Capitalist Transformation and the Evolution of Civil Society in a South Indian Fishery
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Capitalist Transformation and the Evolution of Civil Society in a South Indian Fishery by Aparna Sundar A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Political Science University of Toronto © Copyright by Aparna Sundar 2010 Capitalist Transformation and the Evolution of Civil Society in a South Indian Fishery Aparna Sundar Doctor of Philosophy Political Science University of Toronto 2010 Abstract This thesis employs Karl Polanyi’s concept of the double-movement of capitalism to trace the trajectory of a social movement that arose in response to capitalist transformation in the fishery of Kanyakumari district, south India. Beginning in the 1980s, this counter-movement militantly asserted community control over marine resources, arguing that intensified production for new markets should be subordinated to the social imperatives of subsistence and equity. Two decades later, the ambition of “embedding” the market within the community had yielded instead to an adaptation to the market in the language of “professionalization,” self-help, and caste uplift. Polanyi is useful for identifying the constituency for a counter-movement against the market, but tells us little about the social or political complexities of constructing such a movement. To locate the reasons for the decline of the counter-movement in Kanyakumari, I turn therefore to an empirical observation of the civil society within which the counter-movement arose. In doing this, I argue against Partha Chatterjee’s influential view that civil society as a conceptual category does not apply to “popular politics in most of the world,” and is not useful for tracing non-European, post-colonial, and subaltern modernities. By contrast, my case shows the presence of civil society – as a sphere of autonomous and routinized association and publicity – among subaltern groups in rural India. I argue that it is precisely by locating the counter-movement of ii fishworkers within civil society that one can map the multiple negotiations that take place as subaltern classes are integrated into the market, and into liberal democracy, and explain the difficulties of extending and sustaining the counter-movement itself. iii Acknowledgments It is difficult for me, and for many who know me, to believe that the long and meandering journey of this thesis has finally come to an end. Along this long journey, I have accumulated innumerable debts, and I am thrilled to finally have the opportunity to acknowledge them. My first debt is to Fr Tom Kocherry, who took my naïve and wide-eyed earlier self under his wing and drew me into the fishworkers’ movement by first placing me in Kanyakumari. I thank him for having challenged me, had faith in me, and for all his help over the years, always responding promptly to my requests even as he rushed between hunger fast and international meeting. He, along with Aleyamma Vijayan, A.J. Vijayan, Elsamma Prayikulam, the late Harekrishna Debnath, J. John, John Kurien, Matanhy Saldanha, Mercy Alexander, Nalini Nayak, Philomene Mary, Patricia, the late Pranab Roy, Satish Babu, Sebastian Mathew, Theramma Prayikulam, V. Vivekanandan and Xavier Pinto were among those who made the fishworkers’ movement of the early nineties such an intellectually and politically exciting place to be, and I thank each of them for their knowledge and insight. In particular I thank Sebastian for his enduring friendship and generosity over the years in terms of resources and guidance on the fisheries. I recall an anecdote Fr Tom once told about his niece who scolded him after a family weekend: “What is this struggle, struggle, all the time you’re talking about struggle.” I hope the following chapters succeed in conveying my respect for all those in the movement who, like him, live their life in the struggle, for this thesis is about “the struggle” as much as it is about popular agency and public life. As I was doing the rounds of families in Chinna Muttam village, a smallish group gathered in the space in front of the home where we were talking, and the usual discussion broke out. One person argued that there was no reason to talk to me, since researchers like me were always coming by and getting information and then going away with it, and there was never any gain for the informants from this. But another responded by saying “if we can help someone to get a degree by telling them about ourselves, then we should do so.” I am very grateful to him, and to the many others like him across the villages, whose sense of public service stretched to sharing their time and knowledge with me with infinite patience and generosity. This sense of solidarity and service is also the wellspring of the active public life I describe in this thesis, and it is perhaps only natural, but nonetheless a matter for gratitude, that I too should have benefited from it. iv Many people helped to make Kanyakumari home for me. It is with deep gratitude that I acknowledge the late Fr James Tombeur, and Sr Lieve, for the inspiration of their fifty year long commitment to justice and social transformation, and for their calm strength, warmth, and hospitality at Thirumalai Ashram where I spent many months. My thanks also to all the others who made the Ashram the open, accepting and lively place it was –Sisters Alphonsa, Christy, Ulrich and Victoria, Ambrosakka, Rajam, Lourdakka, Pushpam, Gita, Periya Kala, Chinna Kala, Viji, and Fr Edwin. I also thank my other hosts in the district for allowing me to experience first-hand the pleasures of daily life in a village by the sea: In Chinna Muttam the late Joseph, and Roselyn and their children Rebelin, Johnslin and Jebastolin, a wonderful example of a happy inter-caste marriage, commitment to village and community, and courage and outspokenness. And in Enayam Puthenthurai, Arul Mary "Teacher" and her mother and brother, and little Rani, for their hospitality and for Teacher's empathy with my desire for independence. My deepest thanks to my very good friends, Mary Therese akka, Alphy, Johnsy, remarkable women all, for all our discussing, gossiping, complaining, singing, laughing, and sharing. Thanks also to Mary Therese’s family – Amma, Fernandes and Pushpa, and their sons, Ezhil and Mahil. Many thanks for their help and hospitality over the years to Glory Bai and Sahayaraj, and their children Ben, Ken and Aparna. For help with smoothing my research and stay in Kanyakumari, through providing me with contacts and resources, and access to meetings and documents, I thank Frs Justus, Dominic, Servatius, Dionysius, Albin and Arulraj, all of the Diocese of Kottar, as well as Michael Nayagam and Gerald, who have since left the Diocese. In this regard I would like to thank most of all Fr Edwin for all his help, and for his wisdom, concern, encouragement and inspiration. I also thank Professor V.C.V Rethnam, for his intellectual interest and support, and him and Mrs Selin Mary for their hospitality, and for the inspiration of their evident involvement with the district and commitment to a socialist politics. The staff and activists of the Tamil Nadu Fishworkers’ Union were helpful in all kinds of ways. I thank: Celine, Xavier and Sibu at the office, Vallan and his family in Kovalam, Emtheus, Anthony Raj, and their families in Mel Manakudy, and Pushpakka and her family in Kanyakumari for help with arranging meetings, introducing me to people, and feeding me the best fish I have ever had. v For assistance with research and translation, and for the endless insight they provided into all aspects of life and politics in the district, many thanks to Mary Therese and to Sunny Jose. Thanks to Nityanand Jayraman for doing an interview for me during his brief visit to the district. I am grateful to the Superintendent of Police of Kanyakumari for suggesting and making available to me the Part IV police records; the Writers and Station Inspectors at the Kanyakumari, Suchindram, Ethamozhy, Colachel and Pudukadai police stations for their help; and Mr Ravindran, AD Fisheries Nagercoil, and the Assistant AD, Colachel, for their willingness to talk frankly and make available documents and information. In Trivandrum, for hosting me over the different phases of my research and providing so much good food, conversation and conviviality, I thank Vanita, Chandan and Avanti (Amu) Mukherjee, Dr Saradamoni, my old and dear friend G. Arunima, Dilip Menon, and Keith Saldanha. My debts in Toronto are no less numerous. I owe an extraordinary debt to Professor Jonathan Barker: for sharing his conviction in the importance of paying attention to the everyday activism of ordinary people in making political change; for having faith and not giving up on me, and continuing to stay patient and encouraging through all these years; for his kindness and friendship; and, finally, for taking up the urgency of my final deadlines with all the rigour and acumen of a military general, lining up targets and timelines with precision, and making every effort possible to facilitate my completion. I am very grateful to Professors Richard Sandbrook, Paul Kingston and Arthur Rubinoff for their willingness to read the thesis in such a timely fashion, and for the detailed and thoughtful suggestions for improvement they nevertheless managed to provide. I would also like to thank Professor Sandbrook for his interest, rigorous reading and critical engagement, and encouragement over the years. I thank Professor Richard Stren for providing me with working space at the Centre for Urban and Community Studies, Professor Victor Falkenheim for introducing me to Ryerson, and Professor Grace Skogstad for her help as Graduate Director. At the Department of Political Science, I would like to thank Ilone Eurchuk, Shelley McClarty, Sherylin Biason, Joan Kallis, Carolynn Branton, Mary Alice Bailey and Louis Tentsos for their help over the years in making financial and administrative matters appear so easy and painless, and for many enjoyable conversations.