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Evaluating the Purpose, Extent, and Ecological Restoration Applications of Indigenous Burning Practices in Southwestern Washington

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Evaluating the Purpose, Extent, and Ecological Restoration Applications of Indigenous Burning Practices in Southwestern Washington Evaluating the Purpose, Extent, and Ecological Restoration Applications of Indigenous Burning Practices in Southwestern Washington by Linda Storm and Daniela Shebitz ABSTRACT number of anthropologists, ethno- We believe it is important to understand Understanding the historic tire regime is Abcitanists, and ecologists now believe the motivations of the people who used essential hefore restoring fire to an ecosystem. that indigenous peoples contributed to the fire in order to reconstruct tbe ecological 1 listoricnl ecology provides a means to use long-term maintenance and distribution of buth quantitative and qualitative data from patterns and effects of such practices. Key Jifterenr disciplines to address que.stions about prairie and savanna ecosystems in pre- questions to understand past indigenous how tbe traditional ecological management European western Wa.shington throtigh burning include: (TEM) practices oi indigenous peoples influ- traditional management techniques, such • When did indigenous people first start enced pmirie and savanna ecosystems in the as burning (Norton 1979a, 1979b; Krucke- past. In this article, we evaluated paleoccolog- to use burning on a regular basis to man- icai. archaeological, ethnographic, and eth- berg 1991; Agee 1993; Dunn and Ewing age the land.' nohotanical information about the Upper 1997; Boyd 1999a; Leopold and Boyd • What were their purposes and reastms to (.'hchalis River hasin prairies of southwestern 1999; Wray and Anderson 2003). Fol- bum? Washington to hetter understand the extent lowing the declitie o( indigenous cultures • What were the ecological effects of such (o which TEM influenced prairie distribution, and the subsequent absence of low-inten- i.umposition. and availability of wild plant burning practices on the spatial extent tooJ resources. We also surveyed areas that sity, high-frequency fires, areas in western of vegetation communities and plant had been humed at differing frequencies to Washington that were once prairies and compo.sition? rest whether frequent fires increase camas savannas have naturally succeeded to • What are the implications of these pmc- {Camassia Ljuan\ash) productivity. Preliminary conifer-dominated forests (Lang 1961). results support the hypothesis that camas pro- tices for present and future ecological Juttivity increases with fire-return intervals of Today, there are efforts underway to re.store restoration projects.' •.me to two yt'Hrs. the fire-dependent prairies and savannas of western Washington and the many nuw rare, threatened, and endangered species Keywords: prairie restoration, historical ecol- Background: Ecological •.igy, traditional ecological management that continue to exist in those degraded (TEM), fire, camas, Ctmiossici quamash. Coast ecosystems (Dunn and Ewing 1997, and Cultural History of Siilisb subsistence Chappell and others 2001, Peter and the Pacific Northwest Shehitz 2006). The climatic history of the Pacific In this paper, we use a historical ecol- Northwest can be reconstructed by using ogy tnethodology to evaluate botli tbe rea- pollen data (Tsukada and others 1981, sons why indigenous peoples in the Upper Bamoski 1985, Brubaker 1991), glacial Chebalis River basin managed prairie and geology (Porter and Swanson 1998), den- savanna ecosystems and the extent of drochronology (Agee 1993), global cli- those practices through time and space. mate model predictions (Hehda and EcolofiicaiRestoratim,VQl. 24, No. 4, 2006 ISSN 1522-4740 E-iSSN I54V4O79 ©2006 by the Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System. 256 EcoujuiCAL RESTORATION 24:4 2006 Whitlock 1997), and charcoal evidence corridtirs, reduced the (Clark and Royall 1995, Hallett and risk of wildfire, and im- Walker 2000. Pellatt and others 2001). proved grazing for game From these sources, scienrists have con- and (later) horses tinned that the Pacific Northwest experi- (Lewis 1993, Anderson enced an "early post-glacial" period 1996, Boyd 1999a). hetween 16,000-11,300 years ago. They Robin Kimmerer and descrihe this period as cool and moist Frank Lake (2001:38) with a characteristic vegetation of grasses contend chat for indige- and sed^ies along with some boreal nous peoples "[mjain- conifers {Picea spp. and Pinus spp.). A taining a diversity ot warmer and drier period, from 11,200- habitats buffers the 9,500 years ago, led to an open forest v^/ith impact of natural fluctu- an increase in spruce and pine pollen and ation in a single food the first occurrence of Douglas fir species and increases {Pmcdosiufia mcnsdzu)- The maximum overall productivity," warming period from 10,000-6,000 years By using fire for ago, which is estimated to have heen millenia, indigenous about 3.6°F (2''C) warmer than modem people developed a set ciimate conditions, produced a vegeta- Figure 1. The Glacial Heritage Preserve (identified by the number of TEM practices that tion complex of Douglas fir, Garry oak 2 on the map) was the site of experiments to determine the most were grounded in an {Quercus garryana), and alder (Ainus effective fire-return interval for maximizing camas production. The understanding of how rnhra). Spruce, pine, and boreal species site is located south of Olympia, the capitol of the Washington fire travels across a land- declined in this period and fire, as indi- State, in the Black River Drainage of the Upper Chehalis River scape or slope, how to cated hy increases in charcoal remains, Basin, which drains westward into the Pacific Ocean. use fire to maintain trails became more prevalent (Bruhaker 1982). that in turn serve as Hre- From 6,000-5,000 years ago, western hem- and storage of important plant food hreaks, how to set backfires, and how to lock (Tauga heterophylia), western red resources (Ames 2005, Storm dissertation wet conifer boughs to control fires (Turner cedar {Thuja plicata) and Pacific yew in progress). 1999). They used seasonal cues—plant (Taxw,s brevifolia) increased (Tsukada and phenologies (Lantz and Turner 2003), Stigita 1982, Hehda and Mathewes 1984), local climate, weather conditions, nu»is- and charctial inputs decreased (Brubaker ture levels of soils and tuels—to determine 1991), reflecting a transition to a wetter, Native American Burning the time to hum. cooler time period. However, scientists Patterns of burning by indigenous also confirm that prairie and .savanna in the Pre'European Pacific peoples varied both hetween and within a ecosystems persisted in southwestern Northwest and Western given region, the effects of which wt)uld Washington frt)m the maximum warming differ depending on soil type, moisture period until the time of European contact Washington regime, and plant assemhiages present. and that they coincide with evidence of a Historic fire return intervals in pre- The effects oi such practices have heen short fire-retum interval (Leopold and European Pacific Northwest were a func- well described for other western grassland Boyd 1999). tion of both natural and anthropogenic fires (Boyd 1999a). Prescribed burning and oak woodland savannas (Blackburn The human history ot western enabled the management of large land- and Anderson 1993), hut have only been Washington extends hack at least 10,000 scapes and promoted greater abundance of partially described for western Washing- years (Ames and Maschner 1999) with useful species and hahitats. For example, ton (White 1975; Norton 1979a, 1979h; sedentary village life beginning after 3,800 fire was used to create forest openings and Leopold and Boyd 1999; Norton and oth- years ago. Human populations increased as maintain expansive prairies, keeping plant ers 1999). plank house village sites were established, communities in early to mid-seral stages, Westem Washington ecosystems that salmon harvest intensified, and winter and enhancing the diversity and yield of were indigenously maintained by frequent storage developed in some locales after useful plants and game (Norton 1979a, burning include open hunchgniss prairies, this period. Some researchers postulate 1979b; Connelly and others 1997, asstxiated oak wtxxllands, oak/ash iQuer- that during this period inland, up-river Leopold and Boyd 1999; Connelly 2000; cus garnanalfraximis latifolia) riparian cor- groups of indigenotis peoples in southwest- Storm 2002, 2004). Beyond those pur- ridors, beargrass {Xemphylium spp.) em Washington began using fire to main- poses, indigenous buming reduced insect savannas, and low (600-800 ft, 183-244 m) tain praitie and savanna habitats and pests, improved basketry materials, helped to mid-elevation (1000-2500 ft, 305-762 subsequently increased their production clear areas for home sites and safe travel m) patches of open grasslands and herr\' ECOLOGICAL RESTORAT[ON 24:4 2006 257 grounds {Lang 1961, Giles 1970, Agee Methods Camas productivity was defined as the 1993. French 1999, Peter and Shebit: To reconstruct long-term indigenous number of mature (harvestable) camas 2006). There is also some evidence for burning practices in Upper Chehalis plants. Camas abundance was measured burning peat-dominated wetlands, such as River basin prairies, we evaluated paleoe- both in space (the number of mature catnas bogs and fens (Shebit: 2005). cological, archaeological, ethnographic, plants within n patch) and in time (the Until recently, little has been written ethnohistoric, ethnobotanic, and ecolog- length of time that plants were flowering about the extent and effects of TEM on ical data. From these sources, we used sev- and fruiting within a growing season). Upper Chehalis River basin
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