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Memories of Slavery in Coastal Tanzania, 1922-2008

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Memories of Slavery in Coastal Tanzania, 1922-2008 BEARING THE MARK, BEARING THE COSTS: MEMORIES OF SLAVERY IN COASTAL TANZANIA, 1922-2008 BY ERICA ALANE HILL DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sociology in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2012 Urbana, Illinois Doctoral Committee: Associate Professor Assata Zerai, Chair Assistant Professor Brian Dill Associate Professor Moon-Kie Jung Assistant Professor Jessica Millward, University of California, Irvine ABSTRACT The study of memory is not only an inquiry into what happened but is just as much or more so about what is happening. Therefore, a study of the legacy of slavery requires a conscientious look into the lived experiences of members of post-emancipation societies. An investigation into the ways communities make use of memories of slavery in the absence of living witnesses is important in that doing so provides a lens for understanding contemporary ideals, institutions and identities. This dissertation is a qualitative study which investigates the ways in which memories of slavery and emancipation inform contemporary identities and social relations between African and Afro-Arab residents in the former slaving port town of Bagamoyo, Tanzania. Based on in- depth interviews, participant-observation and archival research, the project demonstrates how memories of slavery inform the everyday lives of the residents of Bagamoyo as evidenced by and through public and private discourses on race, ethnicity and lineage. Thus, the research question to be addressed in this dissertation is: In what ways do vicarious memories of slavery manifest in post-emancipation communities? By centering the memories and experiences of Bagamoyo residents, this project illustrates the ways in which memories of slavery are resurrected in local and national discourse. In this project I argue that these vicarious memories of slavery are evoked as a way to contextualize lived experiences and counter and/or confirm emerging narratives. This project addresses a void present in scholarship concerning slavery in East Africa and the Indian Ocean World in that it centers the experiences of community members through the use of their own testimony, thus providing additional insight into the ways in which the vestiges of slavery persist in post-emancipation societies. ii For my mother, Valeria J. King, who taught me to dream gentle dreams iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation signals the culmination of an enriching and sometimes difficult journey of self-exploration and discovery. Its completion is the result of prayers, tears, perseverance and most significantly the support of a wonderfully loving and eclectic group of family and friends. In Tanzania, I must thank the residents of Bagamoyo who through their willingness to share their stories have made this project possible and inspired me to face every day with a gracious spirit and a humble heart. I am indebted to Dr. Colman Msoka, Nashi Mnzara, Haidari Kirumbi, Zainabu Issak, Alphonce Massangati, Amina Sherdel and family, Bibi Mary at Mary’s Guest House in Bagamoyo and Father Aloysius Nguma and the staff at the Passionist Father’s House who made the times I spent in Dar es Salaam that much more enjoyable. In addition, I must thank COSTECH and Mashuhuri Myinyihamisi, in particular for granting me permission to carry out my research in Tanzania as well as Mr. Grayson Nyenga and the entire staff at the Tanzania National Archives for being especially helpful. Finally, a special thanks to my friend and brother Vincent Vinibro Ssekematte, a most supportive and trusted friend in Bagamoyo who is destined for a great future. Asanta sana kaka. At the University of Illinois, I am forever grateful to my advisor Dr. Assata Zerai whose presence at the front of the classroom during my early days in graduate school confirmed that there was nothing more I wanted to do in my professional life than to spend my days breaking down the intricacies of intersectionality while being my black feminist self! I must also thank my committee members who have been a part of this journey. My sincerest thanks to Dr. Brian Dill, who talked me through my first job talk over the phone and has been willing to help when needed, Dr. Moon-Kie Jung for his thoughtful comments and encouraging feedback and Dr. Jessica Millward for being present throughout this journey every step of the way. She has been an awesome friend and inspiring iv mentor. Words will never convey how much her encouragement has meant to me. I thank her for knowing when I needed her to be a mentor and when I simply needed a friend. I must also thank Dr. Charles Toombs and Dr. Shirley Weber at San Diego State who were the first professors I ever met who looked like me and dared me to do and be more. They held me accountable and for that I am eternally grateful. I would also like to thank Dr. Sarah Willie-LeBreton who was a most willing, supportive and kind SWS mentor. I am also appreciative for the kindness extended to me by Dr. Jean Allman, Dr. Donald Crummey and Dr. Faranak Miraftab each of whom introduced me to ideals and perspectives that have informed how I think about life, scholarship and the profession. I thank each of you for your kindness and for being models of intellectual stalwartness. I would also like to thank the Diversifying Higher Education Faculty in Illinois (DFI) program and the Illinois Board of Higher Education for awarding me with the DFI fellowship as well as the Center for Global Studies and the Center for African Studies for providing funding throughout my graduate career. Also, many thanks to the wonderful office staff in the Department of Sociology, Julie Woolsey and Shari Day. I am also grateful for the support I received during the 2010-11 academic year at Hiram College where I was the Minority Dissertation fellow. I greatly appreciate the unyielding support I received from Dr. Liz Piatt, Dr. Vivien Sandlund, Dr. Robin Shura, Dr. LaShawnDa Pittman-Gay and Anisi Daniels. My year at Hiram was incredible thanks to amazing students and colleagues. To the most wonderful group of graduate school friends also known as “the crew”, Kwame Holmes, Kevin Rodgers, Anthony Sigismondi, Melissa Prentice, Brandon Mills, Amy Hasinoff, Julilly Kohler-Hausmann, and Viktor Pickard. I am most thankful for their friendships. Champaign was a wonderful place to live and learn in large part because of each of them. A very special thank you to Carla Suber, a most amazing friend and soror who gave me a place to lay my head and wine to drink on countless occasions during the writing process. I will never forget our late night/early v morning chats. In addition, I must thank my grad school bestie and confidant Suzana Palaska- Nicholson for being a most loving friend. Also, in Illinois, I wish to thank Ed Onaci, Kwame Essien, Bryan Nicholson, Abdulai Iddrisu, Adrienne Johnson, Jeffrey Ahlman, Lessie Tate, Habtamu Mengiste, Jamie McGowan, Sue Swisher, Holly Slawkowski, Kumi Silva and David Monte. All have supported me and been a source of inspiration along the way. On the home front, a heartfelt thank you to my girls, Takisha Campbell, Retha Robinson, Sharon Palacio, Tiffany Hervey, Adrienne Bolton, Taneda Hailey and Kawne Lee-Johnson who supported my move from Cali to the Midwest. They never doubted whether or not I would finish and instead encouraged me to do my best and urged me to wrap things up so that we could get back to planning our girl vacays! Words cannot express how much their friendships mean to me. Many thanks to Ms. Anita Reeves, my second grade teacher (and so much more) who taught me that there is indeed a time to talk and a time to just listen! Also, my heart filled appreciation goes to my uncle and aunt, Lacy and Marva “Tee” Westbrook for being a constant in my life and to Granny and Grandpa, Ruby and A.B. Watkins who indulged my imaginary trips abroad as a child and celebrated my actual travels as an adult. Again, I am very grateful for the love and encouragement of my family. Thank you to my husband Brian J. Yates who knew when to gently nudge and when to simply offer a hug. I am thankful for his friendship, insightful questions, endless words of encouragement and amazing capacity to love. Also, I am grateful for Benjamin and Layla whose births bookended my graduate school journey. Their arrivals into the world have been among the greatest joys. Auntie Erry loves you more than words. Lastly, I reserve my final words of gratitude for my mother, Valeria J. King and siblings Gregory Benjamin Hill and Eundria Hill Joseph whose support, loyalty and faith in me have sustained me. Their unwavering love continues to be the greatest expression of God’s love for me. I am beyond grateful to have you three in my life. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 25 CHAPTER THREE: IDENTIFYING FREEDOM: LAND, LABOR AND LINEAGE IN BAGAMOYO ................................................................................................................. 45 CHAPTER FOUR: PRESERVING THE LEGACY OF THE STRUGGLE: NATIONALISM AND THE CHALLENGES OF MEMORY ........................................... 87 CHAPTER FIVE: WHAT’S IN A TALE? ........................................................................ 124 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION ...................................................................................... 148 REFERENCES: ................................................................................................................. 153 APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS GUIDE…………………………………...163 vii Chapter One Introduction Slavery indeed is now no more than a memory and with some of the older people a habit of thought and speech, but the reality has completely disappeared. -Colonial officer on the settlement of manumitted slaves in Tanganyika.1 In 1876 a statue of the Virgin Mary was placed within a man-made grotto upon the mission grounds of the first Catholic Church in East Africa.
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