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El Campo Geomagnético Angel Fierros Palacios Temas selectos del conocimiento contemporáneo Primera edición: 2015 D.R. © Instituto de Investigaciones Eléctricas Reforma 113, colonia Palmira, C.P. 62490, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México Diseño de portada: Arturo Fragoso Malacara ISBN: 978-607-8182-04-6 Se imprimió en octubre de 2015, en los talleres de Dicograf, S.A. de C.V. Av. Poder Legislativo 304, colonia Prados de Cuernavaca, C.P. 62239, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México El tiraje consta de 100 ejemplares Este libro está dedicado A mi amada esposa y compañera Rosa María y a mis hijos Rosa María, Luis Javier, Fernando, Carla y Ara-Antz-Azu, quienes han llenado mi vida de felici- dad. Por su paciencia y comprensión. A mis dos maravillosas nietas, Mariana y Valeria que me dan mucho más de lo que les puedo retribuir. A mis padres Angel y Catalina, a mi amado hijo Angel Arsenio, y a mi hermana Angelina, a los que recuerdo cotidianamente con mucho amor por todo lo que me dieron en vida y lo que siempre significarán para mí. Lo importante no es ser el que más sabe, sino el que sabe qué hacer con lo que sabe. Contenido Acerca del autor xi Prólogo xiii La termodinámica clásica y la edad El principio cero de la termodinámica 1 Termodinámica, actitud y calidad de vida 2 La edad como un estado de ánimo 4 Referencias 6 La relación masa-energía Dinámica de los fluidos y termodinámica 7 Mecánica analítica 8 Dinámica relativista 10 El invariante masa-energía 10 Referencias 12 Campos magnéticos estelares La estructura interna y la estabilidad de las estellas 13 Origen y magnitud del campo magnético autogenerado 14 La estructura del campo magnético autogenerado 17 El campo magnético de las manchas solares 19 El equilibrio magnetomecánico entre los mecanismos reguladores 21 La velocidad del fluido en las manchas 23 El valor del campo magnético de las manchas 25 Persistencia de las manchas solares 27 vii viii Contenido Origen, permanencia, desaparición y propiedades de las manchas solares 29 Referencias 31 El campo Geomagnético El origen del campo Geomagnético 33 La magnitud del campo magnético autogenerado 34 La estructura del campo Geomagnético 36 Los cambios de polaridad del campo Geomagnético 39 La variación secular y el arrastre hacia el oeste 40 Conclusiones 42 Referencias 43 La clasificación de las estrellas La magnitud absoluta 46 Clases espectrales 47 El diagrama de Hertzsprung-Russell 49 La relación masa-luminosidad 51 La temperatura efectiva 52 Conclusiones 55 Referencias 55 Las estrellas variables Variables pulsantes 58 Naturaleza de la variación de las estrellas 59 La relación período-densidad de masa 60 El campo magnético general de las estrellas 61 El problema de las estrellas variables cefeidas 62 Cálculo de la magnitud absoluta 66 El campo magnético residual 68 Conclusiones 68 Referencias 69 Variables eruptivas La presión de la radiación 72 Contenido ix El campo magnético autogenerado 73 La relación masa-luminosidad modificada 75 La nova de Hércules (Nova Herculis) 77 Conclusiones 79 Referencias 80 Sistemas planetarios semejantes al sistema solar El radio estelar, la temperatura efectiva, y la magnitud absoluta 82 La masa estelar 83 Ejemplo ilustrativo 86 El problema de la rotación de las estrellas 88 Conclusiones 91 Apéndice 91 Referencias 92 La temperatura central de las estrellas La temperatura central 93 El campo magnético 96 Ejemplos ilustrativos 97 Conclusiones 99 Referencias 99 La migración iónica en las estrellas El problema de la fuerza 102 La velocidad de los iones 104 Conclusiones 105 Referencias 106 Los quasars y la constante de Hubble La emisión de energía y el tamaño de los quasars 108 La lente relativista 110 El corrimiento hacia el rojo y la constante de Hubble 111 viiix Contenido Referencias 116 La constante de Hubble y la edad del Universo Técnicas para medir distancias astronómicas 118 Cúmulos de galaxias 121 Distancias, energía total y velocidades de recesión 122 La edad del Universo 125 Referencias 126 Origen y destino final del Universo La paradoja de Olbers 127 La lente de Herschel 128 La cuestión de la eternidad 129 El efecto Doppler 132 El espectro 133 Líneas espectrales 133 La expansión del Universo 134 La masa perdida 136 La vida en el Universo 138 Referencias 141 Acerca del autor Angel Fierros Palacios nace en marzo de 1933 en Pochutla, Oaxaca, México. Estudia física en la Facultad de Ciencias de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) en donde obtiene la licen- ciatura en física, la maestría y el doctorado en ciencias. Ha sido profesor de distintas disciplinas de la UNAM e investigador en el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Nucleares y en el Instituto Mexicano del Petróleo. Ha trabajado en el Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, en la Comisión Federal de Electricidad, CFE, y en otras áreas de la administración pública. Es uno de los autores, en colaboración con otros tres científicos mexicanos y amigos, del pro- yecto que dio origen al Instituto de Investigaciones Eléctricas (IIE), y también fue Director General del Museo Tecnológico de la CFE. Actualmente es el Director de la División de Energías Alternas del IIE. xi Prólogo El asunto de concebir, elegir el material y finalmente escribir con la mayor claridad posible un libro de divulgación científica adecuada- mente estructurado, no resultó ser una tarea trivial y por supuesto, es muy difícil predecir si se alcanzará el objetivo propuesto. A lo largo de la escritura del material fue inevitable la utilización de cálcu- los matemáticos, aún cuando se trató de reducir su uso al mínimo necesario para establecer algunas fórmulas y ecuaciones que susten- tan las hipótesis físicas de trabajo propuestas y también para justifi- car los resultados presentados. Sin embargo, sí los posibles lectores son generosos con el autor y acep- tan que la matemática utilizada se manejó decentemente y con aseo, se pueden saltar las fórmulas y solo dedicar su atención a la palabra escrita. Es necesario mencionar que a lo largo del texto se van a tro- pezar con un buen número de ideas y desarrollos originales que son las contribuciones del autor al conocimiento contemporáneo, que sí bien es posible que pueden ser modestas y sin muchas pretensiones, ciertamente son de buena calidad. El contenido del libro se centra en algunas cuestiones de carácter ge- neral de la termodinámica clásica, de la teoría de la relatividad espe- cial, de la astrofísica y de la cosmología, que quizás resulten ser in- teresantes y motivadoras no solo para el público no especializado, sino también para estudiantes no graduados, para profesores de edu- cación media y aún para los profesionales de la enseñanza superior. Mi sincero agradecimiento va para Elizabeth Casarín Corpus quien con su profesionalismo y excelente trabajo transformó el manuscrito en una hermosa edición. A mis amigos y colegas Alejandro Salcido, Juan Arellano, Víctor Arellano y a otros más que me es imposible listar, agradezco su apoyo y entusiasmo por mis ideas y proyectos. Angel Fierros Palacios Ciudad de México xiii La termodinámica clásica y la edad La termodinámica clásica es una parte de la física teórica que estudia las relaciones que se establecen entre la materia y los cambios de temperatu- ra. Es una ciencia fenomenológica que se dedica al tratamiento analítico de los fenómenos que ocurren en sistemas macroscópicos considerados como medios continuos, es decir, sin tomar en cuenta la constitución in- terna de los materiales. Su estructura formal es elegante y el ámbito de la aplicación de sus conceptos fundamentales es tan amplio que se extiende a todo el Universo. Su contenido se asienta en un pequeño conjunto de pos- tulados básicos denominados los principios, o también, las leyes de la termodinámica. 1. El Principio cero de la Termodinámica En el área de la competencia de la termodinámica clásica se establece que el recíproco del cambio de la entropía total S con respecto a un cambio en la energía total interna E, que en el lenguaje de la matemática es lo que se conoce como la derivada total de una cantidad dada con respecto a otra, es una constante para el sistema. Así, dS 1 ; (1.1) dE T en donde T es la temperatura absoluta. Así, se afirma que las temperaturas de dos sistemas que se encuentran en equilibrio térmico entre sí son iguales, esto es TT 21 . (1.2) Este resultado es válido para cualquier número de sistemas en equili- brio térmico entre ellos. Es una expresión de lo que se conoce como el 1 2 La termodinámica clásica y la edad principio cero o la ley cero de la termodinámica, mientras que la fórmula (1.1) es una relación analítica que define el concepto de temperatura. En particular y a manera de ejemplo, es interesante mencionar que cuan- do las personas no se encuentran en equilibrio térmico con el medio ambien- te y éste tiene una temperatura menor que la corporal, como ocurre en los inviernos fríos, el cuerpo humano le cede calor al entorno en una cantidad y a una velocidad de flujo que dependen de la diferencia de temperaturas entre ambos sistemas. En consecuencia, las personas pierden calor corpo- ral y sienten frío y esa sensación es mayor cuando la temperatura del me- dio ambiente es más baja. Por el contrario, si la temperatura ambiental es alta, como en los veranos cálidos y mayor que la corporal, el entorno le transfiere energía térmica al cuerpo humano incrementando con ello su temperatura, razón por la que las personas sienten calor. Esa sensación también es mayor entre más grande sea la diferencia de temperaturas entre ambos sistemas. En termodinámica se demuestra que la transferencia de energía térmica o lo que es lo mismo, el flujo de calor, siempre va del sistema más caliente al más frío hasta que eventualmente se alcance el equilibrio térmico o termo- dinámico, momento en el que cesa el proceso de intercambio [1].
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