia Murphy and Armin Paasch Executive summary 6 Sophia Murphy and Armin Paasch A. FundamenTals 13 I. A Human Rights Approach to Trade and Investment Policies 14 Olivier De Schutter II. Agricultural Trade Liberalization in Multilateral and Bilateral Trade Negotiations 29 Tobias Reichert B. Case StudIes on Trade, InvesTmenT and The rIGhT To food 39 III. World Agricultural Trade and Human Rights – 40 Case studies on violations of the right to food of small farmers Armin Paasch IV. Foreign Investment and the Right to Food 50 Rolf Künnemann V. Women at the Center of the Global Food Challenge 60 Alexandra Spieldoch C. New ChallenGes and ThreaTs 67 VI. The Role of Speculation in the 2008 Food Price Bubble 68 Peter Wahl VII. Deepening the Food Crisis? 79 Climate change, food security and the right to food Thomas Hirsch, Christine Lottje and Michael Windfuhr 1 THe GLobal FooD CHALLenge – Towards a human rIGhTs approaCh To Trade and InvesTmenT polICIes D. Human rIGhTs based alTernaTIves and Tools 91 VIII. An overview of Human Rights Instruments to Raise Concerns 92 About Trade and Investment Policies Elvira Domínguez Redondo and Magdalena Sepúlveda Carmona IX. Towards a Convention on the Rights of Peasants 102 Christophe Golay X. Bridging the Divide: A human rights vision for global food trade 112 Sophia Murphy and Carin Smaller List of abbreviations 125 List of authors 127 Imprint 128 2 The Global food ChallenGe: InTroduction t started with the tortilla crisis in mexico.
    [Show full text]
  • Feminization of Poverty: an Issue for the 90'S
    The Feminization of Poverty: An Issue for the 90's Audrey Rowet When I was asked to present at this conference, I had to think about it. As a practitioner, I work day in and day out thinking about issues of poverty from the city, state and national perspectives. Sometimes, in this work, I have found myself so consumed by the reality of deciding day-to-day policy and operating our programs, and so caught up in thinking through how to be more effective in how we address these problems, that I wondered whether I had the time or the energy to step back and share with you some issues that I think are very important. However, I must admit that taking the time to stop and think about these issues in preparation for coming here, and going through some of the research that is being done, and talking to some old friends who do poverty research was very, very helpful, and will help me when I take over the Department of Income Maintenance next week. As we look at the issues for the 90's, and particularly as we look at the agenda feminists need to be involved in, the feminization of poverty has to move from an issue that we think about and pay lip service to, to one that we are much more actively trying to understand and to address. The trend toward the feminization of poverty is real, and must be analyzed critically if it is to be reversed. During the past decade, foundations and federal, state and city governments have focused a lot of attention on the increase in poverty, particularly the increase among woman-maintained households.
    [Show full text]
  • The Feminization of Poverty: Rural Appalachia and Beyond
    THE FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY: RURAL APPALACHIA AND BEYOND by Holly Gallagher Honors Thesis Appalachian State University Submitted to the Department of Government and Justice Studies and The Honors College in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science December 2019 Approved by: ____________________________________________________ Nancy Love, Ph.D., Thesis Director ____________________________________________________ Janice Rienerth, Ph.D., Second Reader ____________________________________________________ Ellen Key, Ph.D., Departmental Honors Director ____________________________________________________ Jefford Vahlbusch, Ph.D., Dean, The Honors College Abstract Women living in rural Appalachia are faced with a unique set of barriers, causing poverty to impact them differently in comparison to their male counterparts and the nation surrounding them. The notion of women being more harshly affected by poverty is frequently referred to as “the feminization of poverty,” a topic which is further discussed in this research. The feminization of poverty is present for women all around the United States and has been pervasive for centuries. Pervasive hardship is also a characteristic of the Appalachian region, which has historically faced extreme poverty and unemployment rates, along with overall economic instability. The portrayal of these and other problems present in Appalachia have led to societally ingrained stereotypes and assumptions about the region, which this research clarifies and explains. This research primarily focuses on women in rural communities within Appalachia, connecting the feminization of poverty to the exacerbation of rural poverty, raising questions of What policy-based action has been effective in the past, what can we expect for the future, and What the poverty of women in the region says for the United States as a whole.
    [Show full text]
  • Climate Change, Gender Bias, and Women's Farming in the Global
    agriculture Article Gender Matters: Climate Change, Gender Bias, and Women’s Farming in the Global South and North Tricia Glazebrook 1,* , Samantha Noll 1 and Emmanuela Opoku 2 1 School of Politics, Philosophy and Public Affairs, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA; [email protected] 2 Department of Environmental Science, University for Development Studies, Navrongo, Ghana; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-509-335-2544 Received: 1 June 2020; Accepted: 29 June 2020; Published: 3 July 2020 Abstract: Can investing in women’s agriculture increase productivity? This paper argues that it can. We assess climate and gender bias impacts on women’s production in the global South and North and challenge the male model of agricultural development to argue further that women’s farming approaches can be more sustainable. Level-based analysis (global, regional, local) draws on a literature review, including the authors’ published longitudinal field research in Ghana and the United States. Women farmers are shown to be undervalued and to work harder, with fewer resources, for less compensation; gender bias challenges are shared globally while economic disparities differentiate; breaches of distributive, gender, and intergenerational justices as well as compromise of food sovereignty affect women everywhere. We conclude that investing in women’s agriculture needs more than standard approaches of capital and technology investment. Effective ‘investment’ would include systemic interventions into agricultural policy, governance, education, and industry; be directed at men as well as women; and use gender metrics, for example, quotas, budgets, vulnerability and impacts assessments, to generate assessment reports and track gender parity in agriculture.
    [Show full text]
  • Sustainability Multidimensional Poverty Among Female
    sustainability Article Multidimensional Poverty among Female Householders in Korea: Application of a Latent Class Model Su-Jung Nam Department of Home Economics Education, College of Education; Jeonju University, Jeonju 560-759, Korea; [email protected] Received: 21 November 2019; Accepted: 16 January 2020; Published: 18 January 2020 Abstract: In this work, we examine poverty among vulnerable Korean female householders using a multidimensional concept with six dimensions: money, health, housing, employment, human relations, and social security. Taking data from the “Korea Welfare Panel Study 2015” by the Korea Institute for Health and Social Affairs and the Welfare Research Institute of Seoul National University, we apply latent class analysis to assess poverty among female householders using the Mplus8 software. The poverty indicator correlations are examined with Cramer’s V, and the differences in individual characteristics are analyzed through X2 and analysis of variance. The results show that the poor are composed of several groups with different characteristics. We divide the female householders into three main types, all likely to experience poverty in terms of money and employment. However, Type 1 shows a high probability of experiencing poverty in terms of money, employment, human relations, and health; when compared with Types 2 and 3, Type 1 poverty probability turns out to be higher for several indicators. Type 2 shows susceptibility to basic poverty, with a high probability of experiencing poverty in terms of money and employment. Lastly, Type 3 has a higher probability of health poverty than Types 1 and 2. Keywords: female householders; latent class analysis; multidimensional poverty; Korea 1. Introduction Poverty is a worldwide phenomenon that threatens basic human life.
    [Show full text]
  • Women, Gender Equality and Climate Change
    UN WomenWatch: www.un.org/womenwatch The UN Internet Gateway on Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women Fact Sheet Women, Gender Equality and Climate Change Detrimental effects of climate change can be felt in the short-term through natural hazards, such as landslides, floods and hurricanes; and in the long-term, through more gradual deg- radation of the environment. The adverse ef- fects of these events are already felt in many areas, including in relation to, inter alia, ag- riculture and food security; biodiversity and ecosystems; water resources; human health; human settlements and migration patterns; and energy, transport and industry. In many of these contexts, women are more vulnerable to the effects of climate change than men—primarily as they constitute the majority of the world’s poor and are more dependent for their livelihood on natural re- sources that are threatened by climate change. Photo Credit: UN Photo / Tim McKulka Furthermore, they face social, economic and political barriers that limit their coping ca- pacity. Women and men in rural areas in developing countries are especially vulnerable when they are highly dependent on local natural resources for their livelihood. Those charged with the responsibility to secure water, food and fuel for cooking and heating face the greatest challenges. Secondly, when coupled with unequal access to resources and to decision-making processes, limited mobility places women in rural areas in a position where they are disproportionately affected by climate change. It is thus important to identify gender-sensitive strategies to respond to the environmental and humanitarian crises caused by climate change.1 It is important to remember, however, that women are not only vulnerable to climate change but they are also effective actors or agents of change in relation to both mitigation and adaptation.
    [Show full text]
  • Gender Equality and Women's Empowerment in the Context Of
    Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in the context of Food Security and Nutrition Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in the context of Food Security and Nutrition A Scoping Paper – September 2020 Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in the context of Food Security and Nutrition Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in the context of Food Security and Nutrition A Scoping Paper – September 2020 “Gender equality and women’s empowerment are central to achieving the CFS vision to achieve food security for all, by raising levels of nutrition, improving agricultural productivity and natural resource management, and improving the lives of people in rural areas with full and equitable participation in decision-making. Without gender equality and rural women’s economic, social and political empowerment, food security will not be achieved.” CFS Forum on Women’s Empowerment in the context of Food Security and Nutrition, Rome, 2017 (CFS 2017/Inf 21) ii Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in the context of Food Security and Nutrition Introduction The purpose of this Scoping Paper, among other things, is to contribute to a preliminary discussion on the development of Voluntary Guidelines on Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in the context of Food Security and Nutrition. Development of such Guidelines is anticipated under the Committee on World Food Security’s (CFS) 2020-23 Multi-Year Programme of Work. This paper presents a conceptual summary of the subject and a framework through which challenges can be identified. Evidence of the main links between gender equality, women’s empowerment, and food security and nutrition is then presented.
    [Show full text]
  • Gender and Climate Change Research in Agriculture and Food Security for Rural Development
    TRAINING GUIDE GENDER AND CLIMATE CHANGE RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS (FAO) THE CGIAR RESEARCH PROGRAM ON CLIMATE CHANGE, AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY (CCAFS) 2013 Cover page photo: ©FAO/Giulio Napolitano Second edition: July 2013 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of FAO. ISBN 978-92-5-107835-8 (print) E-ISBN 978-92-5-107836-5 (PDF) © FAO, 2013 © FAO, 2012 [First edition] FAO encourages the use, reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product. Except where otherwise indicated, material may be copied, downloaded and printed for private study, research and teaching purposes, or for use in non-commercial products or services, provided that appropriate acknowledgement of FAO as the source and copyright holder is given and that FAO’s endorsement of users’ views, products or services is not implied in any way.
    [Show full text]