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United Nations UNEP/GEF South Sea Global Environment Environment Programme Project Facility

“Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the and Gulf of ”

National Reports on the Stocks and of Regional, Global and Transboundary Significance in the South China Sea

First published in Thailand in 2007 by the United Nations Environment Programme.

Copyright © 2007, United Nations Environment Programme

This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holder provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNEP would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source.

No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purpose without prior permission in writing from the United Nations Environment Programme.

UNEP/GEF Project Co-ordinating Unit, United Nations Environment Programme, UN Building, 2nd Floor Block B, Rajdamnern Avenue, Bangkok 10200, Thailand. Tel. +66 2 288 1886 Fax. +66 2 288 1094 http://www.unepscs.org

DISCLAIMER:

The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of UNEP or the GEF. The designations employed and the presentations do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP, of the GEF, or of any cooperating organisation concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, of its authorities, or of the delineation of its territories or boundaries.

Cover Photo: Coastal village of Phu Quoc Island, Viet Nam by Mr. Christopher Paterson.

For citation purposes this document may be cited as:

UNEP, 2007. National Reports on the and Habitats of Regional, Global, and Transboundary Significance in the South China Sea. UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical Publication No. 15. NATIONAL REPORT ON

INTRODUCTION

The South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand is a global centre of shallow water marine biological diversity, supporting a significant world that is important to the food security of, and as a source of export income for, Southeast Asian countries. Landings from this area contribute approximately 10 percent of reported global fisheries production per annum and make significant contributions to the economies, of countries bordering the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea.

The majority of fisheries are small-scale in nature, and fish are landed in a large number of decentralised locations for distribution through complex marketing networks at the community level. As a consequence estimates of fisheries production are considered to be gross underestimates and do not adequately reflect the importance of the artisanal or subsistence production to the fisheries sector as a whole.

The majority of Southeast Asian countries are among the top 20 capture fisheries producing countries in the world, with some experiencing annual increases in production of up to 5 percent. Pelagic dominate landings by volume and value, as most demersal fisheries are over-exploited. It is well accepted, however, that regional fisheries statistics rarely reflect: (a) production from small-scale coastal fisheries, (b) the high level participation of coastal communities in fishing, or (c) the social and economic importance of artisanal and subsistence fishing to coastal communities.

Fish stocks in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand are subject to high levels of fishing effort, such that stocks of most economically important are considered to be fully fished or overexploited. Increasing global demand for fisheries products, and the dependence of coastal communities on fish for food and income results in a continued increase in fishing effort. This has led to “fishing down the marine food chain in the region”, coupled with an increasing dependence of the artisanal sector on small pelagic species due to declining availability of demersal species.

The fisheries and components of the UNEP/GEF South China Sea Project focus on the critical role that habitats such as , reefs, seagrass, and wetlands play in sustaining fisheries production in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand. These habitats are known to act as refuges for most economically important fish species during critical stages of their life-cycles including as larvae, for spawning, and for feeding. These habitats therefore play an important role in recruitment and maintenance of fish stocks.

Declining fish availability, coupled with over-capacity and the dependence of the small-scale sector on coastal fisheries for income generation, has led to the adoption of destructive fishing practices by some fishers in to maintain incomes and food production in the short-term. Fisheries trends suggest that production from capture fisheries will decline over coming years unless total fishing effort and capacity are reduced. The obvious problem in the reduction of fishing capacity is that most fisheries are small-scale with the majority of participants (and their families) being highly dependent on fisheries for income, food and well-being.

Whilst actions aimed at reducing the rate of loss of coastal habitats of significance to fisheries have been implemented by the countries bordering the South China Sea, the decadal rates of loss of such habitats remain high: seagrass (30%); mangroves (16%); and coral reefs (16%) (UNEP, 2007a). Increasing levels of fishing effort, coupled with continued decline in the total area of habitats critical to the life-cycles of most species, have raised serious concerns for the long-term of artisanal fisheries in the region.

The dilemma for the fisheries and environment sectors is that conservation of habitat does not necessarily result in increased fish stocks and lowering of fishing effort does not necessarily result in improved habitat condition. Although fish production is intrinsically linked to the quality and extent of habitats; and although the dependence of coastal communities on fish for food and income is high; understanding of this linkage is limited, such that intensive fishing in inshore areas has been identified as the key factor contributing to the continued loss of habitats and biodiversity in the region (UNEP, 2006a). The use of inappropriate and destructive gear and practices, such as the use of demersal trawls and push nets in seagrass areas, and the use of poisons and explosives to catch fish in areas, is of continuing concern with respect to the degradation and loss of habitats and biodiversity.

i NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES

The expert members of the regional working groups on fisheries and coastal habitats of the South China Sea Project have agreed that intensive, inshore fishing presents numerous threats to coastal habitats and biodiversity in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand including: • Degradation and loss of habitats and biodiversity caused by intensive use of inappropriate and destructive fishing gear and practices in sensitive habitat areas; • Reduced biomass of fish species of transboundary significance caused by growth and recruitment over-fishing resulting from the targeting and capture of juvenile fish, fish in spawning aggregations, and pre-recruits; • Changes in marine community structure caused by direct reductions of populations representing specific trophic levels of the community; and • Decreased abundance and geographical range of rare and caused by fishing activities conducted in critical habitat areas.

These threats coupled with the fact that many marine fisheries in Southeast are over-capitalised, unregulated, and subjected to illegal fishing have provided the impetus for the development of innovative approaches to the management of fisheries in the region. Significant efforts are being made in most countries to decentralise the responsibility for to the local level with the aim of establishing co-management particularly of stocks. However, the intrinsic relationship between fish stocks and their habitats necessitates that fisheries management involving decentralised and rights-based systems will need to incorporate strategies that foster the improved management of fish life-cycle and critical habitat linkages.

The key focus of the fisheries component of the UNEP/GEF South China Sea Project has been to develop a mechanism to facilitate improved management of the critical linkages between fish stocks and their habitats in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand. In this connection the UNEP/GEF Regional Working Group on Fisheries has collaborated with SEAFDEC to establish a system of fisheries refugia in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand that focuses on the critical links between fish stocks and their habitats.

The “National Reports on the Fish Stocks and Habitats of Regional, Global, and Transboundary Significance in the South China Sea” contained in this publication were prepared during the preparatory phase of the South China Sea project by the government designated focal points for fisheries from , , , Thailand, and Viet Nam. Each focal point for fisheries has compiled in their respective National Reports, available information relating to: the status and threats of important fish stocks; habitats and areas of importance in the maintenance of exploited fish stocks; and existing management regimes. The reports were utilised during the operational phase of the project as an important information resource in the identification of fisheries refugia sites and development of a regional strategy for the establishment and management of fisheries refugia.

Christopher Paterson, Fisheries Expert UNEP/GEF Project Co-ordinating Unit United Nations Environment Programme

ii

United Nations UNEP/GEF South China Sea Global Environment Environment Programme Project Facility

NATIONAL REPORT

on

The Fish Stocks and Habitats of Regional, Global, and Transboundary Significance in the South China Sea

CAMBODIA

Mr. Ing Try Focal Point for Fisheries Fisheries Administration, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 186 Norodom Blvd. P.O. Box 582, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES - CAMBODIA

Table of Contents 1. BACKGROUND ...... 1

1.1 OVERVIEW OF CAMBODIA’S FISHERIES SECTOR ...... 1 1.1.1 Total catch by fishing area, port of landing or province (by species/species group, 1990 onwards)...... 1 1.1.2 Fishing effort by gear (number of fishing days/number of boats)...... 4 1.1.2.1 Trawl (Khmer name Uon Ohs)...... 5 1.1.2.2 Purse seine/ring net (Khmer name Uon Tith)...... 6 1.1.2.3 Gill net (Khmer name Mong Paehk) ...... 7 1.1.2.4 Other (push nets, , hand line, long line, trap)...... 10 1.1.3 Economic value of catch (estimated or actual)...... 12 1.1.4 Importance of the fisheries sector in terms of employment and dependence...... 13 2. SPECIES OF REGIONAL, GLOBAL AND/OR TRANSBOUNDARY SIGNIFICANCE...... 14

2.1 RANKING OF IMPORTANCE IN TERMS OF LANDINGS, VALUE, STATUS AND FOOD SECURITY ...... 14 2.1.1 Landings ...... 14 2.1.2 Local Market Value (local currency, year) ...... 14 2.1.3 Status...... 17 2.1.4 Food security (locally)...... 18 2.2 BIOLOGY AND OF THE PRIORITY SPECIES...... 18 2.2.1 Pelagic species...... 20 2.2.2 Demersal species ...... 22 2.2.3 Commercially exploited ...... 22 3. CURRENT STATUS & THREATS...... 22

3.1 STATUS OF THE FISHERY IN TERMS OF CPUE...... 22 3.2 STATUS OF FISH STOCKS BASED ON HISTORICAL REVIEW OF LANDINGS AND CPUE...... 23 3.3 THREATS ...... 24 3.3.1 Current...... 24 3.3.2 Potential...... 26 4. HABITATS & AREAS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE MAINTENANCE OF EXPLOITED FISH STOCKS...... 27

4.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF KNOWN SPAWNING, NURSERY, FEEDING, AND FISHING GROUNDS ...... 27 4.2 UNKOWN ISSUES SUCH AS STOCKS WITH UNDEFINED SPAWNING GROUNDS ...... 30 4.3 THREATS, CURRENT AND POTENTIAL ...... 31 4.4 RANKING OF HABITATS...... 31 4.4.1 Ranking for association with species of importance to food security ...... 31 4.4.2 Ranking for species of high value...... 32 4.4.3 Ranking for endangered, rare and threatened species ...... 32 5. CURRENT MANAGEMENT REGIMES...... 32

5.1 LEGAL INSTRUMENTS ...... 32 5.2 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS (RESEARCH, MONITORING, CONTROL & ENFORCEMENT) ...... 33 5.3 OVERVIEW OF PATTERNS OF RESOURCE OWNERSHIP AND TRADITIONAL UTILISATION ...... 33 5.4 HUMAN AND INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY ...... 33 5.5 REVIEW OF STAKEHOLDERS...... 34 6. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS ...... 34 REFERENCES...... 35

ii NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – CAMBODIA 1

1. BACKGROUND

1.1 Overview of Cambodia’s Fisheries Sector

Cambodia’s fisheries and play an important role in the national economy and contribute to food security. The sector provides employment and economic benefits to Cambodians involved in its activities. The Ministry of Planning estimated in 2002 that Cambodia derives 16% of its GDP from the fisheries sector.

During recent decades, the productivity of Cambodia’s fisheries resources, including fishes, , and molluscs, has declined significantly. This is largely due to increased pressures on fish stocks and their habitats associated with burgeoning coastal populations in Cambodia. Increased demand for fisheries products, and the associated improvements in fishing technology, have contributed to this problem. Cambodia is an ASEAN country bordering the Gulf of Thailand, with a coastline of 435km extending from the Thai border in the north to the border with Viet Nam in the south.

Cambodia's fisheries are divided into inland and marine capture fisheries. Inland capture fisheries are significantly more important to Cambodians than marine fisheries, accounting for more than 70% of Cambodia’s total volume of fish production. In terms of value, however, marine fisheries account for nearly 40% of the country’s fisheries production (Try, 2001).

A few comments regarding the accuracy of Cambodian fisheries statistics are necessary. The statistics presented in this report are the most accurate available to the Department of Fisheries (DoF), however, a reliable system for the systematic collection of fisheries information and data has not yet been established in Cambodia. The fact that fish are not landed at central locations, together with direct exports by foreign vessels and other factors, contribute to inaccuracies. Fish caught by subsistence fishers are often not included in the official statistics, and as such, the statistics do not adequately reflect the importance of fisheries to small-scale subsistence fishers in Cambodia.

1.1.1 Total catch by fishing area, port of landing or province (by species/species group, 1990 onwards)

The coastal area of Cambodia is divided into two provinces, Koh Kong in the north and Kampot in the south, and two municipalities, and Kep (Figure 1). Cambodia’s marine capture fisheries are characterised by a multitude of species and the use of a range of fishing gears. Reference to DoF fisheries statistics (Table 1) indicates that fisheries production in Cambodia has developed considerably since 1988 when changes to government policy created free market and free election systems.

Marine fisheries production as recorded by DoF has not yet shown a decrease by species and landing place, although anecdotal infromations suggests that the average size of many economically important fish species traded in domestic markets is declining. The records of production from marine capture fisheries have been irregular in some periods (Table 1).

Table 1 indicates that total fisheries production increased significantly after 1999. This is a result of modifications to the DoF’s system for the collection of inland fisheries statistics made through the Freshwater Capture Fisheries Management Project. A corresponding system for the collection of marine capture fisheries statistics does not exist. The DoF is seeking assistance from NGOs and regional and international organisations in resolving this problem.

Marine fisheries production by province and municipality from 1992 to 2001 is shown in Tables 2 to 5. These statistics are not at the species level, but grouped according to higher taxa and commercial or market names. The data in these tables do not include catches made by local and foreign fleets operating legally or illegally in Cambodia and then landed in ports of other countries such as Thailand or Viet Nam. The DoF estimates that fish caught outside Cambodian waters constitute around one quarter of the recorded production. For Kep municipality there are no data from 1980 to 1996, due to the institution of the administrative structure for this municipality only occurring in 1996.

The aquaculture of was introduced to Cambodia in 1993, however, this business collapsed in 1998. At present, all shrimp farms are closed. The culture of seaweed began in 2001.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 2 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – CAMBODIA

Figure 1 Map of Cambodia’s Coastal Waters.

Table 1 Cambodia’s fisheries production from 1990 to 2001. (fish and shrimp unit = tonnes; and crocodile unit = heads). Total Inland Marine Aquaculture Production Years Production Fisheries Fisheries Fishes Shrimp Crocodile 1990 111,400 65,100 39,900 6,400 5,654 1991 117,800 74,700 36,400 6,700 6,100 1992 111,150 68,900 33,700 8,550 3,664 1993 108,900 67,900 33,100 7,400 500 4,816 1994 103,200 65,000 30,000 7,640 560 6,194 1995 112,510 72,500 30,500 8,779 731 14,691 1996 104,310 63,510 31,200 9,000 600 20,200 1997 114,600 73,000 29,800 11,534 266 17,000 1998 122,000 75,700 32,200 13,903 197 40,700 1999 284,100 231,000 38,100 14,938 62 25,380 2000 296,030 245,600 36,000 14,410 20 26,300 2001 444,500 385,000 42,000 13,682 143 36,000 (Source: DoF 2002)

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – CAMBODIA 3

Table 2 Marine capture fisheries production in Kampot province from 1992 to 2001 (tonnes).

Low Cepha - Slipper Blood Sea Fresh- Year Fishes Shrimp Ray Crabs Snails Total Value lopod lobster cockle cucum water Fishes -ber Fish 1992 1,064 1,058 993 669 296 162 1,040 1,346 1,472 - - - 8,100 1993 654 1,134 229 678 236 156 1,020 1,465 1,507 - 861 - 7,940 1994 2,148 1,430 529 427 418 89 1,531 450 423 132 23 - 7,600 1995 2,895 2,000 625 176 310 36 900 118 180 60 - - 7,300 1996 3,020 2,125 538 181 284 26 992 104 179 51 - - 7,500 1997 2,974 2,045 591 167 320 28 1,120 138 172 45 - - 7,600 1998 2,610 1,620 501 184 291 22 992 144 208 63 15 100 6,750 1999 2,720 3,025 340 135 199 7 801 104 135 34 - - 7,500 2000 2,600 1,755 402 176 284 - 1,077 129 166 11 - 100 6,700 2001 2,703 1,786 284 165 247 - 870 176 199 - - 100 8,100 (Source: DoF 2002)

Table 3 Marine capture fisheries production in Sihanoukville municipality from 1992 to 2001 (tonnes). Low Sea Cepha Slipper Blood Fresh Year Fishes Value Shrimp Ray Crabs Snails Krill cucum- Total -lopod lobster cockle water fish Fishes ber 1992 6,132 1,117 600 - 173 - 430 - 48 - - 100 8,600 1993 6,090 1,004 641 - 146 - 428 - 56 - - 195 8,560 1994 6,162 999 682 - 161 - 504 - 7 - - 185 8,700 1995 5,675 1,600 820 50 225 - 610 - 38 - - 182 9,200 1996 5,780 1,920 1,100 - 290 - 590 - 60 - 200 160 10,100 1997 4,345 3,155 1,150 - 476 - 592 - 54 - 68 160 10,000 1998 6,510 4,840 1,300 - 719 6 719 5 61 60 - 180 14,400 1999 7,295 4,455 1,570 - 1,800 40 1,080 80 150 70 - 260 16,800 2000 6,850 4,690 1,580 - 1,830 45 1,000 120 35 50 - 300 16,500 2001 6,943 4,287 1,730 - 1,496 40 897 1,236 226 210 - 535 17,600 (Source: DoF 2002)

Table 4 Marine capture fisheries production in Koh Kong province from 1992 to 2001 (tonnes).

Low Fresh- Cepha- Slipper Blood Mantis Year Fishes Value Shrimp Ray Crabs Snails water Total lopod lobster cockle shrimp Fishes fish 1992 5,560 6,485 3,000 318 791 - 700 - 146 - - 17,000 1993 6,094 6,346 2,368 146 601 925 - 120 - - 16,600 1994 5,093 4,845 2,395 133 487 - 612 - 135 - - 13,700 1995 5,230 5,700 2,000 120 450 - 300 - 200 - - 14,000 1996 5,185 4,997 2,064 110 390 - 644 - 110 - - 13,500 1997 4,966 3,403 2,380 108 445 - 574 - 194 - - 12,070 1998 4,020 3,600 1,840 30 510 - 520 - 180 - - 10,700 1999 7,206 3,317 1,115 40 480 - 458 696 82 - 6 13,400 2000 5,938 3,307 815 69 498 4 1,348 26 325 10 10 12,350 2001 7,104 4,764 1,606 42 604 - 1,410 1,082 762 - 26 17,400 (Source: DoF 2002)

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 4 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – CAMBODIA

Table 5 Marine capture fisheries production in Kep municipality from 1996 to 2001 (tonnes).

Low Cepha- Slipper Fresh- Year Fishes Shrimp Ray Crabs Krill Total Value lopod lobster water Fishes Fish 1996 20 - 5 - 5 - 70 - - 100 1997 43 5 23 1 5 - 53 - - 130 1998 62 100 30 - 10 - 146 2 - 350 1999 150 70 30 - 6 - 140 - 4 400 2000 138 81 50 - 15 - 168 8 - 460 2001 123 10 42 2 8 - 285 - - 470 (Source: DoF 2002)

1.1.2 Fishing effort by gear (number of fishing days/number of boats)

Fishing Gear Many types of small-scale or artisanal, middle-scale, and large-scale fishing gear are used in Cambodia. According to a proclamation made by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, small-scale or artisanal and middle-scale fishing gears are distinguished by the capacity of boat engines and fishing gear size. The term commercial fishery is used only for inland fisheries and is rarely used in relation to Cambodia’s marine fisheries.

Marine capture fisheries in Cambodia are divided into two categories, namely middle-scale fisheries and small-scale or artisanal fisheries. Middle-scale fisheries are those utilising highly efficient fishing gear and vessels with capacity to fish both offshore and inshore using a variety of gear types, with the exception of in inshore waters (Table 6). These fisheries are required to pay tax to the government. After the government declared a reform of the fisheries sector in October 2000, middle- scale inland fishers do not have to pay tax. However, fishers operating middle-scale fishing gears in marine waters are required to pay tax as usual, albeit at rates lower than those prior to the government reform.

Table 6 gears used in the coastal waters of Cambodia.

Type of Fishing Gear of Fishing Gear No. No. English Name Khmer name English Name Khmer name 1 Trawl Uon Ohs 7 Scomberomorus gill net Mong Trey Beka 2 Purse seine/Ring net Uon Tith 8 gill net Mong Trey Kamong Shrimp gill net 3 Anchovy encircling seine Uon Ka Koeum 9 Mong Bang Kear or Trammel net 4 Beach seine Uon Khow 10 Crab gill net Mong Kdam 5 Encircling seine Uon Houm 11 Horizontal longline Santouch Ro Noung 6 Gill net Mong Paehk 12 Clupea gill net Mong Trey Kbork (Source: DoF 2002)

The number of fishing gear units used in any given area varies according to the distribution and abundance of natural resources, as well as socioeconomic and market conditions. For example, dredging for short-neck clam began in Cambodia at the end of 1999 following identification of a market for this species in Thailand. Similarly, the intensity of small trawl fisheries increased in 1997, leading to serious concern for the longer-term sustainability of marine fish stocks and conflicts over resource use between small-scale and middle-scale fishers.

The use of trawl nets, mackerel encircling seines, and short-neck clam dredges is most common in Sihanoukville and Koh Kong as these areas have deep-water areas suitable for the use of these gear types. In Kep and Kampot, traditional fishing gear, including gill nets, crab nets, and longlines, are more commonly used.

Small-scale fisheries are those utilising traditional and/or passive fishing gear (Table 7), non-power boats, or power boats with a capacity lower than 5 HP. Generally, these fisheries operate in inshore waters up to 3 nautical miles from the shore and small-scale fishers are not required to pay tax.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – CAMBODIA 5

Table 7 Small-scale or gears used in the coastal waters of Cambodia.

No. English Name Khmer name No. English Name Khmer name Gill net (Mong Paehk) 1 Crab gill net Mong Kdam 3 Fish gill net Mong Paehk 2 Shrimp gill net Mong Bang Kear 4 Seabass gill net Mong Trey Spong Stationary Gear 5 trap Lop Meuk 8 Lop Kdam Roeusey 6 Lop Trey 9 Small winged set bag Pong Pang 7 Crab trap Lop Kdam 10 Circular net crab trap Lop Mong Kdam Mobile gear 11 Push net Thnorng Os Ky 13 Drift gill net Mong Bandet 12 Hook Santouch (Source: DoF 2002)

The total number of units for all types of gear commonly used in coastal Cambodia for each year from 1992 to 2001 is shown in Table 8.

Table 8 Number of units of fishing gears used in all coastal provinces and municipalities of Cambodia combined from 1992 to 2001.

Nº Fishing gears Unit 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

1 Trawl net Set 422 442 549 634 560 460 545 654 1,516 1,310 2 Purse seine Set 13 14 15 16 16 15 15 8 10 10 Anchovy 3 Set 13 13 9 15 10 2 - 3 5 3 encircling seine 4 Beach seine Set 18 19 6 6 1 26 7 20 26 21 5 Encircling seine Set 15 - - 6 1 26 7 7 7 2 6 Gill net m 65,180 8,940 6,730 29,991 31,491 13,779 6,200 190,730 231,835 325,500 7 Mackerel gill net m 3,700 9,800 36,050 12,050 15,550 131,220 140,500 198,200 178,300 64,700 Scomberomorus 8 m 31,403 31,202 59,595 7,000 51,300 66,800 85,000 140,100 148,000 184,000 gill net 9 Shrimp gill net m 114,705 93,450 110,950 161,486 694,563 469,100 469,050 996,055 653,890 323,200 10 Crab gill net m 43,852 32,100 37,450 95,728 580,439 393,200 426,000 538,545 961,370 635,200 11 Clupea gill net m 500 1,200 3,000 8,850 10,250 23,900 23,900 33,600 38,000 27,500 No. 12 Trap 60 637 2,277 1,902 26,761 23,200 23,242 33,960 51,249 66,255 trap Horizontal No. 13 16,000 760 920 1,950 14,620 4,750 4,750 8,600 15,360 15,600 longlines hook (Source: DoF 2002)

1.1.2.1 Trawl (Khmer name Uon Ohs)

Two types of trawl fishing is conducted in Cambodian waters, namely demersal otter board trawling and pair trawling. Trawl fishing was introduced to Cambodia in 1960 and was used to target a multitude of pelagic and demersal species (MoE 1998). Non-commercial species were usually discarded, although following the establishment of a fishmeal factory in 1993, trawl operators have begun targeting low value fish for use in the production of fishmeal. Low-value fish is composed of small-size fish that previously had no value in the market, non-edible species, and juveniles of economically important species that are unacceptable in the market. During the 1980s, catches of fish in Cambodia’s trawl fisheries contained about 30 to 40% low value fish, although low value fish now represents about 60 to 65% of the total catch.

Approximately 95% of trawl fishing vessels are single trawlers. They typically only spend one or two days fishing inshore or offshore waters during each fishing trip. Catches of target species are typically preserved with ice. Some commercial species are kept alive. Trawl fishing is more common in Sihanoukville (Table 9) as this municipality has a good road (national road number 4) connection with Phnom Penh. Furthermore, it has tourist facilities, electricity and many factories, including the fishmeal factory discussed above. Pair-trawling has been conducted illegally in Cambodian waters by both local and foreign fishers.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 6 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – CAMBODIA

Table 9 Number of trawl nets used in the coastal provinces and municipalities of Cambodia from 1992 to 2001 (set). Province/ 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Municipality Kep ------5 7 52 52 Kampot 31 16 5 186 186 20 30 22 89 89 Sihanoukville 227 242 276 262 244 226 296 283 656 756 Koh Kong 164 184 268 186 130 214 214 342 719 413 Total 422 442 549 634 560 460 545 654 1,516 1,310 (Source: DoF 2002)

1.1.2.2 Purse seine/ring net (Khmer name Uon Tith)

Two types of purse seine are used in Cambodian waters. Purse seining without the use of lights is a legal fishing method. Cambodian coastal fishers have used this gear for many years, in both shallow water and offshore areas. The use of light luring purse seines is illegal in Cambodian waters, although is a method used in offshore water areas of Cambodia largely by fishers from neighbouring countries.

The use of light luring purse seines in Cambodian waters is very difficult to control as fishers typically use high-powered vessels that can easily leave Cambodian waters upon sighting Cambodian fisheries inspection vessels. This fishing practice is legal in Thailand and Viet Nam.

Purse seines used in Cambodian waters typically have a mesh size of 1 cm. The main species caught using this gear type are pelagic fishes such as mackerel (i.e. Rastrelliger spp.), sardines, and other small fishes, although mackerel comprises around 80 to 90% of the total catch. Purse seines and anchovy encircling seines are operated in the same manner but differ in mesh size.

Cambodia’s purse seine fleet is based in Sihanoukville. The number of units of this gear in use has decreased (Table 10) due to overexploitation of the target species, and the increased use of pair trawls and light luring purse seines in the offshore waters of Cambodia. This gear type is now most commonly used at night, and most fishers using purse seines also use other fishing gear such as trawl or gill nets.

Table 10 Number of purse seine/ring nets used in the coastal provinces and municipalities of Cambodia from 1992 to 2001. (set) Province/ 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Municipality Kep ------Kampot ------

Sihanoukvill 13 14 15 16 16 15 15 8 10 10 e

Koh Kong ------Total 13 14 15 16 16 15 15 8 10 10 (Source: DoF 2002)

Other types of seine used in Cambodian waters are listed below.

Anchovy encircling seine (Khmer name Uon Ka Koeum) The use of anchovy encircling seines began in Cambodia during the 1960s. This gear type is used to catch anchovy during the daytime. This gear type is mostly used by fishers based in Sihanoukville and Koh Kong (Table 11), and is constructed using meshing similar to that of a mosquito net. Anchovy encircling seines are now rarely used due to the declining availability of target species, and increased prevalence of pair trawling and light luring purse seines.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – CAMBODIA 7

Table 11 Number of anchovy encircling seine nets used in the coastal provinces and municipalities of Cambodia from 1992 to 2001. (set)

Province/ 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Municipality Kep ------Kampot - - - 7 7 - - - - - Sihanoukville 1 - 1 1 1 1 - 1 3 3 Koh Kong 12 13 8 7 2 1 - 2 2 - Total 13 13 9 15 10 2 - 3 5 3 (Source: DoF 2002)

Beach seine (Khmer name Uon Khow) Beach seines are widely used in shallow water or along beaches. Fishers operate this gear with non- motorised boats or pull them along sandy beaches without the assistance of hauling devices. All beach seines used in coastal areas of Cambodia have the same design and are effective in capturing small fishes, including anchovy, sardine, and shrimp inhabiting shallow water areas with sandy substrate. This fishing gear is most commonly used by fishers based in Kampot province and Kep municipality (Table 12).

Table 12 Number of beach seines used in the coastal provinces and municipalities of Cambodia from 1992 to 2001. (set)

Province/ 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Municipality Kep ------3 3 3 2 Kampot 3 19 6 - - 22 - 13 19 19 Sihanoukville 14 - - 6 1 4 - - - - Koh Kong 1 - - - - - 4 4 4 - Total 18 19 6 6 1 26 7 20 26 21 (Source: DoF 2002)

Encircling seine (Khmer name Uon Houm) Fishers use encircling seines to capture a variety of fish species. The use of this gear relies on the deployment of an anchor lure, or a branch of a tree, to aggregate schools of fish. This fishing gear is used infrequently in Cambodian waters and only 2 units were recorded to be in use during 2001 (Table 13).

Table 13 Number of units of encircling seine used in coastal provinces and municipalities of Cambodia from 1992 to 2001. (set)

Province/ 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Municipality Kep ------3 3 3 2 Kampot - - - - - 22 - - - - Sihanoukville 14 - - 6 1 4 - - - - Koh Kong 1 - - - - - 4 4 4 - Total 15 - - 6 1 26 7 7 7 2 (Source: DoF 2002)

1.1.2.3 Gill net (Khmer name Mong Paehk)

Many types of gill net with various mesh sizes are used in Cambodian waters. The use of gillnets in Cambodia is common and they are typically used in inshore water areas to target a multitude of species. For example, drift gill nets are set just below the surface to target and catch various pelagic species, including mackerel, barracuda, , and trevally. Most gill nets are set on the bottom using anchors or heavily ballasted leadlines to target and catch a variety of demersal species. These fishing gears are used during the night and day, largely depending on the availability of target resources.

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Table 14 Number of units of gill net used in the coastal provinces and municipalities of Cambodia from 1992 to 2001. (metres)

Province/ 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Municipality Kep - - - - 500 700 800 1,000 1,000 4,200 Kampot 61,055 3,940 2,780 27,091 27,091 9,479 1,800 1,800 1,800 20,900 Sihanoukville 4,125 3,200 3,950 2,900 3,900 3,600 3,600 49,100 41,900 50,400 Koh Kong - 1,800 - - - - - 138,830 187,135 250,000 Total 65,180 8,940 6,730 29,991 31,491 13,779 6,200 190,730 231,835 325,500 (Source: DoF 2002)

Species-specific gill nets are also used in Cambodian waters. These fishing gear are typically named according to the species they are used to target.

Mackerel gill net (Khmer name Mong Trey Kamong) This fishing gear is designed to catch pelagic species, including mackerel, which represents more than 80 to 90% of the total catch in this gear. Article 27 of Cambodia's Fisheries Law (in Khmer called Kret Chhbab Lek 33 Kra. Chor), enacted on 9 March 1987, prohibits the fishing for mackerel from 15 January to 31 March each year, as it is believed this is the period in which mackerel . Most fishers use more than one gear type, enabling them to target other species during the closed season for mackerel. Mackerel gill nets are mainly used by fishers based in Sihanoukville municipality and Koh Kong province (Table 15).

Table 15 Number of units of mackerel gill net used in coastal provinces and municipalities of Cambodia from 1992 to 2001. (metres)

Province/ 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Municipality Kep ------Kampot - - 9,450 ------Sihanoukville 3,700 9,800 26,600 12,050 15,550 17,620 26,900 84,600 64,700 64,700 Koh Kong - - - - - 113,600 113,600 113,600 113,600 - Total 3,700 9,800 36,050 12,050 15,550 131,220 140,500 198,200 178,300 64,700 (Source: DoF 2002)

Scomberomorus gill net (Khmer name Mong Trey Beka ) This type of gill net is widely used in Sihanoukville municipality and Koh Kong province (Table 16). Single fishing boats use between 1 to 10km of net, depending on the size of the boat. The nets used by smaller vessels (10-90 HP) are approximately 9 m in depth, whilst those used by larger vessels (>90 HP) range between 9 and 18 m in depth. Scomberomorus gill nets are set on the seafloor to target and catch various species. The main species caught by this gill net type are Scomberomorus spp., scads, and .

Table 16 Number of units of Scomberomorus gill net used in the coastal provinces and municipalities of Cambodia from 1992 to 2001. (metres)

Province/ 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Municipality Kep ------Kampot - - - 1,200 1,200 - 8,700 - - - Sihanoukville 29,600 30,000 44,700 46,600 50,100 43,800 45,800 86,600 100,000 100,000 Koh Kong 1,800 1,200 14,895 1,200 32,100 23,000 30,500 53,500 48,000 84,000 Total 31,400 31,200 59,595 7,000 83,400 66,800 85,000 140,100 148,000 184,000 (Source: DoF 2002)

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Shrimp gill net or Trammel net (Khmer name Mong Bang Kear) Trammel nets are widely used throughout Cambodian waters and most commonly in Sihanoukville and Koh Kong province (Table 17). This gear type consists of two or three panels of netting of different mesh sizes. In a trammel net with three panels, the two outer panels typically have a mesh size of 8 to 10 cm, whilst the inner panel has a 3.8 to 4.2cm mesh size. Fishers use trammel nets to target and catch a variety of demersal species of all shapes and sizes, as this gear type is most often set on the seafloor and is not selective for fish size or shape. Trammel nets are considered highly effective fishing gear for shrimp, , and silver and black pomfrets.

Table 17 Number of units of shrimp gill net or trammel net used in the coastal provinces and municipalities of Cambodia from 1992 to 2001. (metres)

Province/ 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Municipality Kep 200 300 1,000 1,000 2,000 1,200 Kampot 9,775 4,050 1,600 13,143 13,143 10,500 9,750 4,100 4,100 27,100 Sihanoukville 102,905 86,800 109,350 135,200 168,700 145,700 145,700 121,900 104,900 104,900 Koh Kong 2,025 2,600 13,143 512,520 312,600 312,600 869,055 542,890 190,000 Total 114,705 93,450 110,950 161,486 694,563 469,100 469,050 996,055 653,890 323,200 (Source: DoF 2002)

Crab gill net (Khmer name Mong Kdam) This is another type of gill net constructed with various mesh sizes and sufficient ballast to enable it to be set on the seafloor of inshore water areas. Mesh sizes used range from 4 to 10cm depending on water depth or fishing area. Nets used in shallow water areas have mesh sizes from 4 to 8 cm and 80% of the nets have a mesh size of 6cm. Approximately 80 to 95% of total catches in this net type is swimming crab (Portunis pelagicus). For deeper inshore waters, a mesh size of 8-10 cm is used and 80 to 90% of the catch is crab. The length of crab gill nets used in coastal areas is shown in Table 18.

Table 18 Number of units of crab net used in coastal provinces and municipalities of Cambodia from 1992 to 2001. (metres)

Province/ 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Municipality Kep 300 500 20,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 Kampot 34,042 11,500 21,450 30,364 30,364 10,900 24,200 40,755 27,600 27,600 Sihanoukville 7,450 18,000 16,000 35,000 38,500 87,500 87,500 219,500 204,000 225,000 Koh Kong 2,360 2,600 30,364 511,275 294,300 294,300 268,290 719,770 372,600 Total 43,852 32,100 37,450 95,728 580,439 393,200 426,000 538,545 961,370 635,200 (Source: DoF 2002)

Clupea gill net (Khmer name Mong Trey Kbork) This is yet another type of gill net constructed with various mesh sizes for use in shallow or inshore waters. It has a mesh size of 3.5cm and is used to capture demersal and pelagic fishes, especially Clupea spp.. Single small-scale fishing boats carry 150 to 200m of this gill net and it is used throughout the year, mainly by fishers based in Sihanoukville municipality (Table 19).

Table 19 Number of units of Clupea gill net used in coastal provinces and municipalities of Cambodia from 1992 to 2001 (metres).

Province/ 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Municipality Kep 2,500 Kampot 5,700 7,600 7,600 Sihanoukville 400 1,200 3,000 8,850 10,250 15,900 15,900 19,900 19,900 19,900 Koh Kong 100 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000 Total 500 1,200 3,000 8,850 10,250 23,900 23,900 33,600 38,000 27,500 (Source: DoF 2002)

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1.1.2.4 Other (push nets, trolling, hand line, long line, trap)

Push nets (Khmer name Chhep Yun) Push nets are recognised as a destructive fishing gear and it is prohibited to deploy this gear using an engine-powered vessel in Cambodia. Despite this, the illegal use of push nets is widespread. Push nets usually have a mesh size smaller than 1 cm, and are unselective in terms of the size and species of fish caught. The use of push nets in areas of sensitive habitat areas is thought to be a key contributing factor to seagrass loss in Cambodia.

Traps (Khmer name Lop) There are many types of traps used in Cambodian waters. They are constructed from different types of material. For example, crab traps (Khmer name Lop Kdarm), previously made from bamboo and very big, are now made from netting and are collapsible. This enables a single fisher to use more than 100 traps. Bamboo fish traps (Khmer name Lop Trey) are also commonly used. This gear type is constructed in a variety of sizes and is used in conjunction with a bamboo-fender.

Octopus and squid traps (Khmer name Lop Meuk) are used widely in Cambodia, and bamboo framed octopus and squid traps are common small-scale fishing gear. In some areas fishers have begun covering trap frames with netting in order to catch fish. The data recorded by the DoF does not differentiate between trap types (Table 20).

Table 20 The number of traps (crab trap, squid trap and fish trap combined) used in the coastal provinces and municipalities of Cambodia from 1992 to 2001.

Province/ 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Municipality Kep - - - - 100 200 1,000 500 11,550 10,000 Kampot - - 997 151 151 2,303 1,745 1,745 1,745 6,175 Sihanoukville - 320 1,280 1,600 1,450 1,620 1,420 2,300 2,080 2,080 Koh Kong 60 317 151 25,060 19,077 19,077 29,415 35,874 48,000 Total 60 637 2,277 1,902 26,761 23,200 23,242 33,960 51,249 66,255 (Source: DoF 2002)

Horizontal longlines (Khmer name Santouch Ro Noung) This is the simplest of fishing gear and requires only a line and a baited hook. The line is equipped with hooks, which may be single or multiple, big or small, depending on the species desired. Horizontal longlines are commonly used in Sihanoukville and Koh Kong (Table 21).

Table 21 Number of units of horizontal longlines used in the coastal provinces and municipalities of Cambodia from 1992 to 2001 (hooks).

Province/ 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Municipality Kep ------Kampot ------Sihanoukville - 750 590 1,950 1,650 1,450 1,450 7,500 14,150 14,300 Koh Kong 16,000 10 330 12,970 3,300 3,300 1,100 1,210 1,300 Total 16,000 760 920 1,950 14,620 4,750 4,750 8,600 15,360 15,600 (Source: DoF 2002)

Ranking by type of fishing gear The relative importance of fishing gear types to fishing communities and fish production has not been investigated in Cambodia. The Coastal Zone Management Project ranked major species by specific fishing gears (Table 22).

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Table 22 The species targeted by different fishing gears in Cambodia.

Fishing gear Target group Secondary group English Name Khmer Name Rastrelliger kanagurta, Mong Trey Mackerel gill net Rastrelliger brachysoma Megalaspis cordyla, Thunnus Kamong tonggol Anchovy encircling Uon Ka Koeum Stolephorus indicus seine Shrimp gill net Mong Bang Kear Penaeus merguiensis Scomberomorus guttatus, Thannus , Lutjajisdae, thannus, Ariidae thalassinus, Nemipteridae, , Eleuteronema tetradactilum, Liza Drepanidae, Siganidae, Fish gill net Mong Trey argentea, Valamugil ceheli, Rastrelliger Trichiuridae, Stromatoidae, brachysoma, Rastrelliger kanagurta, Chirocentridae and Megalaspis cordyla, Formio niger, Lates . calcarifer, Dasyatidae Crab gill net Mong Kdam Portunus spp., Scylla serrata Crab trap LopKdam Portunus spp., Scylla serrata Squid trap Lop Meuk Sepioteuthis lessoniana, Loligo spp. Fish stake trap Mixed fish species Santouch Ro Orectolobidae, Carcharinidae, Horizontal longline Noung Dasyatidae, Serranidae, Mixed fish, Metapenaeus spp. Push net Chhep Yun Sepiolidae, Octopus spp. Chhneang os Shellfish dredge Arcidae, Veneridae khchorng Beach seine net Uon Khow Mixed fish, Sepiolidae, Loligo spp. Note: For common names of the species mentioned in Table 22 see Table 28. (Source: MoE 1996) effort

The number of fishing vessels in Cambodian waters fluctuates according to the distribution and abundance of natural resources and broader socioeconomic, market and political conditions. Unfortunately, existing data does not enable the estimation of the number of fishing vessels by the different types of fishing gears used. This is because each fishing vessel may operate more than one type of fishing gear and they change the type of gear used according to the season. The number of fishing vessels by coastal province and municipality is summarised in Tables 23 to 26.

Table 23 Number of marine fishing vessels in Kampot province, Cambodia.

Boats without Boats with engines engines and Year less than 5T <10 HP 10-30 HP 30-50 HP >50 HP Total Number Stock Unit HP Unit HP Unit HP Unit HP Unit HP 1992 200 - - - 227 - - - - - 227 - 1993 100 0.2-0.5 64 227 35 560 - - 2 460 101 1,247 1994 110 - 60 - 23 - - - - - 83 - 1995 ------1996 100 - 50 - 30 - 25 - - - 105 - 1997 110 50 - 30 - 25 - - - 105 - 1998 110 110 119 810 102 1,408 - - - - 221 2,218 1999 120 - 67 392 111 1,471 - - - - 178 1,863 2000 136 - 67 392 111 1,471 - - - - 178 1,863 2001 133 66 151 823 252 3,379 1 40 12 1,154 416 5,396 (Source: DoF 2002)

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Table 24 Number of marine fishing vessels in Sihanoukville municipality, Cambodia.

Boats without Marine boats with engines engines and Year less than 5T <10 HP 10-30 HP 30-50 HP >50 HP Total Number Stock Unit HP Unit HP Unit HP Unit HP Unit HP

1992 432 - - - 720 - 187 - - - 907 - 1993 452 0.2-0.5 - - 552 52,274 163 25,273 - - 715 77,547 1994 391 - - - 656 - 177 - - - 833 - 1995 423 - - - 646 5,900 174 27,580 - - 820 33,480 1996 180 - - - 692 6,720 167 26,211 - - 859 32,931 1997 310 - - - 654 7,265 150 24,249 - - 804 31,514 1998 237 47 198 1,208 467 6,043 23 875 162 26,630 850 34,756 1999 - - - - 855 10,736 245 34,928 - - 1,100 45,664 2000 - - 144 894 727 10,111 33 1,223 266 37,417 1,170 49,645 2001 286 57 167 1,054 809 11,503 33 1,223 269 37,415 1,278 51,195 (Source: DoF 2002)

Table 25 Number of marine fishing vessels in Koh Kong province, Cambodia.

Boats without Marine boats with engines engines Year and less than 5T <10 HP 10-30 HP 30-50 HP >50 HP Total Number Stock Unit HP Unit HP Unit HP Unit HP Unit HP

1992 - - - - 215 1,076 - - 178 27,765 393 28,841 1993 330 0.2-0.51,018 4,120 14 348 87 6,142 111 24,551 1,230 35,161 1994 245 - 1,207 - 26 - 96 - 182 60,200 1,511 60,200 1995 - - 260 1,82012 237 71 5,567 138 29,752 481 37,376 1996 2,932 - 282 2,138 132 3,460 8 356 156 26,158 578 32,112 1997 71 - 2,110 22,495311 6,097 31 1,275 140 18,855 2,592 48,722 1998 71 - 2,110 - 311 - 31 - 140 - 2,592 - 1999 - - 1,622 9,759562 7,921 34 1,240 225 35,972 2,443 54,892 2000 19 - 2,787 17,902406 5,658 32 1,410 271 31,390 3,496 56,360 2001 71 - 2,518 14,723597 8,446 93 2,920 217 25,861 3,425 51,950 (Source: DoF 2002)

Table 26 Number of marine fishing vessels in Kep municipality, Cambodia. Boats without Marine boats with engines engines and Year less than 5T <10 HP 10-30 HP 30-50 HP >50 HP Total Number Stock Unit HP Unit HP Unit HP Unit HP Unit HP

1996 100 - 60320 ------60 320 1997 110 - 60 ------60 - 1998 110 110 61305 8 116 - - - - 69 421 1999 120 - 60300 4 60 - - - - 64 360 2000 136 - 135675 58 870 - - - - 193 1,545 2001 133 66 140700 52 780 - - - - 192 1,480 (Source: DoF 2002)

1.1.3 Economic value of catch (estimated or actual)

According to the marine fisheries statistics in Table 1, as well as a survey by Tana and Todd (2002), it can be estimated that the total volume of marine capture fisheries production in Cambodia is between 30,000 to 50,000 tonnes per year.

Seafood from Cambodia is exported to several countries in South-east Asia, including China, Thailand, Viet Nam, and . Thus far, many kinds of have been exported (Table 27).

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Approximately 15 to 25% of the total marine catch is exported annually. It should be noted that these exports are almost exclusively unprocessed (live or chilled) products.

Table 27 Volume and values of marine fishery product exports from Cambodia in 2000. Export Items volume Total cost (US$) Total export value (US$) Value added (US$) (tonnes) Chilled shrimp 500 625,000 875,000 - 1,000,000 250,000 - 375,000 Chilled crab meat 500 1,500,000 2,250,000 750,000 Frozen pealed shrimp 320 2,400,000 3,000,000 600,000 Frozen squid/octopus 140 140,000 250,000 110,000 Live ornamental fish 10 19,000 - 20,000 29,000 - 31,200 10,000 - 11,200 Live mantis shrimp 10 44,000 66,000 22,000 Live short neck clam 5,000 1,250,000 - 1,500,000 2,500,000 - 2,750,000 1,000,000 - 1,250,000 Live blood cockle spat 500 220,000 475,000 255,000 Dried seaweed 120 50,000 72,000 22,000 Total 7,100 6,250,000 - 6,500,000 9,500,000 - 9,900,000 4,770,000 - 5,420,000 Note: Export values expressed as Free on Board (F.O.B.). (Source: Tana and Todd 2002)

1.1.4 Importance of the fisheries sector in terms of employment and dependence

The coastal population of Cambodia is approximately 1 million people. Estimates of the number of people involved in coastal and marine fisheries differ widely. One estimate is that about 40% of the coastal population are full-time fishers and 30% are part-time fishers. Another estimate is that only 10% of the coastal population is involved in fisheries, including processing and marketing. The majority of fishers are operating on the small-scale or subsistence level, and these fishers do not need to be licensed. Moreover, the majority of fisher households also have small farming plots. The civil war and the Khmer Rouge regime severely disrupted the traditional fishing community system in Cambodia. During this period, coastal and marine fisheries were almost completely abandoned and only rice farming was encouraged. In recent years, there has been a significant migration of poor people from inland rural areas to the . These people mostly engage in fisheries because it requires little investment and is open access, although they typically have no experience in marine fisheries.

Information regarding the socioeconomic dependence of Cambodians on marine fisheries is scarce. In terms of income, people in the coastal provinces have average per capita incomes slightly below the national average of US$21 per month and somewhat above the average for the rural population (Ministry of Planning 1999). Most households obtain income from more than one occupation, and there are no estimates of the number of households with fishing as their main source of income.

Cambodian people traditionally prefer freshwater fish to seafood. This is true even in the coastal areas. It has been estimated that only about 20% of products from marine capture fisheries are used for local consumption. The shrimp fishery developed rapidly after 1981, but declined dramatically during the 1990s. Most shrimp fishers changed from using trawl nets to gill nets, although catches are continuing to decline. Due to a lack of infrastructure and the taxation system, a large part of the marine catch in Koh Kong province is (illegally, and hence unrecorded) exported directly to Thailand. There are very few facilities for processing of seafood and, with the exception of a Hong Kong based company operating a factory in Sihanoukville for production and export of frozen shrimp, most are operating on a small scale. The shrimp factory only operates during the shrimp season. It has about 100 local employees, mostly women. Other industries include fish-sauce production and processing of steamed . There is also a fishmeal factory in Sihanoukville, which produces fishmeal from dried trash fish, and most of the employees are women.

The Cambodian fishing fleet is generally low technology, and most vessels operate only in inshore waters on one-day trips. In addition, they use only ice for storing the catch. Interest from foreign and local private investors in Cambodia’s fisheries has mostly focused on freshwater fisheries, due to the importance and value assigned to this sector. There is very little private sector investment in Cambodia’s marine fisheries, with most vessels operated by the owner and a hired crew.

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A social survey in Kampot province found that from among 26 fishing communities, 70% of 7,001 households were involved in marine fishing. Those families could earn an average monthly income of US$25 to 30 from fishing, and a maximum of US$64, depending on their ability, capacity, and financial resources. Incomes are better for fishing communities in Sihanoukville and Koh Kong than those of the Kampot social survey group, due to the availability of wider and more productive fishing grounds (Tana and Todd 2002).

2. SPECIES OF REGIONAL, GLOBAL AND/OR TRANSBOUNDARY SIGNIFICANCE

According to the fisheries statistics collected from provincial and municipal Fisheries Offices and the DoF, catches are not sorted by species, although some species are sorted by higher taxon. Therefore, it is difficult to identify trends relating to species of transboundary significance and effects of exploitation and management. Based on existing data and information collected by the DoF, it may be concluded that Cambodian waters are characterised by high levels of species diversity, and that this diversity is similar to that observed for marine areas of other regional countries. According to Tana (1999), Cambodia’s commercially important fish species include about 30 species from the Mackerel, Scad, Anchovy and Snapper groups. Those species are abundant from September to January, whereas the peak period for Penaeus and Metapenaeus is May-August. Blue swimming crab, squid and cuttlefish are available throughout the year. There is a diverse range of important mollusc species in Cambodia, and the most important commercial species, such as green mussel and oysters are mainly found in the Koh Kong . Blood cockle is abundant in Thmar Sar of Kampong Som Bay and Trapeang Ropov of Kampot Bay. Marine mammals and reptiles, including dugong, sea turtles and dolphins, also inhabit Cambodian waters. Dugong is usually found in sea grass beds of Kampot bay from November to December, whilst a variety of dolphin species are present throughout the year within the region. Sea turtles, especially Hawksbill, Green, and Loggerhead turtles are observed in inshore waters adjacent to nesting beaches.

2.1 Ranking of Importance in Terms of Landings, Value, Status and Food Security 2.1.1 Landings As mentioned previously, data on landings is not broken down by species or species group. The total catch has been broken down by province as shown in Tables 2 to 5. It is very difficult to make any inferences from these data as the changes may reflect changes in effort and market demand, rather than changes in stock availability. For example, catch of low value fish in Koh Kong province decreased drastically in the 1990s, whereas it increased in the other provinces. This probably coincided with the collapse of shrimp farming in Koh Kong and the declining catches may not be indicative of localised depletion of finfish stocks in Koh Kong. Overall, finfish rank highest, followed by low-value fish, shrimps, , and crabs. 2.1.2 Local Market Value (local currency, year) Informal surveys of market prices for marine fishes, crustaceans and molluscs (Table 28) have provided values in the range of 1,000-28,000 Riels per kg for fish species, and 500-50,000 Riels per kg for invertebrates (3,800 Riels = 1 US$). These prices only cover species used for human consumption. Given that up to 60% of the catch is low-value fish, and further assuming an average price for edible species of US$1 per kg, the total value of the annual marine catch is estimated at US$15 to 30 million. This value does not include the returns for fisheries products landed outside the country (illegally) nor the value to the subsistence or artisanal sector. Only a few species of fish, molluscs, and crustaceans have high value in the domestic market. The domestic market for reef fish, especially , is very strong. Reef fish are also an important export commodity. As such, reef fish catches have grown rapidly in Cambodia. Price for reef fish in Cambodia’s domestic markets is responsive to market conditions in Hong Kong, Singapore, Thailand, , and , as these countries represent the major export markets for Cambodian seafood. Field studies conducted in Sihanoukville municipality by Jensen & Try (2002) found over 21 fish species, 12 bivalve species, 7 gastropod species, 10 crab species, and 1 horseshoe crab species with high value in the domestic market (Table 28). Among the molluscs and crustaceans, cephalopods, short-neck clam, shrimp, mantis shrimp, mud crab and swimming crab are the most valuable products domestically, as local price is responsive to price for these products in international markets. International demand and price for these products continues to grow.

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Table 28 The marine fishery resources of high value in the Psar Loeur Market, Sihanoukville, Cambodia in 2002. (Approximate Exchange Rate: 3850 Riel/USD) Fishes Price No. Scientific name Common name Khmer name (Riel/Kg) 1 Cromileptes altivelis (Valenciennes, 1828) Humphack Trey Tok Ke Chrouk 24,000-28,000 2 annularis (Bloch, 1787) Bluering angelfish Trey Me Ham Boa 23,000-25,000 3 Epinephelus coioides (Hamilton, 1822) Orangespotted grouper Trey Tok Ke Koa 22,000-28,000 4 Pampus argenteus (Euphrasen, 1788) Silver pomfret Trey Chab Sor 20,000-26,000 5 Epinephelus faciatus (Forsskål, 1775) Blacktip grouper Trey Tok Ke Kra horm 18,000-20,000 6 Plectropomus oligocanthus (Bleeker, 1854) Highfin grouper Trey Tok Ke Uch Kiev 18,000-25,000 7 Epinephelus quoyanus (Valenciennes, 1830) Longfin grouper Trey Tok Ke Para 11,000-16,000 8 Diagramma pictum (Thumberg, 1792) Yellowdot sweetlips Trey Ka chii 10,000-15,000 9 Pampus chinensis (Euphrasen, 1788) Chinese silver pomfret Trey Chab Khmao 4,000-6,000 10 Atelomycterus marmotatus (Bennett, 1830) Coral catshark Trey Chhlam Khla 2,000-3,000 11 Chiloscyllium punetatum Müller & Henle, 1838 Brown-banded catshark Trey Chham Chhmar 2,000-3,000 12 Scarus quoyi Valenciennes, 1840 Quoy’s Trey Sek Khiev 2,000-2,500 13 Himantura imbricata (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Scaly whipray Trey Bor Bel 1,500-2,000 14 Sargocentron rubrum (Forsskål, 1775) Redcoat Trey Kror horm sraka tom 1,500-2,000 15 Strabozebrians cancellatus (McCulloch, 1916) Harrowed Sole Trey An Dat Chhek 1,500-2,500 16 Siganus virgatus (Valenciennes,) Doublebarred spinefoot Trey Korn Taing Tmor 1,500-2,200 17 Cephalopholis formosa (Shaw & Nodder, 1812) Bluefined grouper Trey Tok Ke Kroeum 1,300-1,800 18 Diploprion bifaciatum Kuhl & Van Hasselt, 1828 Yellow emperor Trey Sek Loeung 1,100-1,500 19 Siganus argenteus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) Silver spinefoot Trey Korn Tang Pe 1,100-1,500 20 Siganus canaliculatus (Park, 1797) Whitespotted spinefoot Trey Korn Tang Kro Ub 1,100-1,500 21 Siganus guttatus (Bloch, 1727) Goldenspotted spinefoot Trey Korn Tang Phoeung 1,100-1,500 (Source: Jensen and Try 2002) Bivalves Price No. Scientific name Common name Khmer name (Riel/Kg) 1 Anadara nodifera (Martens, 1860) Nodular ark Kreng Chhiem 1,800-3,000 2 Amusium pleuronectes (Linnaeus, 1758) Asian moon scallop Khchorng plate 1,800-2,500 3 Meretrix lyrata (Sowerby, 1851) Lyrate hard clam Kreng Sor 1,500-2,500 4 Paphia undulata (Born, 1778) Undulate venus Krum Kror Lar Hol 1,500-2,500 5 Scapharca inaequivalvis (Bruquière, 1789) Inequivalve ark Kreng Chheim Meat Viech 1,500-2,500 6 Anadara binakayanensis (Faustino, 1932) Globose ark Kreng Chheim Mor Mis 1,500-2,500 7 Pteria penguin (Röding, 1798) Penguin wing oyster Krum se 1,500-2,000 8 Pinna bicolor Gmelin, 1791 Bicolor pen shell Krum Chorb Chik 1,500-2,000 9 Meretrix lusoria (Röding, 1798) Poker-chip venus Ngeiv Hol 1,000-2,000 10 Perna viridis (Linnaeus, 1758) Green mussel Krum Cham Puch Tea 500-1,000 11 Donax cuneatus Linnaeus, 1758 Cradle or cuneate donax Ngeav Sor 500-1,500 12 Polymesoda erosa (Solander, 1786) Common geloina Ngeav Puok 500-1,500 (Source: Jensen and Try 2002) Gastropods Price No. Scientific name Common name Khmer name (Riel/individual) 1 Turbo marmoratus Linnaeus, 1758 Green Turbo or Green snail Khchorng Prak 15,000-30,000 2 Haliotis asinina Linnaeus, 1758 Donkey’s ear Khchorng Pav Hoeur Vieng 7,000-10,000 3 Haliotis ovina Gmelin, 1791 Oval abalone Khchorng Pav Joeur Khey 7,000-10,000 4 Turbo petholatus Linnaeus, 1758 Tapestry turban Khchorng Kror La Proum 3,000-6,000 5 Strombus canarium Linnaeus, 1758 Dog Khchorng Choeung Muoy 2,000-4,000 6 Babylonia areolata (Link, 1807) Maculated ivory whelk Khchorng Pong Krouch 1,500-3,000 7 melo (Lightfoot, 1786) Indian volute Khchorng Dong 1,500-3,000 (Source: Jensen and Try 2002)

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Marine Crabs & Horseshoe crab Price No. Scientific name Common name Khmer name (Riel/Kg) 1 Scylla serrata (Forsskål, 1775) Giant mud crab Kdam Thor 45,000-50,000 2 Charybdis feriatus (Linnaeus, 1758) Crucifix crab Kdam Khlar 25,000-40,000 3 Thalamita crenata (Latreille, 1829) Crenate swimming crab Kdam Thor Kiev 25,000-40,000 4 Charybdis anisodon (de Haan, 1850) Two spined arm swimming crab Kdam Dorng Kieb Sor 7,000-20,000 5 Portunus pelagicus (Linnaeus, 1758) Flower crab or swimming crab Kdam Se 7,000-20,000 6 Tachypleus gigas (Müller, 1785) Traingular-tail horseshoe crab Balang Kak 7,000-15,000 7 Charybdis natator (Herbst, 1789) Hairy swimming crab Kdam Neak 4,000-6,000 8 Episesarma singaporenes (Tweedie, 1936) Singapore vinegar crab Kdam Chorr 4,000-6,000 9 Episesarma versicolor (Tweedie, 1940) Violet vinegar crab Kdam Chorr 4,000-6,000 10 Podophthalmus vigil (Fabricius, 1798) Sentinel crab Kdam Phneak Vieng 3,000-6,000 11 Ozius quttatus Milne Edward, 1834 Spottedbelly rock crab Kdam Pkor lienn 1,500-2,500 (Source: Jensen and Try 2002) A socio-economic survey conducted in Kep, Sihanoukville and Koh Kong found that the price of commercial fisheries products differs from one location to another, and from one year to the next (CZM 1999). The prices for fish, shrimp and crabs, in the villages selected for the surveys, showed significant variation due to different size and species compositions of landings. Futhermore, the prices observed were lower than those of the actual market, because the villages involved in the survey have monopoly position traders (Khmer and Thai) who come to buy different products. The villagers do not have other options for selling their products. Some fishers have their own traders, as the traders and fishers can sell or buy products from one another on a credit basis. In these cases, the fishers know that the price they obtain for the fishery products sold to traders are lower than the prices they could obtain in the market. However, they have little choice other than to continue on this basis as they rely on the availability of credit. The villages involved in the study also have some small processing factories (e.g. for fish sauce and for packing shrimps, crabmeat and fishes for export to Hong Kong, Taiwan and Macau). In Sihanoukville: Six villages participated in this survey, including Village I, Village II, Bot Korki, and Koh Khchorng villages. The results from the survey are shown in Table 29. Price was not collected at the species level. Table 29 The prices of marine fisheries products in six villages of Sihanoukville, Cambodia in 1998. Fish Mantis shrimp Blood Cockle Squid Village Crab (Riel/Kg) Shrimp (Riel/Kg) (Riel/Kg) (Riel/Kg) (Riel/Kg) (Riel/Kg) Village I, quarter III 600-40,000 2,000-4,000 10,000-40,000 - - 3,000-4,000 Village I, quarter I 300-30,000 - 1,800-40,000 - - 2,000-7,000 Village II, O Tress F: 7,000-30,000 100-6,000 1,300-2,000 22,000-30,000 - 500-3,000 quarter D: 22,000-30,000 Village I, Tomnup Rolork 200-7,000 1,000-3,300 1,000-20,000 1,000-8,000 - 500-3,000 Thmei quarter Bot Korki 200-4,000 2,000-14,000 5,000-30,000 - 700-1,500 3,000-3,500 Koh Khchorng 300-8,000 2,000-15,000 5,000-35,000 - 1,000-2,000 - (F: Fresh shrimp, D: Dried shrimp) In Kep municipality: 5 villages participated in the survey, namely Kep, Angkaul, Thmei, O Krosar and Ampeng (Table 30). Table 30 The prices of marine fisheries products in five villages of Kep municipality, Cambodia in 1998.

Village Fish (Riel/Kg) Crab (Riel/Kg) Shrimp (Riel/Kg) Squid (Riel/Kg)

Kep 300-3,000 F: 1,500-2,500 7,000-1,7000 2,000-3,000 Angkaul 1,000-3,000 F: 3,000-3,500 1,000-13,000 - Thmei 300-3,000 F: 1,000-3,500 5,000-10,000 2,000-5,000 O Krosa 300-5,000 F: 1,000-3,000 800-8,000 2,000-5,000 F: 800-1,300 Ampeng 200-3,000 1,000-15,000 - M: 3,800 (F: fresh; M: meat)

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In Koh Kong: 3 villages participated in the survey, namely Koh Sdech, Chhroy Svaiy Khang Lech and Chhroy Phroh (Table 31).

Table 31 The prices of marine fisheries products in three villages of Koh Kong province, Cambodia in 1998. Mud crab Squid Village Fish(Riel/Kg) Crab(Riel/Kg) Shrimp (Riel/Kg) (Riel/Kg) (Riel/Kg) Koh Sdaech 1,500- 5,000 F: 1,500-4,000 - 4,000-33,000 1,000-5,500 Chhroy Svaiy M:4,000-7,000 800-2,500 7,000-10,000 7,000-16,000 500-10,000 Khang Lech F: 6,000 M: 4,000-5,000 Chhroy Phroh 300-3,000 4,000-17,000 4,000-17,000 2,500 F: 2,000 Note: all expenditure in Koh Kong involved Thai Baht (1 Thai Baht = 100 Riel)

2.1.3 Status Many species of marine living resources are under threat from human activities and natural phenomena. These species require protection and conservation for future generations. The DoF considers the CITES resolution as a priority. Therefore, in order to manage, conserve and protect these resources, the DoF has qualitatively studied marine species diversity in Cambodia. However, there is insufficient information to determine the status of most marine species in Cambodia, making the classification of species as endangered, threatened or rare difficult. Some species of fish, reptiles, marine mammals, and cnidarians () listed in CITES have been recognised as endangered species and are protected under national law. Several listed species occuring in Cambodian waters are described below. Table 32 summarises the species occurring in Cambodian waters that were listed on the IUCN Red List in 2003.

Marine reptiles Marine reptiles were studied in Cambodian waters during the early 1940s by Bourret (1941) and Le Poulain (1941). These studies concerned the exploitation, trade, consumption and cultural value of these species. According to Groombridge and Luxmoore (1989), and Tana (1997), only two species of sea turtle have been found in Cambodia, namely the hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) and green turtle (Chelonia mydas). However, a field survey conducted by Try (1999) indicates that there are five species of sea turtle in Cambodia, namely the olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta), green turtle (Chelonia mydas), and leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea). Recent surveys resulted in the observation of a number of marine reptiles, including crocodiles and 3 species of sea turtles (hawksbill turtle, green turtle and leatherback turtle), 2 of which (the hawksbill turtle and green turtle) nest on Cambodia’s inshore and offshore islands. The single crocodile was observed in the coastal area around Sre Ambel. Information from local fishers suggests that this was either the coastal crocodile species (Crocodylus porosus) or the Siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis).

Marine mammals There have been few studies of marine mammals in Cambodia. Tana (1997) reported that there are three species of marine mammals in Cambodian coastal waters, including the Irrawadi dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris), Spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris) and Dugong (Dugong dugon). According to a recent study, there are 12 species of marine mammals of which 11 species are cetaceans (whales, dolphins, etc.) and 1 dugong (Annex 4) (Beasley et al. 2001). Longdy (2002) mentioned that otter had been observed in Koh Kong province, although no information exists regarding otter population size in that area.

Marine fishes Several species of sharks, rays and bony fishes occurring in Cambodian waters have been included in the IUCN Red List, however, there is a paucity of information regarding their local status. Except for the groupers, there is no specific targeting of listed species in Cambodia.

Cnidaria According to Tana (1997), 24 species of hermatypic corals and 14 species of soft corals have been identified in Cambodian waters. This figure is very low if compared to neighbouring countries. According to an unpublished report of Jensen and Try (2002), the number of hard coral species is 58 (probably

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including non-hermatypic species) and 30 species of soft coral. Corals are threatened by destructive fishing methods (dynamite), collection for sale to tourists, as well as their crushing for use in the filtration of water used in holding tanks for live seafood species (fishes, mantis shrimps and slipper lobsters).

Table 32 Threatened or near threatened marine species in Cambodian waters. Occurrence in IUCN Species Common name Cambodia (Jensen & category Try, 2002) Chelonia mydas Green turtle common, nesting En Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill turtle present, nesting Cr Caretta caretta Loggerhead turtle present? (unconfirmed) En Lepidochelys olivacea Olive ridley present? (unconfirmed) En Dermochelys coriacea Leatherback turtle present, rare Cr Batagur baska terrapin or Royal terrapin present, rare Cr Feresa attenuata Pygmy killer whale present DD Grampus griseus Grey dolphin present DD Lagenodelphis hosei Fraser's dolphin present DD Neophocaena phocaenoides Black finless porpoise present DD Orcaella brevirostris Irrawadi dolphin present DD Sousa chinensis Indo-Pacific Humpback Dolphin present DD Stenella longirostris Spinner dolphin present LR/cd Tursiops aduncus Indian (as T. truncatus) DD Dugong dugon Dugong present Vu Atelomycterus marmoratus Coral catshark ? NT Carcharhinus amblyrhynchoides Graceful shark ? LR/nt Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos Grey reef shark ? LR/nt Carcharhinus dussumieri Whitecheek shark ? NT Carcharhinus leucas Bull shark ? LR/nt Carcharhinus limbatus Blacktip shark present NT Carcharhinus longimanus Oceanic whitetip shark ? LR/nt Carcharhinus melanopterus Blacktip reef shark ? LR/nt Chiloscyllium indicum Slender bamboo shark present NT Chiloscyllium punctatum Brownbanded bamboo shark present NT Galeocerdo cuvier Tiger shark present, rare? LR/nt oxyrhinchus Shortfin mako present, rare? LR/nt Prionace glauca Blue shark ? LR/nt Pristis zijsron Green sawfish ? En Rhincodon typus Whale shark present, rare Vu Scoliodon laticaudus Spadenose shark present LR/nt Sphyrna lewini Scalloped hammerhead present LR/nt Stegostoma fasciatum Leopard shark present Vu Triaenodon obesus Whitetipped reef shark ? LR/nt Aetomylaeus nichofii Banded eagle ray present Vu Mobula japanica Japanese devilray (as Manta birostris) NT Tæniura lymma Bluespotted fantail present, by-catch NT Hippocampus kuda Seahorses present (+2 other species) Vu Cephalopholis boenack Chocolate hind present DD Cromileptes altivelis Humpback seabass present DD Source: Jensen and Try (2002) and IUCN (2003)

2.1.4 Food security (locally)

Identification of the fish species important for food security is difficult, as coastal Cambodians typically select species of lowest market value for consumption purposes, including high value species of low quality (not fresh). High value species, including grouper, seabass, and mackerel are mostly exported to foreign markets. Cambodia has a richness of inland fisheries resources, which generally have lower prices than marine fisheries products. Information regarding the contribution of marine fisheries to food security in Cambodia is scarce.

2.2 Biology and Ecology of the Priority Species

Fish A study identified 435 marine fish species from 202 genera and 97 families in Cambodian waters. It is estimated that approximately 70% of the annual catch is dominated by Atule mate (yellowtail scad), Selar crumennophthalmus (bigeye scad), Decapterus maruadsi (round scad) and other species of (pony fishes), Scombridae (, mackerels) and Lutjanids (snappers).

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Elasmobranchiata (rays and sharks) represented 5.6% of the total catch. A small component of the total catch in terms of volume included other unidentified fish species and invertebrates. Large fish including Lutjanidae (snappers), Terapontidae (grunters), Scomberomorus spp. (king mackerels), Thunnus spp. (tunas), (black pomfrets), pinnatus, and Rachycentron canadum (trevally) were abundant in catches from shallow water areas (20-30m depth). Mackerels and dominated catches in the northeast part, and Leiognathidae dominated in the southeast part of the Gulf. Stingray occurred throughout the Gulf during the research period (Tana 1996). There were 33 fish species that were common in the catches, although only 5 species were very abundant, namely Megalaspis cordyla (hardtail scads), Scomberomorus commersoni (Spanish mackerel), Rastrelliger brachysoma (short-bodied mackerel), Rastrelliger kanagurta (Indian mackerel) and Atule mate (yellowtail scad). In Khmer, the above species are called trey kantuy roeung, trey sampan, trey camong or phlathu, trey palang and trey kalang, respectively (Tana 1997). According to Tana (1999), another 39 fish species are present in Cambodian waters. Most of these fishes are coral and rocky reef dwelling species, such as groupers, parrot fishes and scorpion fishes. The study of Jensen and Try (2002) identified an additional 17 fish species. A further 80 species have been collected although are yet to have been identified. These studies indicate that 520 fish species have been recorded in Cambodian waters, with a number of species yet to be identified. Scientists have estimated that Cambodian waters contain over 600 species of marine fish, which is similar to that observed for other countries in the region. The fish species recorded in the above studies are listed in Annex 1.

Echinoderms According to a survey conducted by Tana (1997), 2 species of sea star, Choriaster granulatus and Protoreaster nodosus, 3 species of , Holothuria fuscopunctata, H. edulis and H. leucospilota, and 2 species of sea urchin, Diadema savignyi and D. setosum, are present in Cambodian waters.

More recent surveys conducted by Jensen & Try (2002), have added several species, including: 3 species of sea star, Astropecten polyacanthus, Luidia maculata, and Craspidaster hesperus; sea cucumbers, Holothuria scabra, H. fuscogilva, H. spinifera, Actinopyga mauritiana, Stichopus variegatus, Acaudina molpadioides, Bohadschia marmorata and Actinopyga miliaris; and 5 species of sea urchin, 2 irregular, 1 of which is the sand-dollar, Laganum decagonale, and 3 regular as yet unidentified species. The total number of species recorded in Cambodian waters includes 5 species of sea star, 11 species of sea cucumbers, and 7 species of sea urchins, of which 4 species have not yet been identified.

Crustaceans According to Tana (1997) and Jensen and Try (2002), about 50 species of crustaceans are present in Cambodian waters. Of these, 10 species are shrimps, Penaeus canaliculatus, P. semisulcatus, P. merguiensis, P. latisulcatus, P. monodon, P. japonicus, Metapenaeus affinis, M. spinulatus, Parapenaeopsis sculptilis, Parapenaeopsis sp., 1 stomatopod, Miyakea neap, and one slipper lobster, Thenus orientalis. Approximately 30 species of crabs are present and annex 2 contains a list of these species. There are 4 species of barnacles, Lepas sp., Tetraclita squamosa, and 2 unidentified, and several species of hermit crabs.

Molluscs About 250 species of this group are present in Cambodian waters, although the “Survey of Coastal Marine Living Resources” and “Tropical Marine Mollusc Programme (TMMP)” identified only 170 species. Of these, about 100 were gastropods, 50 bivalves, and 8 cephalopods. Early collections of shelled molluscs listed 165 species of gastropods and 63 bivalves (Morlet 1889; Crosse and Fischer 1892; Fischer and Fischer-Piette 1972). Lynge (1909) identified another 360 species of bivalves as being present in northern Gulf of Thailand waters. However, the number of species identified by the latter study may be somewhat inflated as new species were described according to a single, very small shell valve. are probably the most well documented marine group in Cambodia. Several of the very old collections are still present in museums, including the National Museum of Natural History in Paris, France. Giant clams, Tridacna squamosa and T. gigas, require protection from illegal fishing in Cambodian waters. Similarly, the large gastropod, Cassis cornuta (horned helmet), is very common in shell shops. However, it is not possible to determine if fishers collect this species in the dead (shell- only) or live form. Annex 3 contains a list of mollusc species identified in Cambodia’s marine waters.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 20 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – CAMBODIA

Seaweeds Sixteen species of seaweed have been recorded in Cambodia, of which 1 species has been imported from for culture (Jensen & Try 2002). At present, seaweed culture is a very popular marine activity. Local intermediaries collect the entire production and export it to Malaysia.

Only 12 of Cambodia’s seaweed species have been identified. These include Caulerpa lentillifera, Caulerpa racemosa, Halimeda sp., Ulva reticulata, Dictyosphaeria cavernosa, Enteromorpha sp., Hormophysa cuneiformis, Padina sp., polycystum, Turbinaria conoides, Turbinaria decurrens and Turbinaria ornata. The cultured species is Eucheuma cottonii.

Seagrasses Nine species of seagrasses are present in Cambodian waters, including Cymodecea rotundata, Cymodocea serrulata, Halodule pinifolia, Halodule uninervis, Ruppia maritima, Syringodium isoetifolium, Thalassia hemprichii, Halophila ovalis and Enhalus acoroides (Jensen and Try 2002). Among these, Halodule pinifolia is an important food source for dugong (Tana 1997). Seagrass beds exist in sheltered found along the coastline of Kampot province, and near the mouths of the Steung Hao and Andong Tuk streams in Kampong Som Bay.

2.2.1 Pelagic species

According to Ibrahim (1999), Cambodia’s pelagic fisheries began modestly, using simple fishing gears such as bamboo stake traps and set bag nets in inshore waters. In 1925, the Chinese purse seine was introduced to Southeast Asian countries, specifically Thailand, for catching the Indo-Pacific mackerel. This gear quickly gained popularity in the region and was modified to become the Thai purse seine in Thailand and purse seine/ring net (Khmer name Uon Tith) and anchovy encircling seine (Khmer name Uon Ka Koeum) in Cambodia. Since the early 1960s, marine fisheries in the region have rapidly modified fishing gear, introduced new fishing technology, and improved fishing vessels. Onshore improvements to facilities and infrastructure have supported these developments. So far, Thailand’s marine fishing sector has developed more rapidly than Cambodia’s, partly due to the serious problems experienced throughout Cambodia’s civil war.

Pelagic fisheries intensified during the 1970s and early 1980s, mostly due to the use of luring purse seines and the 1973 discovery of fishing grounds for round scads in the central part of the Gulf of Thailand. The use of large purse seines for catching coastal tunas and hard-tail scads in deeper water areas began in 1982. The use of light luring purse seines to target anchovies began in 1983. It was not until later that other more modern fishing gears were introduced (Ibrahim 1999). However, the use of some of these modern fishing gears is illegal in Cambodian waters according to Cambodia's Fisheries Law (in Khmer called Kret Chhbab Lek 33 Kra. Chor).

The total catch of pelagic fishes in the Gulf of Thailand increased from 63,000 tonnes in 1971 to 676,000 tonnes in 1994. The annual catch increased rapidly from 1971 to 1977, followed by slight declines in landings until 1980. After 1980, landings increased gradually over time, reaching 676,000 tonnes in 1992. The small decline in pelagic fish catches observed for the few years after 1977 was a result of a redirection of fishing effort, and increased catches of round scads and sardines by light luring purse seines. Generally, the recovery of Indo-Pacific mackerel stocks, combined with the introduction of anchovy encircling seines and regular purse seines for catching anchovies and coastal tunas, were the key factors contributing to the large increases in total landings of pelagic fish from the Gulf of Thailand (Ibrahim 1999).

The fisheries statistics of the DoF do not separate pelagic fish landings by species or group of fish. Therefore, the accurate interpretation of DoF data, and that from other studies, is difficult. Some investigations have indicated that five species of pelagic fish are often present in trawl catches, including hard-tail scads (Megalaspis cordyla), yellow queenfish ( commersonnianus), short-bodied mackerel (Rastrelliger brachysoma), Indian mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta) and yellowtail scad (Atule mate) (EVS Environment Consultants 1996).

Studies of the fisheries biology of Cambodia’s commercially important fish species, conducted from 1983 to 1986, provide some information about the dynamics of pelagic fish species in Cambodian waters (Tana 1996). The following is a summary of this information.

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Yellowtail scad (Atule mate) (Khmer Name Trey Kaun Kum) Yellowtail scad (Atule mate) spawns throughout the year, however, a peak was observed during May 1985 (58.7% of the females in spawning condition) and in April 1986 (26.6% of females in spawning condition). Sex ratios of this species are observed to vary distinctly, such that during December the proportion of females is higher than males (1.38:1) and during May the sex ratio is equal. For the remainder of the year, the proportion of males tends to be higher than females (with ratios ranging from 1:1.1 to 1:1.4). Stomach content analyses indicate that this species prefers to feed on fish (anchovies and other fish fingerlings) and squid. Yellowtail scad have been observed to feed most actively from September to December, and least actively from July to August (Table 33). Table 33 The percentage fullness of yellowtail scad (Atule mate) stomachs caught in Cambodian waters from 1983 to 1986. Fullness of the stomach Period (Month) Conclusion (Food in the stomach) Jul. to Aug. 1983 24 % full Inactive feeding as stomachs only 25% of full. Feb. to Apr. 1985 54 % full Active feeding as stomachs 50%full. May to Jun. 1985 83 % full More active feeding as stomachs over 75% full. Sep. to Dec. 1985 Full (maximum) Very active feeding as stomachs 100%full. Note: All fish were obtained from trawl net catches taken during both the day and night. (Source: Tana 1996)

Selar scad (Selaroides leptolepis) (Khmer Name Trey Si Ki) The majority of selar scad spawn from February to April, as 54.4% of mature female specimens collected during this period were ripe and another 24.3% were spent. From May to June, approximately 21.3% of mature females were ripe, and by July, only 4% of collected mature females contained eggs and 14% had recently spawned. Selar scad reached an early stage of maturity during September to December in 1985. The sex ratio observed for this species is nearly equal. Hard-tail scad (Megalaspis cordyla) (Khmer Name Trey Kantuy Roeung) Surveys of the hard-tail scad in April 1985 found this species in two different habitats. The study concluded that juvenile fish prefer to inhabit shallow water due to the domination of juveniles in catches within this habitat type. In its adult form, this species prefers to inhabit deep-water areas (>40 m). Juveniles were not caught in water deeper than 30m. This may have been due however, to the selectivity characteristics of the sampling equipment used. Stomach content analyses identified a dietary preference for fish (fish fingerlings) and . Selar scad were not observed to be feeding actively from July to August 1983, as gonad development during this period was at stage II and most specimens had empty stomachs. This species was observed to be feeding actively from September to December 1985 and February to April 1986, as stomach content analysis of fish caught during these periods indicated that most fish had full stomachs. Round scad (Decapterus maruadsi) (Khmer Name Trey Kuon Kum) The proportion of mature females was 18% in 1983, 6.5% from September to December 1985, and 40.2% from February to April 1986. Sex ratio (male:female) was 1.68:1 in 1983, 1:1.58 in 1985, and 1.28:1 in 1986. Stomachs were half-full during July 1983 and nearly full in September to December 1985. Analyses identified fish fingerlings and zooplankton as the preferred dietary items for this species. Jack, Cavalla (Alectis kalla) (Khmer Name – not available) The gonads of this species were at stage II to III from October to December, and by mid-December, only 6% of specimens were at stage I. In 1985, this species spawned from May to June. During this period, 54% of mature females were at stage I or II, and 5.8% were recently spent or at stage VI. The sex ratio at this time was 1.5:1. The stomachs of this species were full from February to April 1986. The main food items identified during stomach content analysis of fish collected from May to June 1986 were detritus, phytoplankton, and . Trevally (Alectis indicus) (Khmer Name Trey Chen Chas) Analysis of the stomach contents of specimens of this species collected from May to June 1986 indicated a dietary preference for zoobenthos (small crabs were most abundant).

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Golden toothed trevally (Scomberoides lysan) (Khmer name Trey Kalang) Studies of this species from February to April 1986 revealed that all the females were at the spawning stage with an equal male to female sex ratio. 2.2.2 Demersal species Demersal fishes are not as significant as pelagic species in terms of their contribution to total fisheries production in Cambodia. Stingrays are the only demersal fishes listed separately in the official statistics. However, coral reef fishes have high economical value. Traps and illegal fishing methods, involving explosives or poisons, are mostly used to catch these species. Fishers use demersal trawls to catch other important demersal fishes, including snappers and bream. 2.2.3 Commercially exploited invertebrates Crustaceans Fisheries for shrimp in Cambodia have high economic value. Prior to 1989, annual production of shrimp was approximately 10,000 tonnes. Since then, shrimp catches have declined dramatically due to degradation of habitats and . Metapenaeus affinis and M. spinulatus comprise around 60% of the total catch. A large proportion of the shrimp catch is exported in peeled and frozen form. There is also a considerable fishery for crabs, especially mud crab and swimming crabs. Most of the crab consumption occurs locally. The fishery for mantis shrimp and slipper lobster is small, although economically important. Molluscs There is an increasingly large fishery for cephalopods in Cambodia. Bigfin reef squid (Sepioteuthis lessoniana), cuttlefish, and octopus are caught in traps. The capture of Lologinid squid occurs in trawl nets. Light luring is a banned fishing method in Cambodia, therefore a majority of the squid landings represent by-catch from pelagic fisheries. Eggs of bigfin reef squid are collected for use as “bait” in squid traps. The presence of these eggs has led scientists to believe that this species spawns in Cambodian waters. Dredging and the hand-collection of bivalves are also important fishing methods. Fishers operate dredges from small “long-tail” canoes, with the target species often representing less than 50% of the total catch. Women are mostly involved in the hand collection of molluscs. Rock oysters are an important bivalve species and sold mostly to local restaurants. Some gastropod species, including abalone (Haliotis spp.) and Strombus spp., are important for human consumption, although collection of these species is mostly for ornamental purposes (Try 2001). Subsistence fishers use almost any type of bivalve or gastropod for food (Try 2001). 3. CURRENT STATUS & THREATS 3.1 Status of the Fishery in Terms of CPUE So far, there have been no fish stock assessments conducted in Cambodian waters. However, comments from fishers and the results of several related studies indicate that the threat of overfishing in the Gulf of Thailand is now at a critical stage. The collection of catch per unit effort (CPUE) data for Cambodia’s marine fisheries does not occur. Thus, the status of marine fisheries in terms of CPUE is unknown. Surveys from neighbouring countries, such as Thailand, may give some indication. The results of long-term systematic surveys conducted by the Department of Fisheries (Thailand) indicate that daytime CPUE in the Gulf of Thailand declined from 290kg/hr in 1963 to 50kg/hr in 1993. CPUE of night time fishing operations declined almost 60% from 1976 to 1995 (Ibrahim 1999). Results of studies in Viet Nam also highlight rapid declines in yield (Ibrahim 1999). However, the scale of operation and types of fishing gears used differ between Thai and Cambodian fisheries. Hence, Cambodia has decided not to use data available for Thai fisheries in the Gulf of Thailand to make inferences about the Cambodian fisheries situation. It is possible to make assumptions about CPUE from socioeconomic surveys and comments from fishers. For instance, a socio-economic survey conducted by CZM Project in Kep from 1996 to 1998 (CZM 1999a) indicated that there was a significant reduction in abundance of some living marine resources. The survey found that a reduction in the abundance of shrimp had occurred, such that the capacity of a typical small fishing boat to catch shrimp had declined from 20kg of shrimp per night to 5 kg per night. In O Krosa village, some species including smaung fish, white sparrow fish, mantis shrimp and other species of crustaceans have disappeared or become very rare. Similarly, the survey indicated that it is now very difficult to find mantis shrimp in waters adjacent to Angkaul village. Mantis shrimp and many species of crabs have disappeared from these areas.

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3.2 Status of Fish Stocks Based on Historical Review of Landings and CPUE

In Cambodia, as in other countries of , marine capture fisheries are multi-species and multi-gear. The main fishing gears used are trawls, purse seines, and gillnets. The operation of these gears mostly occurs in inshore waters. Unfortunately, a paucity of information regarding fish stocks and CPUE in Cambodia makes it difficult to conduct any historical review of the status of fish stocks. Results of research conducted from 1983 to 1986 indicate that the total stock of marine fishes in Cambodia’s EEZ is approximately 500,000 tonnes (Tana 1996; 1999). There have been no further studies of fish stocks in Cambodia, however, total catch is recorded each year by DoF. This information reveals that production in Cambodia’s marine capture fisheries increased from 7,247 tonnes in 1986 to 39,900 tonnes in 1990. Catches then declined from 36,400 tonnes in 1991 to 29,800 tonnes in 1997. Catches recovered to 32,100 tonnes in 1998, and then increased rapidly to 42,000 tonnes in 2001. No CPUE data is available for review.

Scientific investigations into Cambodia’s commercial fisheries from 1983 to 1986 identified changes in the species composition of catches during that period (Tana, 1996). It is unclear whether information regarding low-value fish was recorded during this period. Stingrays and octopus are ubiquitous in Cambodian waters.

Yellowtail scad (Atule mate) This is the main species and has a wide distribution in Cambodian marine waters. It was observed to be most abundant from May to October in 1985 (7.3 to 12.6% of the total catch). In comparison, the abundance of this species was much lower from December 1985 to April 1986 (3.2 to 4.4% of the total catch). Furthermore, variations in the length frequency distribution of this species in catches are interesting. During 1985, 74.6% were 20 to 23cm in length from May to June, 71.1% were 17 to 21cm in length from July to August, 51% were 20 to 23cm in length from September to December, and from February to March 1986, 7% were 13 to 20cm in length. The weight of individuals of this species in catches varies from 80 to 250g, however, the most common weight range is 86 to 113g.

Selar scad (Selaroides leptolepis) This species comprised 6.8 to 12.7% of the total catch from February to April, and 1.8 to 3.2% during the winter. This species is common in shallow water and very rare in deep water. The length of this species in catches varied from 8 to 14cm in July 1983, 4 to 17cm during May to June 1985, 7 to 13cm during September to December 1985, and 6 to 16cm during February to April. During this latter period, 63.2% of this species were in the 11 to 13cm size range. The weight of individuals varied from 6 to 70g over the whole study period.

Hard-tail scad (Megalaspis cordyla) (Khmer name Trey Kantuy Roeung) This study indicated that hard-tail scad comprised 4.9% of the total catch in September 1985, 3.1% of the total catch in April 1986, 2.2% of the total catch in May 1985, and was very rare (0.1% of the total catch) in July 1983. The length of this species ranged from 14 to 21cm from July to August 1983, and their weights ranged from 50 to 120g. In May to June 1985, lengths ranged from 21 to 36cm, although 75% of individuals were from 21 to 28cm, with weights between 100 to 480g. During September to December 1985, lengths ranged from 14 to 28cm, and from February to April 1986, from 19 to 28cm, with individual weights from 60 to 400g.

Round scad (Decapterus maruadsi) (Khmer Name Trey Kuon Kum) Between 50 to 68% of round scad were caught in water deeper than 27m and it was most abundant at depths of 40 to 50m. The size of fish ranged from 11 to 23cm, although fish from 14 to 17cm dominated catches (71.2%) during July 1983, whilst fish from 16 to 20 cm dominated from 1985 to 1986. The weight of individual fish ranged from 20 to 180g during 1983 and 1985.

Jack, Cavalla (Alectis kalla) This species was caught in depths less than 30m and was most abundant from October to December 1985 in southern Cambodian waters. Generally, catches of this species were low during February, with a catch rate of 0.008 tonnes/hour of trawling close to Kampong Som Bay. In 1986, catch rates reached 0.15 tonnes/hour. During other months of the year, catch of this species was insignificant. Lengths ranged from 10 to 15 cm during February to April 1985 and May to June 1986.

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Trevally (Alectis indicus) (Khmer Name Trey Chen Chas) This species occurred at depths of less than 20m in February. In April, the fish moved to depths between 20 and 27m, and the catch rate observed was approximately 0.014 tonnes/hour of trawling. During 1985, 1.4% of the total catch occurred at a depth of 35m, with an average catch rate of 0.01 tonnes/hour of trawling.

Lengths ranged from 20 to 104cm, and for the group between 63 and 85 cm, individual weights ranged between 3.1 and 8.5kg.

Golden toothed trevally (Scomberoides lysan) (Khmer name Trey Kalang) Golden toothed trevally comprised around 1% of total catches made during the rainy season at depths of 30m. Average CPUE was 0.008 tonnes/hour trawling. In February 1986, during resource surveys conducted in waters less than 20 m deep, this species comprised 2.3% of the total catch, with an average CPUE of 0.012 tonnes/hour. In April, catch rates were highest in depths from 20 to 28m, with an average catch rate of 0.014 tonnes/hour trawling. Lengths ranged from 32 to 120cm, and weights ranged from 2.7 to 9kg for individual fish in the size group between 67 and 90cm.

3.3 Threats 3.3.1 Current Stock depletion Many indicators are available to identify the problem of overexploitation and threats to marine fisheries resources. These include increases in fishing effort, decreases in the annual catch, changes in the species composition of catch, and increases in the percentage of low-value fishes in the catch. Scientists know the causal relationships between these indicators and overfishing, however, there remains a need to extend such information to the general community.

Many fishers in Cambodia do not realise that high levels of fishing effort can lead to negative outcomes, including stock depletion, instead blaming such situations on mistakes made by government or managers. However, it is becoming clear that both fishers and government officials have played important roles in the creation of fisheries problems. In Cambodia, questions such as “why is the production of fish decreasing?” and “how can we solve this problem?” are frequently asked by fishers and members of the general community.

Typical answers to these questions in Cambodia have referred to fishers breaking fisheries laws, and the use of illegal fishing gears. However, changes in the distribution and abundance of natural resources, such as fisheries, are often a result of natural variation in the environment, as well as the impacts of fishing and other human activities. Examples of phenomena driving this natural variation include climate change, global warming, El Niño, and sea level rise. According to Ibrahim (1999), human activities with potential to negatively effect fisheries and other resources include: a. destruction of habitats for spawning, nursing and feeding due to rapid development of costal areas and development of new, efficient fishing technology and population growth; b. land and sea-based pollution that tends to reduce fish recruitment and increase mortalities; and c. over-capitalisation and exploitation of coastal marine living resources.

As highlighted previously, there is a paucity of information regarding the status of Cambodia’s marine fisheries resources. There are concerns about stock depletion in the marine fishery, although with no substantial stock assessments conducted, the status of the resource is largely unknown. Catch statistics have varied substantially, reporting 1,200 tonnes in 1980, 39,900 tonnes in 1990, and 29,800 tonnes in 1997. While the DoF collects harvest data from commercial fisheries, there are concerns relating to the accuracy of these figures, as they do not include catches from illegal fishing vessels, both foreign and domestic. Similarly, they do not include catches from fishing vessels that did not land their catches at Cambodian ports. Finally, there are no reports of the amounts caught by subsistence fishers. The main threats to fisheries production in Cambodia are habitat destruction, overfishing, and pollution, which have led to the rapid decline of coastal fish stocks, and the degradation of the marine environment and other coastal resources. Increased fishing effort, as evidenced by increasingly high numbers of large fishing boats, has contributed to the recent trend of increasing annual catches.

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Habitat destruction According to the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Law of the Sea Convention), adopted in Montego Bay, Jamaica on 10 December 1982, Cambodia has rights and responsibilities for the management and use of marine resources within the Cambodian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Cambodia's Fisheries Law (in Khmer called Kret Chhbab Lek 33 Kra. Chor), enacted on 9 March 1987, aims to reflect the provisions of the Law of the Sea Convention. Article 28 of Cambodia’s Fisheries Law prohibits trawl fishing in waters less than 20 m deep, as these areas typically contain fragile and critical habitats. In addition, sections D and E of Article 18 prohibit the destruction or cutting of inundated or mangrove forest, and the transport or sale of inundated or mangrove forest wood.

However, despite Cambodia’s Fisheries Law, Royal decrees, sub-decrees and proclamations for protecting ecosystems and habitats, many illegal activities still take place. According to Tana (1997), mangrove forests cover an area of 85,100ha, of which approximately 63,700ha are located in Koh Kong province, 13,500ha in Sihanoukville and 7,900ha in Kep and Kampot provinces (Table 34). So far, 74 species belonging to 35 families and 53 genera of mangrove trees have been identified. From 1993 to 1996, the exploitation of Cambodian mangrove forests for charcoal and firewood production, as well as the construction of shrimp, salt, and rice farms, was common. Rapid exploitation of mangrove forests for firewood and charcoal took place during the war after 1979. The introduction of intensive shrimp culture in Cambodia from 1993 to 1996 resulted in the construction of aquaculture ponds with an approximate area of 1,000 ha in the mangroves of Koh Kong and Kampot provinces (Table 34).

Table 34 Estimates of mangrove forest degradation in the coastal provinces and municipalities of Cambodia up to 1996. Area that has been cleared Province/ Total area (ha) Degradation due to firewood for shrimp farms and other municipality (LANDSAT, 1994) and charcoal production (%) purposes (ha) Koh Kong 63,700 1,500 60 - 70 Sihanoukville 13,500 800 35 - 40 Kampot and Kep 7,900 1,000 50 - 60 Total 85,100 3,300 48 - 57 (Source: Tana 1997)

Trawl fishing, push nets, and grouper fishing activities threaten coral reef and seagrass habitats in Cambodia. Coral reefs are amongst the most diverse marine ecosystems. So far, reductions in species diversity and the abundance of reef fishes because of overfishing are unstudied in Cambodian waters. Fishers claim that they have not yet detected a decline in fish abundance in coral reef areas. At present, approximately 80 to 90% of marine fishing occurs in coastal or inshore areas. Socioeconomic circumstances, including the financial situation of most fishers, restrict the adoption of new technologies and the development of offshore fisheries. Similarly, investors focus on freshwater fishing lots and the dai fishery, and investment in marine fisheries is very rare.

Increases in fishing effort Historically, consideration was rarely given to small-scale fisheries in Cambodia. Observers never envisaged serious problems with this type of fishing. However, due to improvements in the efficiency of fishing gear, living standards and infrastructure, rapid expansion of middle-scale fisheries has occurred. Many inshore fisheries are facing problems associated with overexploitation and degradation of coastal habitats. Recently, there appears to have been a shift in the type of vessels used in marine capture fisheries. Traditionally, most fishers were small scale, using small, non-motorised vessels in inshore waters. However, a significant shift from the use of these smaller vessels, to slightly larger motorised vessels, capable of fishing further offshore and taking larger catches of fish, has occurred. The number of small, motorised vessels (<30 HP) increased from about 1500 in 1993 to almost 4500 in 2000 (APIP 2001). There is currently no cap in place on fishing effort for subsistence fishers or licensed small and middle scale fishers. As such, there appears to be a growing number of fishers participating in the marine fishery and this is likely to increase further with increases in coastal populations. The low initial investment and open access nature of fisheries attracts impoverished people to begin fishing for food and income.

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Illegal fishing Illegal fishing in Cambodia consists of foreign vessels fishing in Cambodian waters without a licence and/or using illegal fishing gear. In addition, the use of illegal fishing gear by Cambodian fishers is becoming more common. The Royal Government of Cambodia prohibits the use of artificial light and pair trawls to fish in marine waters, although foreign fishers utilise these fishing gear and practices in offshore waters. The use of trawls is prohibited in waters less than 20m deep, yet reports of fishers trawling close to shore are common. Use of illegal mesh sizes in gill nets, and dynamite and methods are also common. Illegal fishing activities have led to conflicts within fishing communities, some resulting in violence. There are many reports of fishers (both foreign and local) operating on an unlicensed basis. The DoF has very few resources for enforcement and very little capacity to patrol offshore. The size and seaworthiness of the government vessels is inadequate. The lack of consistent enforcement between the DoF and other coastal government agencies is resulting in inequitable access to fisheries resources, community conflicts, reduction in fish stocks through overfishing, and habitat degradation by allowing fishing activities to continue in areas of sensitive . Effects of trawling Trawling is a very destructive fishing method in Cambodia. Trawl nets disrupt benthic communities, especially in areas where the intensity of trawling is high. Trawl fishing is typically not selective for species or sizes of fish. As a result, trawl vessels are responsible for taking substantial catches of unwanted catch (). Whilst fishers in the Sihanoukville area sell unwanted bycatch and low-value fish to the fishmeal factory in Sihanoukville, fishers from other coastal areas continue to discard unwanted catch.

Trawlers are also capable of catching large marine mammals and sea turtles. Bycatch is thought to be one of the main threats to Cambodia’s marine mammals and reptiles. Accidental catches of these species are usually discovered after the has died. Other countries have been testing devices to reduce unwanted capture of sea turtles with some success. However, it is not a requirement for Cambodia’s trawl vessels to be equipped with devices such as Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs). The TEDs currently used in the region are not suitable for use aboard Cambodia trawl fishing vessels because the boats are too small.

Bycatch A large proportion of fish caught in Cambodia can be categorised as bycatch or low-value fish. Until recently, unwanted and low-value catch was either discarded at sea or left at the landing-site for people to rummage through. A fishmeal factory is now in operation, and fishers can sell almost all trash fish to this factory. In the past, the decomposition of unwanted fish at landing sites contributed to localised water pollution problems, however, most large landing sites now have areas where fish are set aside for collection by fishmeal factory trucks.

Ghost fishing Fishing nets lost at sea often continue to catch fish. This is referred to as ghost fishing. Such nets are considered a threat to Cambodia’s fisheries resources, especially in coral reef areas, where torn nets are often abandoned. It is estimated that small scale gill net fishers lose about 10 to 20km of monofilament net/year. Endangered species such as sea turtles can be caught in these unattended fishing nets.

3.3.2 Potential The collapse of Cambodia’s fisheries Cambodia is experiencing increases in competition for access to fisheries resources, largely due to increases in the number of fishers, improvements in gear technology, and the upgrading of fishing capacity. A continued uncontrolled harvest will most likely lead to the decline and possible collapse of Cambodia’s marine fisheries. Population growth, pollution and tourism development Apart from overexploitation of resources, Cambodia’s coastal and marine ecosystems face a number of threats. Population growth in coastal areas is higher than in other parts of the country. This is in part caused by migration to the coast from further inland. Most fishing communities discharge all sewage and waste into the sea in an untreated form. This is not only a threat to coastal ecosystems, but also to human health and the safety of fisheries products.

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There is limited water quality monitoring in coastal areas. Runoff from agricultural land and wastewater from coastal villages probably contains high concentrations of nutrients and possibly pesticides. Since there is limited sewage treatment, industrial wastewater is often discharged directly into the sea, or indirectly via streams. Industrial wastewater may contain heavy metals as well as toxic organic compounds. So far, there are few large industrial activities in the coastal areas of Cambodia. However, there is a large oil refinery and storage facility near Steung Hao in Kampong Som Bay, Sihanoukville. The port of Sihanoukville may also be a pollution hazard. Marine anti-fouling paints leak toxins into the water, which can cause reproductive disorders such as imposex in many marine organisms. Ballast water discharged in or near the port may contain alien organisms, which may be a threat to local communities. At present, development of the port is taking place and it will soon double in size. This involves significant land reclamation, with associated potential for the suspension of particulate matter and its transportation outside the port area, where deposition may damage coral reefs and benthic communities. Tourism development may also present significant threats. Many hotels are located along the waterfront and have inadequate facilities for wastewater treatment. Restaurants require increased supplies of fresh seafood, and tour-boat operations and diving activities may have negative impacts on coastal ecosystems. However, this tends to be self-regulatory in the sense that tourism benefits decrease if the environment becomes degraded. In addition, the creation of new job opportunities in the tourism sector may assist in the reduction of fishing effort if fishers can earn more money in tourism related employment than from fishing. 4. HABITATS & AREAS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE MAINTENANCE OF EXPLOITED FISH STOCKS The recent surge in development and human settlement along Cambodia’s coastline has caused concern within the Ministry of Environment and amongst biodiversity scientists regarding coastal and marine habitat degradation. These concerns focus on the environmental impact of logging inundated forests and mangroves, illegal and destructive fishing, increased inshore fishing pressure, and clearing of mangrove forests for shrimp farms. The efficacy of existing coastal management arrangements have also been the focus of concern. Emerging issues include the damming of coastal watersheds, the careless dumping of solid waste such as plastic bags and containers, and the ghost fishing of nets lost accidentally at sea. 4.1 Description of the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of known spawning, nursery, feeding, and fishing grounds Little information is available about the exact locations of spawning, nursery and feeding grounds of fish species in Cambodian waters. Hence, we describe the general environments where fishing takes place. Information about fish habitats for species of transboundary significance has been taken from the literature, as no information exists for Cambodia. Pelagic environments The hydrographical data collected during the 1959 to 1961 Naga Expedition is still the most comprehensive in existence. Temperature and salinity show only minor variations with either depth or season. Surface temperatures vary between 27˚C and 31˚C and salinity between 27.4‰ and 34‰ (Tana 2000). Water temperatures at a depth of 30 m off the coast of Koh Kong province varied between 28˚C and 28.5˚C. Salinity at that depth varied between 31.5‰ and 33.5‰. There was a distinct halocline between 5 and 10m in August 1960 and a thermocline between the same depths in April 1960. There may be oxygen depletion at depths over 30m during the dry season (Robinson 1974). There are no studies on phytoplankton productivity. Tana (2000) mentions that phytoplankton comprises only 3 to 5% of the total suspended organic matter. There are no quantitative studies of zooplankton in Cambodian waters. According to Tana (2000), zooplankton is composed of amphipods, decapods, and chaetognaths. The Naga Expedition observed densities of 0.6 to 1.9 ppb off in April 1960, 0.2 ppb in August 1960, and 0.4 ppb in November 1960. For pelagic species, including anchovies, mackerel, and , there are some studies on the occurrence of larvae in plankton samples. Cambodia’s offshore waters are considered important spawning and nursing grounds for regional stocks of Indian and short mackerels (Rastrelliger kanagurta

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and R. brachystoma). The 1959 to 1961 Naga Expedition collected 100 to 1000 larvae per 1000m3 just off Koh Rong in April 1960 (Matsui 1970).

Coral reefs Many economically important species, such as groupers and snappers, are associated with coral reefs. Some fishes are permanent reef inhabitants and use the reef for spawning, nursery areas, and feeding. Other species use coral reefs for feeding or spawning/nursery areas. Coral reefs are part of the physical and biological environment, and they influence the chemical environment as their photosymbiosis with zooxanthellae produces oxygen. They also influence precipitation of calcium carbonate in the structural skeleton of the corals.

Coral reefs occur in many areas of Cambodia’s waters. There is very limited information about species diversity and live coral cover on most reefs. Coral reefs are most common around offshore and inshore islands, and species diversity appears to be higher offshore. Tana (1997) mentioned that only 24 species of hermatypic corals and 14 species of soft corals (octocorals) had been identified. In 1998, a limited number of surveys were carried out in the Sihanoukville area (CZM 1999c). Here 45 species of hermatypic corals were identified. Surveys in Koh Kong province identified 67 species of hard corals and 17 soft corals (CZM 2002a). A survey around Koh Tang, one of the offshore islands, in 1998, reported “at least 70 species” of hard corals (Nelson 1999).

Reefs at Risk estimated the total reef area in Cambodia to be less than 50km2, and highlighted that all coral reefs in Cambodia were at high or very high risk, mostly from overfishing. Other threats are destructive fishing methods (dynamite and cyanide), sedimentation, and pollution, especially from marine-based sources (Burke et al. 2002). Based on individual species distributions, Reefs at Risk estimated that 272 species of coral might be present in Cambodia, although only about 70 to 80 species have been recorded. The reefs are dominated by solid forms, e.g. Porites, which makes physical damage from greater and the time for recovery high. There are some signs of coral bleaching, but no quantitative data exist. However, it appears that only small local areas are affected, indicating that this is most likely caused by physical stress from (crown-of-thorns sea stars have been reported), use of cyanide in fishing, and collection for the souvenir trade. Many high value fish species, including groupers, are associated with coral reefs. Most reef fishes are caught in traps. Trawling in coral reefs can damage both nets and corals. In addition, invertebrates such as abalone, some crabs, bigfin reef squid, and octopus species occur on or near coral reefs.

Mangrove forests Tidal changes in water level and variable salinity characterise mangrove forest habitats. Salinity generally decreases from the seaward edge of the mangrove forest towards the landward edge. However, salinity also depends on exposure, air temperature (evaporation), and rainfall. Organisms living within mangroves are adapted to these changes. Some feed only during low , when the mudflats and sediments between mangrove roots are exposed. Others feed only during high tide. Many invertebrates burrow into sediments, and some may form deep and complex burrows. This biological activity is important for the availability of oxygen in the sediment. The high organic content of mangrove mud usually means that only the upper few millimetres are oxygenated, with anaerobic processes prevailing underneath this thin surface layer. Bioturbation and permanent burrows bring oxygenated water into the burrows and, as a result, the walls of burrows usually contain a diverse meio- and micro-fauna and -flora. Unfortunately, there are no studies of this in Cambodia.

Mangrove forests are important breeding and nursery grounds for many species of fish and crustaceans. They are resting and feeding grounds for wading and other fish-eating birds. The main fishing activity in mangrove forests is for crabs, especially mud crab (Scylla serrata). The mudflats in front of mangrove forests harbour a rich fauna of bivalves, which are commercially exploited in Cambodia. By collecting spat (juvenile bivalves) and transporting them to enclosed areas, natural stocks can be enhanced. In Cambodia, there is some dredging for bivalves, including blood cockle (Anadara spp.), short-neck clam (Paphia undulata), and hard-shelled clams (Meretrix spp.). In brackish parts of mangrove forests, Polymesoda sp. can be collected.

It is estimated that Cambodia has already lost more than 50% of its mangrove forests. The main causes of this loss include the cutting of wood for firewood and charcoal production, as well as the clearing of forests to establish shrimp farms (Talaue-McManus 1999).

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Seagrass beds Seagrass beds occur on sediments in shallow water areas. In Cambodia, 9 species of seagrasses have been observed. Seagrass communities are important for stabilising sediments and preventing coastal erosion. The dense network of rhizomes and roots function as sediment traps, and because seagrasses are higher plants, the roots can take up nutrients trapped in the sediment. Seagrass beds occur in several places in Cambodia, mostly in small patches along the mainland coast and around most islands. There are a few more extensive seagrass beds in waters off Kep municipality near the Vietnamese border, and along the coast of Kampot province. There are reports that a dense seagrass bed once covered Kampong Som Bay. Now only a few small patches exist. Unfortunately, quantitative data about coverage does not exist. Seagrass beds generally have a highly diverse fauna, which forms the food of commercial fishes and crustaceans. Seagrass beds are also the main habitat for dugong. Stingrays often occur in seagrass beds, and fishers use specialised hooked lines to target this group. Unfortunately, these lines can entangle sea turtles. Some species of shark are believed to use seagrass beds for spawning.

Soft bottom communities The majority of Cambodia’s seafloor is composed of soft sediments, ranging from almost pure sand along exposed beaches to very fine, waterlogged mud. Shell fragments often comprise a high proportion of the sediment, and clumps of consolidated clay, probably of terrestrial origin, are encountered in bottom samples. Trawl fishing in Cambodia mostly occurs over soft bottom habitats, and apart from shrimp and demersal fish species (such as snappers, threadfin breams, and siganids), squid and cuttlefish, slipper lobster, and mantis shrimps (stomatopods) are important parts of catches taken in these areas.

The invertebrates living on and in the soft sediments are important as food for commercial species. Trawling may cause significant impacts on the species composition, growth rate, and maximum size of these . In parts of Kampong Som Bay, the seapen (Pteroides sp.) dominates the invertebrate community. This may be due to this species having a higher tolerance to repeated disturbances than most bivalves. Brittlestars, seastars, and predatory gastropods are also very common in these communities.

According to Tana (2000), there are four main coastal ecosystems in Cambodia, including the: 1. Koh Kong Bay ecosystem; 2. Botum Sakor National Park ecosystem; 3. Kampong Som semi-enclosed bay ecosystem; and the 4. Kampot Bay ecosystem.

- Koh Kong Bay ecosystem This is the largest estuarine ecosystem in Cambodia. It is influenced by freshwater from the continent during the rainy season. There are two streams influencing this estuary, namely Dong Tong and Trapeang Roung. This estuary has a large mangrove forest covered delta with an area of approximately 60,000ha. The species diversity of the estuary is high (74 species). Rhizophora mucronata and Rhizophora conjugata are significantly important because their roots are the main habitats of green mussel, mangrove oyster and hermit crabs. Seagrass, especially Enhalus sp., is present at the delta of Trapeang Roung stream and the muddy beaches of the eastern part of the bay. Halodule sp. occurs in the area between the shoreline and Koh Kong Island, especially during the dry season. These areas are important habitat for mud and swimming crabs, cuttlefishes, and Penaeus and Metapenaeus shrimp. Shallow water mammals, including the Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris), utilise this area throughout the year. The collection and culture of the green mussel (Perna viridis) takes place in Peam Krasob, Koh Kong Bay. Fishers harvest hard-shell clams (Meretrix spp.) and the short-neck clam (Paphia undulate) in Thmor Sor.

Sea turtles nest in this area. Interviews with experienced fishers in Koh Kapic indicate a dramatic decrease in sea turtles since 1975. Approximately 100 nesting females existed in the area in 1975; however, there were only 28 in 1998. More than 1000 hatchlings per year were estimated in 1975 compared to only 200 in 1998 (Try 1999).

- Botum Sakor National Park ecosystem

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Botum Sakor National Park is an excellent habitat for resident and migratory birds and a safe habitat for the brackish water crocodile (Crocodilus porosus); however, this species has never been positively identified (see section 2.1.3 Marine Reptiles). The coastal portion of the park is comprised of rocky and white sandy beaches and is a main location for coral reef habitats, as continental freshwater does not influence the area. Reef fishes are highly diverse (about 50 species). During November to January, this area is the main habitat of the Penaeus shrimp species, especially white shrimps, as they seek refuge from storms and strong northern winds.

- Kampong Som semi-enclosed bay ecosystem Kampong Som Bay is the deepest of the bay ecosystems but depth does not exceed 20m. The northeastern coastal habitat is defined as Dong Peng Multiple-Use Area, where 2 major estuaries and mangrove wetland forest are located. The estuaries are fed by the Andong Tuk and Sre Ambel streams during the wet season, which leads to reduced salinity levels. These areas are the main habitats of dolphins, octopus, and other sea animals such as hawksbill, loggerhead, and green turtles. The latter often enter this area for nesting on the eastern beaches.

These areas are also the main habitat of and molluscs. Koh Khchorng is the main harvesting area for blood cockle (Anadara spp.) and short-neck clam (Paphia undulate). Koh Khchorng is also a nursing ground for mud crabs. Fishers collect large quantitities of juvenile mud crabs (Scylla serrata) for fattening in local areas or in Viet Nam. Vinegar crabs (Episesarma spp.) are also caught in this area. These species spawn in mangrove areas around the full moon during September and October. Fishing grounds for the sentinel crab (Podophthalmus vigil) and mud crab are inside Kampong Som Bay (landed in Steung Hao). In offshore waters adjacent to Sihanoukville, fishers target blue swimming crab (Portunus pelagicus) (Jensen & Try 2002; Fishers pers. comm.). Nesting grounds for sea turtles are located in Koh Rong, Koh Rong Salem and Koh Polowai. The offshore islands, including Koh Tang and Koh Pring, are important nesting areas (Try, 1999; 2000; Fishers, pers. comm.).

- Kampot Bay ecosystem This area is characterised by swampy and rocky habitats with little freshwater influence. Salinity near the shore varies between 30.5 ppt and 32 ppt during the rainy season and increases up to 32.5 ppt to 33.4 ppt during dry season. The deepest area (< 20m) is in the transboundary water area near Phu Quoc Island (Koh Tral Island). This bay contains the main area of seagrass, which extends from Trapeang Ropov and Steung Kampot estuaries. The seagrasses Enhalus and Halodule grow on the sandy sea floor. They are the main habitat of dugong, which migrates to this area from November to January. These seagrasses are a main habitat of molluscs such as blood cockle, clam and cone shell, and the feeding ground for a number of resident and migratory fishes, squids, octopus and crustaceans.

In Kampot province, there are many areas where fish spawn. Koh Kataing Island is the main spawning ground for crabs and some species of fishes. Koh Tror Ngou is a spawning ground for some species of fishes and shrimps. Koh Thmey is a major spawning ground for shrimps, fishes, and crabs. Brek Tror Peng Ror Paov and Koh Ro Si Ta are also major spawning grounds for shrimps, crabs, molluscs, and some species of fish such as snappers (CZM 2002b). The Brek Ampil area contains habitats important to sea turtles, dugong, and molluscs. Chong Kos Prek Tnout is a key habitat area for shrimps, crabs, and some species of fish.

4.2 Unkown issues such as stocks with undefined spawning grounds

The section above describes the information known about important spawning and fishing grounds. However, a paucity of information exists for most commercial fish species. This issue will need addressing via future research projects or increased use of fisher knowledge in fisheries management. Typically, fishers possess considerable knowledge about the distribution and abundance of different species, and in many cases, where and when these species spawn. However, fishers are often reluctant to provide this information, mostly due to concerns regarding increased competition and the introduction of fishing restrictions in their important fishing areas.

In order to solve this problem and obtain information regarding CPUE, Cambodia’s DoF aims to collaborate with foreign experts and donor agencies in seeking financial assistance for the development of research facilities and activities. In addition, the collaboration of countries bordering the Gulf of Thailand in managing exploited fish stocks should be a key priority for the future.

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4.3 Threats, current and potential

The current and potential threats and impacts to coastal and marine habitats in Cambodia are summarised in Table 35. The coastal provinces of Cambodia are separated from the remaining part of the country by the mountains of the Cardamom and Elephant ranges. Only a few small and several streams enter the sea through shallow semi-enclosed bays. Slope from mountain to coastline differs widely between the provinces. Mountainous areas are characterised by dense forest, however, agricultural activities dominate the lower catchments. Population density is low. Koh Kong province has a population density of only 12 persons/km², Kampot province 108 persons/km², Sihanoukville municipality 179 persons/km², and Kep municipality 85 persons/km² (country average is 64 persons/km²). Migration to coastal areas is high and development of new settlements is rather haphazard. Property value has increased significantly for waterfront land in Sihanoukville in recent years, partly because of perceived opportunities for developing facilities for tourism. The construction of new buildings directly on the beach is common, although concrete or brick seawalls often protect them. The landowners are often high-ranking government officials, so local authorities are usually powerless in attempting to prevent such activities. So far, there is little or no sewage treatment, and in many cases, there are only open sewers, which discharge directly into streams, rivers, or the sea. This may present health problems especially in densely populated fishing villages.

All freshwater discharge to the sea is via shallow semi-enclosed bays. This means that all suspended particulate material remains trapped in these bay areas for some time. Increased siltation and particulate organic material increase turbidity, leading to reductions in primary production, especially that of benthic plants such as seagrass. Deposition of organic particles may provide an additional food supply for benthic deposit-feeders such as worms and some species of bivalves. However, such particles tend to decrease growth rates in suspension feeding bivalves, including oysters and mussels. Generally, increased levels of organic matter may result in an increased biological oxygen demand leading to diminished dissolved oxygen concentrations in the water column.

There are two zones concerning fisheries in Cambodia’s EEZ: (1) from the high water mark to a depth of 20m is the inshore zone; and (2) from the outer boundary of the inshore zone to the border of the claimed EEZ is the offshore zone. As maximum depth in the Gulf of Thailand is only 80m, there is no true offshore zone (deeper than 200m).

Table 35 Summary of threats and impacts to marine and coastal habitats in Cambodia. Zone Inland (coastal provinces) Coastal (0-20m) Offshore (>20m) Threats Land development Fishing Fishing Agriculture Illegal gears & vessels Illegal gears & vessels Tourism Aquaculture Oil & gas exploitation Freshwater supply Mangrove cutting Marine transport Waste disposal Port activities Damming Land reclamation Sewage discharge Sewage discharge Tourism Impacts Habitat destruction Stock depletion Stock depletion Pollution Habitat destruction Pollution Eutrophication Eutrophication Eutrophication Flooding or lack of freshwater Pollution Oxygen depletion Siltation Siltation Health problems Oxygen depletion Alien species Red /algal blooms Health problems

4.4 Ranking of Habitats 4.4.1 Ranking for association with species of importance to food security

Habitats can be ranked according to several different criteria. Due to lack of information about species that are important for local food security, it has not been possible to rank Cambodia’s marine habitats according to their usage by species of importance to food security.

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4.4.2 Ranking for species of high value The fish that have the highest market value are the groupers, angelfish, and silver pomfret. The first two species are associated with coral reefs. Similarly, the gastropods of highest economic value are associated with coral reef habitats. Hence, coral reefs should be given the highest rank. Mud crab is the most highly valued crab species. This species depends heavily upon mangrove habitats. Mangroves are also an important nursery area for shrimp. Hence, mangroves received the second highest rank. Clearly the majority of commercial fisheries, and hence the highest total value, arises from benthic soft bottoms and pelagic environments. Although trawling is a highly destructive fishing method, it is difficult to impose protective measures for open water over soft bottom habitats. Regulation should occur in recognition of the total number of licences issued or the maximum number of fishing days in a given area. 4.4.3 Ranking for endangered, rare and threatened species The DoF and the Ministry of Environment have prioritised the protection of habitats important to endangered and threatened species, especially those relevant to key international conventions such as CITES, Ramsar, CMS, and others. At present, there are 2 National Parks (Ream or Preah Sihanouk and Botum Sakor) containing coastal components. Similarly, the Multiple Use Area of Dong Peng includes some mangrove forests. The identification of several sites as potential Marine Protected Areas has occurred. These sites contain important nesting areas for sea turtles, coral reefs, and seagrass beds. They are located around barrier islands, including Koh Rong, Koh Rong Saleum and . Hence, coral reef habitats again receive the highest ranking. Clean sandy beaches suitable for the nesting of sea turtles and horseshoe crabs are given high priority in this connection. The protection of some of Cambodia’s mangrove sites does occur on paper, although enforcement of regulations has been weak. 5. CURRENT MANAGEMENT REGIMES 5.1 Legal instruments Following the Pol Pot regime, there was a complete restructure of Cambodia’s legal and administrative arrangements for natural resource use. Therefore, in order to manage and control the use of Cambodia’s natural resources, specifically aquatic resources, the DoF instituted Cambodia’s Fisheries Law (in Khmer called Kret Chhbab Lek 33 Kra Chor) for the Management and Administration of Fisheries Resources in Cambodia. The DoF administered this law, which aimed to conserve and regulate the exploitation of Cambodia’s fishery resources. It represents a modified and upgraded version of Cambodia’s fisheries law of 1965. The enactment of this legal instrument occurred on 9 March 1987. This law aims to enable the achievement of Cambodia’s obligations under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea. This international instrument gives the rights and responsibilities for the management and use of marine resources within the Cambodian EEZ to the Cambodian Government. The modification of Cambodia’s law has occurred in response to changes in political situations. This law is currently under review and it is aimed that a draft will be finished, signed, and come into force during 2004. Similarly, other existing legal instruments instituted prior to 1993 are under revision. A revised version is in the process of community and stakeholder consultation. Several sub-decrees, proclamations, and other regulations are being drafted. The existing law provides a broad legislative framework for the management and development of marine capture fisheries in Cambodia. Management tools such as the requirement to licence boats of a specified size, closures to protect some species during their spawning seasons, and gear restrictions are commonly used. The law contains some conservation measures such as banning the use of trawls in inshore areas less than 20 meters deep, and the prohibition of the use of explosives and poisons for commercial fish capture. There are many legislative instruments and regulations currently in force for the management, conservation, and sustainable development of Cambodia’s fisheries resources. These include: - Fishing permits for commercial fishing - Boat licenses (see above) - Licences for foreign vessels fishing inside Cambodian EEZ - Prohibition of illegal fishing gears such as electro-fishing, explosives and poisons (see above)

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- Prohibition of trawling in water less than 20m deep (see above) - Protection of mangrove areas and fish sanctuaries (spawning areas) - Closed season during the spawning season of mackerels from 15 January to 31 March - Listing of nationally threatened wildlife species for which collection/harvesting is prohibited - Prohibition of the trade in Cambodia’s reptiles - Prohibition of exploitation and harvesting of corals and other species in the CITES appendices

5.2 Institutional arrangements (research, monitoring, control & enforcement)

There are 4 provincial/municipal fisheries offices in the coastal areas of Sihanoukville, Koh Kong, Kampot and Kep. One marine inspection unit is located at Sihanoukville to control all illegal activities along the Cambodian coastline. The marine inspection unit consists of 2 vessels, each about 14 to 15 metres in length, with maximum speeds of 12 to 15 knots. The vessels are often unable to match the speed of foreign fishing vessels (APIP 2001), and the unit has insufficient funds to operate and maintain the vessels. In 2002, about 80 staff were employed within the inspection sector. This includes all staff in the coastal provinces/municipalities and the marine inspection unit.

There is no research and monitoring unit for marine fisheries within the DoF, although there are some specific research projects now underway in collaboration with donor agencies. A marine research group is operating under the DoF, but unfortunately, the members have to attend to other duties as well, and may be transferred (promoted) to inland provinces. So far, the DoF has proposed the establishment of a marine and coastal national research institute in Sihanoukville municipality. The project is now seeking assistance from donors. A small marine reference collection in Sihanoukville has been established under the DoF mandate. This reference collection will extend its activities for public awareness and may become a marine natural museum in the future.

There is some institutional overlap between the DoF and Ministry of Environment (MoE). The MoE is responsible for the conservation of biodiversity and protected areas. However, the DoF, as part of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, is responsible for the protection and sustainable use of marine natural resources and for establishing fisheries management areas.

5.3 Overview of patterns of resource ownership and traditional utilisation

Marine fishers in Cambodia are generally from poor communities, operating on a subsistence level or as small-scale commercial fishers. In the late 1970s, the Cambodian population was moved from the larger metropolitan areas into the provinces. Under the Khmer Rouge rule period (from 1975 to 1979), government was likewise moved from the big cities to the rural areas. Farming rice and clearing forests for the development of rice fields were the main priorities of the government, whereas fisheries had low priority and very little fishing or aquaculture was conducted. Political instability and lack of resources in the following years resulted in only small amounts of marine production and management by government.

Today, the marine fishery remains largely open access. Middle to large-scale participants require a licence, which provides them with a 1-year access right to the resource (within the conditions of their licence). However, subsistence and small-scale fishers are not required to be licensed and have no defined resource access rights. These fishers mostly use traditional methods. However, more fishers are adopting modern methods to maximise their catches.

There are increasing numbers of migrants from poorer rural areas moving to coastal areas to start new livelihoods as fishers. These people have very few traditional ties to marine fisheries. Efforts should be made to find alternative employment for these people to ease the pressure on fisheries resources.

5.4 Human and Institutional Capacity

The mandate of DoF is to be responsible for aquatic fauna and flora. This means that the DoF is responsible for managing Cambodia’s marine and inland fisheries resources, including management of fishers, information, and operations. The DoF employed 1557 staff throughout Cambodia in 2000, with 845 of those holding a qualification.

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There are few research activities conducted in the coastal areas. Most research (and qualified staff) is conducted for freshwater fisheries. There is very little capacity within the DoF to assist in the management and research of marine fisheries. There are also very few institutional resources, particularly in provincial offices, to assist in resource management and research. The staff of provincial/municipal fisheries offices are responsible for all fisheries activities, including aquaculture and inland fisheries in the coastal provinces. Most of them have little formal training, although DoF has recently increased educational opportunities for provincial staff.

There have been several projects conducted that have assisted in building government level human resource capacity. These projects have focused on community fisheries development (capacity building within government and communities), marine living resources or marine biodiversity, mangrove rehabilitation, coral and seagrass research, marine mammal and turtle research. All of these projects have received financial assistance from donor agencies and have been implemented in collaboration with either the Department of Fisheries or the Ministry of Environment. Unfortunately, most of the projects stop when donor funding runs out. There are no incentives and insufficient local capacity to continue successful projects.

5.5 Review of stakeholders

There are a wide range of participants and interested stakeholders in Cambodia’s marine fisheries. Community members, large and middle scale fishers, processors, traders, transporters, provincial and national government staff, local and international NGOs, and scientists are increasingly being involved in government decision-making processes. However, it will be important to include the participation of small-scale commercial fishers as well as subsistence fishers in the future. It appears that most private sector stakeholders, including large and middle-scale fishers, are mostly interested in getting maximum profits in a short time, even if they know that this will damage the environment and eliminate their future possibilities of utilising these resources. Marine fishers in Cambodia do not form fisher associations, and so it is up to each individual to make decisions about when and how often to fish, as well as appropriate times to take up loans for investing in improved technology.

6. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS

Research and monitoring This report has identified some major gaps in scientific knowledge about marine fisheries resources. This highlights the importance of initiating collaborative research activities in the Cambodian section of the Gulf of Thailand. Areas of specific importance are reproductive biology, population dynamics, and ecology of commercial fish species. In addition, quantitative studies of benthic and pelagic invertebrates, which constitute food for commercial species, should be given high priority.

Fisheries dependent and independent surveys should be conducted at regular intervals to assess CPUE for commercially important species. Where possible, this should be carried out in collaboration with Thai, Vietnamese, and regional fisheries research institutions.

A regular monitoring program should be established for water quality parameters, hydrography, phytoplankton production, and zooplankton biomass. In order to carry out all these activities, a marine research facility should be established in the coastal area of Cambodia.

Education and Public Awareness The educational level of fishers and their families is typically low. It is important that information about marine ecosystems and biodiversity be disseminated to these people. Increased community participation in fisheries management requires that stakeholders make informed decisions, and this is only possible if the stakeholders have all the available information. Due to the prevalence of illiteracy among subsistence fishers, all information should be given as visual presentations, such as videos. Fishers should also be offered training about boat handling, safety, and navigation.

It is important that the educational level of the staff of the provincial fisheries offices be improved. Junior staff with reasonable English skills can receive formal training abroad if scholarships are available. However, senior staff members often have little or no command of English, and will need to be trained locally. Special training should be given to technical staff in connection with implementation of a monitoring program, for handling accidental catches of endangered species and other special issues.

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There is also an urgent need to change the catch recording system in order to ensure the reliability of fisheries statistics. This will probably require international assistance as well as special training of technical staff, especially in the provincial offices and the Marine Fisheries Inspection Unit.

Management measures The DoF needs to change the recording system for official fisheries statistics. Catches need to be separated to species (for the most abundant ones) or groups of species. In addition, the value for each of these categories needs to be recorded. The DoF should also allocate qualified technical staff with specific responsibilities for the marine fisheries sector. Problems and issues within this sector differ from those of the freshwater fisheries sector, and with the current staff rotation system, knowledge gained by some staff members “disappears” when they are promoted to other duties. Management measures should be implemented to conserve endangered species, and protocols should be established for the handling of accidentally captured cetaceans, dugongs and sea turtles. Support from the UNEP/GEF South China Sea Project should facilitate the establishment of management areas to safeguard important species during critical phases of their life-cycles, such as when they form spawning aggregations or utilising inshore coastal nursery areas. As overfishing is already prevalent in Cambodian waters, measures should be taken to regulate catches. This will likely be best achieved throigh the establishment of spatial and temporal management measures, and the regulation of the number of licences issued. Efforts should also be taken to reduce the use pair-trawlers and light-luring purse seine methods by foreign fishers in Cambodian waters. Law enforcement At present, there is little compliance with existing regulations. Trawling takes place in shallow water, illegal gears are used, and catches are landed outside the country. It is therefore important that measures be taken to ensure adequate monitoring, control, and surveillance of fishing activities in Cambodia’s EEZ.

Economic measures To control or reduce the number of subsistence fishers, alternative income sources should be explored. The establishment of processing facilities for marine fisheries products should be promoted. Presently, most of the fisheries products are exported fresh, chilled or frozen. Processing generally adds value to landings and it creates local employment opportunities.

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CZM (2002b) State of Environment Report for Kampot Province (English Version). Ministry of Environment of Kingdom of Cambodia. Kampot Working Group: 42pp. (in English) DoF (2002) Fisheries Data Collection 1980-2001. Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries, Kingdom of Cambodia. (in English) EVS Enviroment Consultants (1996) Coastal and Marine Environmental Management for Kingdom of Cambodia. Asian Development Bank. 327pp. (in English) Fischer, P. H. and Fischer-Piette, E. (1972) Recolte de mollusques lamellibranches sur la cote du Cambodge. Journal de Conchyliologie 110: 22-30. (in French) Groombridge, B. and Luxmoore, R. (1989) The green turtle and hawksbill (Reptilia: Cheloniidae): World status, exploitation and trade. CITES Secretariat, Lausanne, Switzerland. 601pp. (in English) Ibrahim, H. M. (1999) Overfishing in the Gulf of Thailand: Issues and Resolution. In: Johnston, D. M. (ed.). Seapol Integrated Studies of the Gulf of Thailand. Southeast ASIAN Programme in Ocean Law, Policy and Management. Vol. 2, pp. 55-93. (in English) IUCN (2003) 2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. (www.redlist.org/ accessed on 29 January 2004). Jensen, K. R. and Try. I. (2002) Report on Marine Living Resources of Cambodia. (1st Draft) (in English) Le Poulain, F. (1941) Note sur les tortues de mer du Golfe de Siam, Annexe, -pp. 216-218. in: (Bourret, R.(ed.), Les tortues de l’ Indochine. Institut Oceanographique de l’ Indochine. Station Maritime de Cauda (Nhatrang). No. 38. (in French) Longdy, V. (2002) Status of Cetaceans in the Coastal Areas of Koh Kong Province, Cambodia. Department of Fisheries, Cambodia. 6pp. (in English) Lynge, H. (1909) The Danish Expedition to Siam 1899-1900. IV. Marine Lamellibranchiata. - Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Skrifter, 7. Række, Naturvidenskabelig og mathematisk Afdeling V. 3: 1-203, plates 1-5, 1 map [pp. 99-299] (in English) Matsui, T. (1970) Description of the larvae of Rastrelliger (mackerel) and a comparison of the juveniles and adults of the species R. kanagurta and R. brachysoma. Naga Reports, Vol. 5, Part 1, pp. 1-33. University of California, La Jolla, California. (in English) Ministry of Planning (1999). Report on the Cambodia Socio-Economic Survey 1999. Phnom Penh: National Institute of Statistics. Ministry of Planning (2002). Second Five Year Socio-economic Development Plan 2001-2005. Royal Government of Cambodia, Phnom Penh. MoE (1996) Coastal Zone Management in Cambodia. In: Book 1: Current Conditions, Part 1b: Review of the Oceanography, Natural Resources and Fisheries of the Coastal Zone of Cambodia. pp. 1-41. Royal Kingdom of Cambodia, Ministry of Environment. (in English) MoE (1998) Coastal Fisheries Management. In: National Environmental Action Plan 1998-2002. pp. 29-34. Ministry of Environment, Kingdom of Cambodia. (in English) Morlet, L. (1889) Catalogue des coquilles recueillies, par M. Pavie, dans le Cambodge et le Royaume de Siam, et description d’espèces nouvelles. Journal de Conchyliologie 37: 121-199, plates 6-9. (in French) Nelson, V. (1999). Draft Coastal Profile: Volume 1. The Coastal Zone of Cambodia: Current Status and Threats. Phnom Penh, MoE & Danida. Robinson, M.K. (1974) The physical oceanography of the Gulf of Thailand, Naga Expedition. Naga Reports Vol 3, Part 1, pp: 5-110. University of California, La Jolla, California. (in English) Talaue-McManus, L. (2000) Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis for the South China Sea. EAS/RCU Technical Report Series No. 14. UNEP Bangkok, Thailand. 106pp. (in English) Tana, T.S. (1996) Result from the scientific research on commercial fishery biology of the Cambodia sea (1982-86). Report. Cambodia. 20pp. (in English) Tana, T.S. (1997) Status of marine biodiversity of Cambodia. Phuket Marine Biological Center Special Publication 17(1): 175-180. (in English) Tana, T.S. (1999) Review on previous and present works on marine fish of Cambodia. 29pp. (in English) Tana, T. S. (2000) Cambodian Sea. In: Sheppard C. R. C. (ed.). Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation. Vol. II, Regional Chapters: The to the Pacific, Pergamon, New York, pp. 569-578. (in English) Tana, T.S. & Todd. B. H. (2002) The inland and marine fisheries trade of Cambodia. Oxfam America, Cambodia. 147pp. (in English) Try, I. (1999) Status of sea turtle in Cambodia. Report of the SEAFDEC- ASEAN regional workshop on sea turtle conservation and management: 72-74pp. (in English) Try, I. (2001) Utilization of marine bivalves and gastropods in Cambodia. Phuket Marine Biological Center Special Publication 25(2): 387-404. (in English)

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ANNEX 1

List of Marine Fish Species of Cambodia (Sources: Tana, 1998; Jensen & Try, 2002)

No. Scientific name: (Species) Vernacular name Local name Rhincodontidae 1 Rhincodon typus Smith, 1828 Whale shark Chlarm Yaak Hemiscylliidae Longtail carpetsharks 2 Chiloscyllium indicum (Gmelin, 1789) Slender bamboo shark Chlarm sangha 3 Chiloscyllium griseum (Muller & Henle, 1839) Grey bamboo shark Chlarm russey 4 Chiloscyllium puntatum Muller & Henle, 1818 Brown-banded catshark Chlarm Chkuot 5 Chiloscyllium plagiosum (Bennett, 1830) Stegastomatidae Zebra sharks 6 Stegostoma varium (Seba, 1761) Chlarm Chkuot 7 Stegostoma fasciatum (Hermann, 1783) Leopard shark Chlarm Chkuot Ginglymostomatidae Nurse sharks 8 Nebrius ferrugineus (Lesson, 1830) Tawny nurse shark Chlarm Mackerel sharks 9 Isurus oxyrhinchus Rafinesque, 1809 Shortfin mako Chlarm Scyliorhinidae Catsharks 10 Cephaloscyllium fasciatum Chen, 1966 Reticulated Swellshark Chlarm Chkuot Carcharhinidae Ground or Requiem sharks 11 Galeocerdo cuvier (Peron & LeSueur, 1822) Tiger shark Chlarm kla 12 Scoliodon laticaudus (Muller & Henle, 1838) Spadenose shark Chlarm 13 Scoliodon sorrakowah (Civier, 1829) Shark Chlarm 14 Scoliodon walbeehmi (Bleeker, 1856) Blacktail reef shark Chlarm Chkuot 15 Carcharhinus limbatus (Valenciennes, 1839) Blacktip shark Chlarm 16 Carcharhinus sorrah (Valenciennes, 1839) Spottail shark Chlarm och kantuy Triakidae Houndshark 17 Mustelus kaneckonis ? Shark Chlarm 18 Negogaleus longicaudatus ? Shark Chlarm Sphyrnidae Hammerhead sharks 19 Sphyrna zygaena (Linnaeus, 1758) Smooth Chlarm Ek 20 S. lewini (Griffith & Smith, 1834) Scalloped hammerhead 21 Rhinobatidae 22 Rhinobatos typus Bennett, 1830 Giant Shovelnose Ray Chlarm Truoch 23 Aptychotrema sp.? Spotted shovelnose Ray Chlarm Truoch 24 Rhynchobatidae 25 Rhynchobatus djiddensis (Forsskal, 1775) White-spotted Shovelnose Ray Chlarm Truoch Och Sar Dasyatidae Ray Bobel 26 Dasyatus akejei ? 27 Dasyatus kuhlii (Muller & Henle, 1841) Blue-spotted Stingray 28 Dasyatus uarnak (Forsskal, 1775) 29 Dasyatus zugei (Muller & Henle, 1841) 30 Dasyatus leylandi Last, 1987 Brown reticulated stingray Bobel Spoan 31 Dasyatus bennetti (Muller & Henle, 1841) 32 Himantura toshi Whitley, 1939 Black-spotted Stingray 33 Himantura undulata (Bleeker, 1852) Leopard Whipray 34 sephen (Forsskal, 1775) Cowtail Stingray 35 Tæniura melanospila (Bleeker,1853) 36 Tæniura lymma (Forsskal, 1775) Blue-spotted Fantail Stingray Bobel Khla 37 Urolophus flavomosaicus Last & Gomon, 1987 Patchwork Stingray Gymnuridae 38 Gymnura australis (Ramsay & Ogilby, 1886) Rat-tailed Ray Myliobatidae 39 Aetomyleus nichofii (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Barbless Eagle Ray 40 Æ. milvus ? 41 Aetobatus narinari (Euphrasen, 1790) Spotted Eagle ray 42 Myliobatis tobijei ? 43 Rhinoptera javanica (Muller & Henle, 1841) Spotted eagle Ray Bobel Ork

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No. Scientific name: (Species) Vernacular name Local name Mobulidae 44 Manta birostris (Donndorff, 1798) Manta Ray Torpedinidae 45 timlei (Bloch-Schneider, 1801) 46 Narcine lingula (Richardson, 1846) 47 Narcine maculata ? Megalopidae or Elopidae 48 Megalops cyprinoides (Broussonnet, 1782) Indo-pacific tarpon or Oxeye Herring Clupeidae 49 Anadontostoma chacunda (Hamilton, 1822) Chacunda gizzard-shad Trey Yipun 50 Dussumieria acute (Valenciennes, 1822) Round Herring or Rainbow sardine 51 elongata (Bennett, 1830) Elongate ilisha 52 I. melastoma (Schneider, 1801) Indian ilisha 53 ditchela Valenciennes, 1847 Indian pellona 54 Pellona amblyuropterus (Bleeker, 1852) Javan ilisha 55 Ilisha macrophthalma (Swainson, 1838) Bigeyes Ilisha Trey Sloeuk Russey 56 Ilisha sladeni ? 57 albella (Valencienness, 1847) White sardinella 58 Sardinella aurita ? 59 Sardinella brachysoma (Bleeker, 1852) Deepbody sardinella Bleeker’s smoothbelly saedinella 60 Sardinella () clupeoides (Bleeker, 1849) Trey Kun or Round belly Sardinella 61 Sardinella fimbriata 62 Sardinella gibbosa (Bleeker, 1849) Goldstripe sardinella 63 Sardinella [?Amblygaster] leiogaster (Valenciennes, 1847) Smoothbelly sardine 64 Sardinella longiceps (Valenciennes, 1847) Indian oil-sardinella 65 Sardinella melanura (Cuvier, 1829) Blacktip sardinella 66 Sardinella sirm (Walbaum, 1792) Spotted sardinella 67 Sardinella jussieui (Valenciennes, 1847) 68 Herklotsichthys punctatus (Ruppell, 1837) Spotted herring Engraulidae 69 Stolephorus bataviensis (Hardenberg, 193?) Batavian anchovy 70 Stolephorus commersoni (Lacepede, 1803) Commerson’s anchovy 71 Stolephorus indicus (van Hasselt, 1823) Indian anchovy Trey Kakeum 72 Encrasicholina heterolobus (Ruppell, 1837) Shorthead anchovy 73 Thryssa hamiltonii (Gray, 1835) Hamilton’s anchovy 74 Thryssa mystax (Schneider, 1801) Moustached Thryssa 75 Thryssa vitrirostris (Gilchrist & Thompson, 1908) Orange-mouth thryssa 76 Thryssa setrirostris (Broussonet, 1782) Longjaw thryssa Chirocentridae Wolf-herring 77 Chirocentrus dorab (Forsskal, 1775) Dorab-wolf Herring Trey Srom Dav 78 Chirocentrus nudus (Swainson, 1839) Whitefin wolf-herring Trey Srom Dav Synodontidae Lizardfish 79 micropectoralis (Shindo & Yamada, 1972) Shortfin Lizard fish Greater lizardfish or Common 80 Saurida tumbil (Bloch, 1795) Grinner 81 Saurida gracillis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824) Gracile lizardfish 82 Saurida undosquamis (Richardson, 1848) Brushtooth Lizard fish Trey Kdor Chein 83 Saurida longimanus (Norman, 1939) Longfin lizardfish 84 Trachinocephalus myops (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Bluntnose lizardfish Ariidae Sea catfish 85 Arius caelatus (Valenciennes, 1840) Engraved catfish 86 Arius venosus (Valenciennes, 1840) Veined catfish 87 Arius maculatus (Thunberg, 1792) Spotted catfish 88 Arius thalassinus (Ruppell, 1837) Salmon catfish Trey Kaok 89 Arius sagor (Buchanan, 1822) Sagor catfish 90 Osteogeniosus militaris (Linnaeus, 1758) Soldier catfish Stinging catfish, Coral catfish, Plotosidae Trey Andeng samot catfish or barbel 91 lineatus (Thunberg, 1787) Striped eel catfish Trey Andeng Karang

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No. Scientific name: (Species) Vernacular name Local name 92 Plotosus canius (Hamilton-Buchanan, 182?) Eel catfish Trey Andeng poy Muraenidae Morays 93 Siderea thrysoidea (Richardson, 1844) Antong Samot 94 Siderea picta (Ahl, 1789) Speckled siderial moray Antong Samot 95 Lycodontis [?Gymnothorax] fimbriatus (Bennett, 1831) Antong Samot 96 Lycodontis [?Gymnothorax] undulatus (Lacepede, 1803) Mottled moray Antong Samot Pike congers 97 talabon (Cuvier, 1829) 98 cinereus (Forscal, 1775) Ophichthidae Snake eels and worm eels Rice-paddy eels or estuarine 99 Pisodonophis boro (Hamilton, 1822) Antong snake eel Belonidae Needlefish Trey Phtong 100 Ablennes hians (Valenciennes, 1846) Flat needlefish or Barred Longtom Trey Phtong Sampet 101 Strongylura strongylura (van Hasselt, 1823) Spottail needlefish Trey Phtong Samot Bregmacerotidae Codlets, Codlings 102 Bregmaceros macclellandi (Thompson, 1840) Spotted codlets Fistulariidae Cornetfish, flutemouth 103 Fistularia petimba Lacepede, 1803 Red cornetfish or Rough Flutemouth 104 Fistularia serrata (Cuvier, 1817) Razorfish 105 (Gunther, 1860) Razorfish Chay Krapeu 106 Centriscus scuttatus Linnaeus, 1758 Grooved razorfish Syngnatidae Sea Horse, pipefishes 107 Hippocampus japonicus ? Ses Samot 108 Hippocampus kuda Bleeker, 1852 Spotted seahorse Ses Samot 109 Syngnathus acus ? Ses Samot Holocentridae Squirrelfish, soldierfish 110 Holocentrus ruber ? Squirrelfish Pinecone soldierfish or Crimson 111 Myripristis murdjan (Forsskal, 1775) Trey Krahom Soldierfish Pineapplefish, Pinecone fish, Knight fish 112 Monocentrus japonicus (Houttuyn, 1782) Japanese Pineapplefish Trey Manaas Sphyraenidae Great barracuda or Spotbase Trey Ang Re Kantuy 113 Sphyraena barracuda (Walbaum, 1792) Burrfish Khmao Bigeye barracuda or forster’s 114 Sphyraena forsteri (Cuvier, 1829) Trey Ang Re Chnuot barracuda Pickhandle barracuda, Banded 115 Sphyraena jello (Cuvier, 1829) Trey Ang Re barracuda or Giant seapike 116 Sphyraena obtusata (Cuvier, 1829) Obtuse barracuda or striped seapike Trey Ang Re Loeung 117 Sphyraena langsar ? Trey Ang Re 118 Sphyraena pinguis ? Trey Ang Re 119 Sphyraena qenie Klunzinger, 1870 Military Seapike Trey Ang Re Mugilidae Mullets Liza alata (Steindachner, 1892) = L. vaigiensis (Quoy & 120 Diamond scaled grey mullet Trey Kbak Khmok Gaimard, 1824) 121 Valamugil ceheli (Forsskal, 1775) Bluespot grey mullets Trey Kbak Kong Kang 122 Valamugil speigleri (Bleeker, 1858) Speigler’s mullet Trey Kbak Samot Polynemidae , tasselfishes Fourfinger threadfin or Giant 123 Eleutheronema tetradactylum (Shaw, 1804) Trey Karav Threadfin 124 sextarius (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Blackspot threadfin Striped threadfin or Northern 125 Polydactylus plebius Broussonet, 1782 threadfin Centropomidae , sea perches 126 Lates calcarifer (Bloch, 1790) or Giant sea perch Trey Spong Prak 127 Psammoperca waigiensis (Cuvier, 1828) Waigeu sea perch or Sea Bass Trey Spong Toch Groupers, rockcod, hind, comber, Serranidae Trey Tocke coral trout, lyretail Slender grouper or white-lined 128 Anyperodon leucogrammicus (Valenciennes, 1828) Trey Tocke rockcod 129 Cephalopholis analis (Valenciennes, 1828) Strawberry hind Trey Tocke

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No. Scientific name: (Species) Vernacular name Local name 130 Cephalopholis argus Bloch & Schneider, 1801 Peacock grouper Trey Tocke 131 Cephalopholis aurantia (Schneider, 1801) Golden hind Trey Tocke Brown-barred grouper or chocolate 132 Cephalopholis boenack Bloch, 1790 Trey Tocke hind 133 Cephalopholis formosa (Shaw & Nodder, 1812) Bluelined hind Trey Tocke 134 Cephalopholis hemistiktos (Ruppell, 1830) Yellowfin hind Trey Tocke 135 Cephalopholis leopardus (Lacepede, 1802) Leopard grouper or leopard hind Trey Tocke 136 Cephalopholis miniata (Forsskal, 1775) Coral grouper or vermilion seabass Trey Tocke 137 Cephalopholis nigripinnis (Valenciennes, 1828) Duskyfin hind Trey Tocke 138 Cephalopholis oligosticta Randall & Ben Tuvia, 1983 Roughcheek hind Trey Tocke 139 Cephalopholis sexmaculata (Ruppell, 1830) Sixspot grouper or sixblotch hind Trey Tocke 140 Cephalopholis sonnerati (Valenciennes, 1828) Tomato grouper or tomato hind Trey Tocke 141 Cephalopholis pachycentron (Valenciennes, 1828) Brown-banded seabass Trey Tocke Barramandi cod or Polkadot 142 Cromileptes altivelis (Valenciennes, 1828) Trey Tok Ke Chrouk grouper or humpback seabass 143 Variola louti (Forsskal, 1775) Coronation Trout Trey Tocke 144 Epinephelus andersoni (Boulenger, 1903) Catface grouper Trey Tocke 145 Epinephelus awoara (Temminck & Schlegel, 1842 Yellow grouper Trey Tocke 146 Epinephelus bleekeri (Vaillant, 1877) Duskytail grouper Trey Tocke Khmao 147 Epinephelus brunneus (Bloch, 1793) Mud grouper Trey Tocke White-spotted grouper or 148 Epinephelus caeruleopunctatus (Bloch, 1790) Trey Tocke Ocellated Rockcod 149 Epinephelus chlorostigma (Valenciennes, 1828) Brown-spotted grouper Trey Tocke 150 Epinephelus cyanopodus (Richardson, 1846) Blue Maori grouper Trey tocke 151 Epinephelus diacantus (Valenciennes, 1828) Thorny cheek grouper Trey Tocke 152 Epinephelus epistictus (Temminck & Schlegel, 1842) Broken-line grouper Trey Tocke Black-tipped grouper or redbanded 153 Epinephelus fasciatus (Forsskal, 1775) Trey Tocke Krahom grouper Brown-marbled grouper or Flowery 154 Epinephelus fuscoguttatus (Forsskal, 1775) Trey Tocke cod 155 Epinephelus guaza (Linnaeus, 1758) Trey Tocke White-specked grouper or 156 Epinephelus hexagonatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Trey Tocke Hexagon Rockcod 157 Epinephelus maculatus (Bloch, 1790) Bar-Cheeked Coral Trout Trey Tocke Ach Phkay 158 Epinephelus malabaricus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Malabar grouper Trey Tocke Thmar 159 Epinephelus megachir (Richardson, 1846) Honeycomb grouper Trey Tocke Dwaft-spotted grouper or Honey 160 Epinephelus merra Bloch, 1793 Trey Tocke comb cod 161 Epinephelus microdon (Bleeker, 1856) Camouflage grouper Trey Tocke White-streaked grouper or 162 Epinephelus ongus (Bloch, 1790) Trey Tocke Spekled-fin Rockcod 163 Epinephelus sexfasciatus (Valenciennes, 1828) Six-banded rockcod Trey Tocke 164 Epinephelus summana (Forsskal, 1775) Summan grouper Trey Tocke 165 Epinephelus tauvina (Forsskal, 1775) Greasy grouper or Reef cod Trey Tocke Khmao 166 Epinephelus tukula Morgans, 1959 Potato grouper Trey Tocke och Thom 167 Epinephelus undulosus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824) Midwater grouper Trey Tocke 168 (Kuhl & van Hasselt, 1928) Yellow emperor 169 Plectropomus aerolatus (Ruppel, 1775) Polkadot cod Trey Tocke phkay Coral trout or Leopard grouper or 170 Plectropomus leopardus (Lacepede, 1802) Trey Tocke och khiev bluedotted coral-trout 171 Plectropomus maculatus (Bloch, 1790) Spotted coral trout 172 Plectropomus punctatus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824) Mottled coral-trout 173 Plectropomus truncatus Fowler & Bean, 1930 Squaretail coral-trout Trey Tocke 174 Promicrops lanceolatus (Bloch, 1790) Brindle grouper Moontail seabass or Coronation 175 Variola louti (Forsskal, 1775) grouper Teraponidae Therapons, terapon-perches Trey Trasak trachiek 176 Pelates quadrillineatus (Bloch, 1790) Fourlined terapon or Trumpeter khmao 177 Pelates oxyrhynchus (Temminck & Schlegel, 1842) Blotched therapon Trey Trasak Largescaled terapon or Banded 178 Terapon theraps Cuvier, 1829 Trey trasak Pruy Khmao grunter 179 Terapon jarbua (Forsskal, 1775) Jarbua therapon or Crescent perch Trey Trasak Thom Smallscaled terapon or trhee-lined 180 Terapon puta Cuvier, 1829 Trey Trasak Grunter

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No. Scientific name: (Species) Vernacular name Local name Bigeye snappers Trey Krahom Phnek 181 blochii (Bleeker, 1853) Bloch’s big or Paeony bulleye Thom Crescent-tail bigeye or Moontail 182 (Forsskal, 1775) Trey Kahom bulleyes 183 Priacanthus macracanthus Cuvier, 1829 Red bigeye snapper Trey Krahom 184 Priacanthus sagittarius Starnes, 1988 Robust bigeye Trey Krahom Purple spotted bigeye snapper or Trey Krahorm Phnek 185 Priacanthus tayenus Richardson, 1846 Threadfin bigeye Thom Apogonidae Cardinalfishes 186 Apogon lineatus ? 187 Apogon semilineatus Temmink & Schelgel, 1843 Black-tipped cardinalfish 188 Apogon thermalis Valenciennes, 1829 Thermal cardinalfish 189 Apogon notatus (Houttuyn, 1782) Spotnape cardinalfish 190 Apogon aureus (Lacepede, 1802) Ring-tailed cardinalfish 191 Apogon fleurieu ? 192 Apogon niger ? Sillaginidae Sillago whitings Trey Prolos Phka 193 Sillago maculata burrus Richardson, 1842 Trumpeter whiting Trey Prolos och 194 Sillago sihama (Forsskal, 1775) Silver sillago or Northern whiting Trey Prolos Lactariidae 195 lactarius (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) False Trevally Rachycentridae Cobias 196 Rachycentrum canadus (Linnaeus, 1766) Cobia Carangidae Round scads 197 Alectis ciliaris (Bloch, 1788) African pompano or Pennantfish Trey Chein Chas Indian threadfin or diamond 198 Alectis indicus (Ruppell, 1828) Trey Cheim Chas trevally Trey Kuon Kum kantuy 199 Atule mate (Cuvier, 1833) Yellowtail scad loeung 200 Atule djedaba (Forsskal, 1775) Solar scad or Shrimp scad Trey kuon kum 201 para Cuvier, 1833 Banded scad Blackfin trevally or Small mouth 202 Alepes melanoptera (Swainson, 1839) scad 203 Atropus atropus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Kuweh trevally 204 cilliarius (Ruppell, 1830) Longfin Cavalla Trey Kalock Boeuv ? Longnose trevally or Club-nosed 205 Carangoides chrysophrys (Cuvier, 1833) Trey Kaloch Boav trevally 206 Carangoides equula (Temminck & Schlegel, 1844) Whitefin trevally 207 Carangoides ferdau (Forsskal, 1775) Blue trevally 208 Carangoides fulvoguttatus (Forsskal, 1775) Yellow spotted trevally 209 Carangoides malabaricus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Malabar trevally 210 Carangoides caeruleopinnatus (Ruppell, 1830) Coastal trevally 211 Carangoides dinema (Bleeker, 1851) Shadow trevally 212 Carangoides plagiotaenia (Bleeker, 1857) Barcheek trevally 213 Caranx ignobilis (Forsskal, 1775) Giant trevally 214 Caranx helvolus Trevally 215 Caranx sexfasciatis Quoy & Gaimard, 1824 Bigeye trevally Trey Chuor Khmao 216 Caranx tille Valenciennes, 1833 Tille trevally 217 Caranx lugubris Poey, 1860 Black jack 218 Caranx melampygus Cuvier, 1833 Bluefin trevally 219 Caranx speciosus (Forsskal, 1775) Golden toothed trevally Trey Kam Kuoch 220 Decapterus maruadsi (Temminck & Schlegel, 1842) Round scad Trey Kaun Kum 221 Megalaspis cordyla (Linnaeus, 1758) Torpedo scad or Hard-tail scad Trey Kantuoy Roeung Yellow queenfish or Talang 222 Scomberoides commersonnianus Lacepedes, 1802 Trey Sampan / Kalang queenfish 223 Scomberoides lysan (Forsskal, 1775) Double-spotted queenfish Trey Kalang 224 Scomberoides tol (Cuvier, 1832) Needle-scaled queenfish 225 Selar crumenophthalmus (Bloch, 1793) Bigeye scad or Purse-eyed scad 226 Selar tala (Cuvier, 1832) Barred queenfish 227 Chorinemus sanctipetri (Cuvier, 1832) Spotted queenfish Yellow-stripe scad or Smooth- 228 Selaroides leptolepis (Kuhl & Van Hasselt, 1833) tailed trevally

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No. Scientific name: (Species) Vernacular name Local name 229 Seriolina nigrofasciata (Ruppell, 1829) Black-banded trevally Snubnose pompano or Snub- 230 Trachinotus blochii (Lacepede, 1801) nosed dart 231 Ulua mentalis (Cuvier, 1833) Long-rakered trevally 232 Uraspis helvola (Forster, 1801) White-tongue jack Carangidae 233 Parastromateus niger (Bloch, 1795) Black Pomfret Trey Chap Khmao Menidae Moonfish 234 maculata (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Moonfish Caesionidae 235 Dipterygonatus balteatus (Valenciennes, 1830) Mottled fusilier 236 Pterocaesio chrysozona (Cuvier, 1830) Goldband fusilier 237 Caesio coerulaureus Lacepede, 1801 Blue and gold fusilier 238 Caesio erythrogaster (Cuvier, 1830) Yellow tail fusilier Lutjanidae Snappers, jobfishes 239 argentimaculatus (Forsskal, 1775) Mangrove red snapper Trey Spong Krahom 240 (Forsskal, 1775) Twospot red snapper or Red bass Trey Spong Krahom Trey Ang Koeuy 241 Lutjanus fulviflammus (Forsskal, 1775) Blackspot snapper prachruy Lutjanus lineolatus (Ruppell, 1828) = Lutjanus lutjanus 242 Bigeye snapper Trey Krahom Bloch, 1790 Malabar red snapper or Saddle- 243 Lutjanus malabaricus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Trey Spong Krahom tailed seaperch John’s snapper or Fingermark 244 Lutjanus johni (Bloch, 1792) trey Spong seaperch 245 Lutjanus russelli (Bleeker, 1849) Russell’s snapper 246 Lutjanus sanguineus (Cuvier, 1828) Blood snapper Trey Krahom 247 Lutjanus sebae (Cuvier, 1828) Emperor red snapper trey Korm 248 Lutjanus vitta (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824) Brown striped snapper Trey Krahom Trey Ang Koeuy Krahom 249 Lutjanus erythropterus Bloch, 1790 Crimson snapper Khnaong Humback red snapper or 250 Lutjanus gibbus (Forsskal, 1775) Trey Ang Koeuy Krahom Paddletail snapper Yellow-streaked snapper or Dark- Trey Ang Koeuy Kantuy 251 Lutjanus lemniscatus (Valenciennes, 1828) tailed seaperch Kramao 252 pinjalo (Bleeker, 1850) Pinjalo snapper 253 Pristipomoides typus (Bleeker, 1852) Sharptooth snapper Blue-spotted jobfish or Rosy 254 Pristipomoides filamentosus (Valenciennes, 1830) snapper Nemipteridae Threadfin breams Trey krahom 255 bathybius Snyder, 1911 Yellow-belly Trey Krahom 256 Nemipterus bleekeri (Day, 1875) Delagoa threadfin bream 257 Nemipterus flavivantris ? 258 Nemipterus hexodon (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824) Ornate threadfin bream Trey Krahom 259 Nemipterus japonicus (Bloch, 1791) Japanese threadfin bream 260 Nemipterus marginatus (Valenciennes, 1830) Pale-finned threadfin bream 261 Nemipterus mesoprion (Bleeker, 1853) Redfilament threadfin bream 262 Nemipterus metopias (Bleeker, 1852) Slender threadfin bream 263 Nemipterus nemurus (Bleeker, 1857) Redspine threadfin bream 264 Nemipterus nematophorus (Bleeker, 1853) Doublewhip threadfin bream 265 Nemipterus peronii (Valenciennes, 1830) Rosy threadfin bream 266 Nemipterus tambuloides (Bleeker, 1853) Fivelined threadfin bream 267 Nemipterus tolu (Valenciennes, 1830) Notched threadfin bream Trey Krahom 268 Nemipterus virgatus (Houttuyn, 1782) Golden threadfin bream 269 Scolopsis bilineatus (Bloch, 1793) Twolined monocle bream 270 Scolopsis bimaculatus (Ruppell, 1828) Thumbprint monocle bream 271 Scolopsis monogramma (Kuhl & van Hasselt, 1830) Monogrammed monocle bream 272 Scolopsis frenatus (Cuvier, 1830) Seychelles monocle breams 273 Scolopsis taeniopterus (Kuhl & van Hasselt, 1830) Lattice or Redspot monocle bream 274 Scolopsis vosmeri (Bloch, 1792) Whitecheek monocle bream 275 Pentapodus porosus (Valenciennes, 1830) False Whiptail Lobotidae Tripletails 276 Lobotes surinamensis (Bloch, 1790) Tripletail

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No. Scientific name: (Species) Vernacular name Local name Leiognathidae Ponyfishes 277 Gazza minuta (Bloch, 1797) Toothed ponyfish Trey Sambor Hea / Kie 278 Leiognathus bindus (Valencienes, 1835) Orangefin ponyfish 279 Leiognathus daura (Cuvier, 1829) Goldstripe ponyfish 280 Leiognathus elongatus (Gunther, 1874) Slender ponyfish 281 Leiognathus equulus (Forsskal, 1775) Common ponyfish 282 Leiognathus fasciatus (Lacepede, 1803) Striped ponyfish 283 Leiognathus leuciscus (Gunther, 1860) Whipfin ponyfish 284 Leiognathus smithursti (Ramsay & Ogilby, 1886) Smithurst’s ponyfish 285 Leiognathus splendens (Cuvier, 1829) Splendid ponyfish 286 Leiognathus sp. Yellowspot ponyfish 287 Leiognathus elociscus ? 288 Leiognathus linealatus ? 289 Leiognathus nuchalis ? 290 Leiognathus rivulatus ? Secutor insidiator (Bloch, 1787) ?S. ruconius (Hamilton, 291 Pugnose ponyfish 1822?) Gerreidae , silver-biddies 292 Gerres abbreviatus (Bleeker, 1850) Deepbody 293 Gerres filamentosus Cuvier, 1829 Whipfin mojarra Trey Do Angkor 294 Gerres oyena (Forsskal, 1775) Common mojarra 295 Gerres poiti ? 296 Pentaprion longimanus (Cantor, 1850) Longfin mojarra Haemulidae Grunters, Sweetlips 297 Plectorhinchus nigrus ? 298 Plectorhinchus pictus (Thunberg, 1792) Yellowdot sweetlips 299 Plectorhinchus lineatus (Linnaeus, 1758) Diagonal-banded sweetlips 300 Pomadasys guoraka ? Pomadasys hasta (Bloch, 1790) =P. kaakan (Cuvier, 301 Lined silver grunt 1830) Blotched grunt or Blotched 302 Pomadasys maculatum (Bloch, 1797) javelinfish 303 Pomadasys opercularis (Playfair, 1866) Small-spotted grunt Sciaenidae Croakers, drums 304 Pennahia argentata (Houtuyn, 1782) Silver pennah croaker 305 Pennahia macrocephalus (Tang, 1937) Big-head pennah croaker 306 Pennahia pawak (Lin, 1940) Pawak croaker 307 Pennahia macrophthalmus (Bleeker, 1850) Bigeye croaker 308 Aspericorvina jubata (Bleeker, 1855) Prickly croaker 309 Dendrophysa russelli (Cuvier, 1830) Goatee croaker Sharp-toothed hammer croaker or 310 Johnius vogleri (Bleeker, 1853) Little jewfish 311 Johnius belangerii (Cuvier, 1830) Belanger’s croaker 312 Johnius dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1833) Bearded croaker 313 semifasciata Chu, Lo & Wu, 1963 Sharpnose croaker 314 Nibea soldado (Lacepede, 1802) Soldier croaker 315 Otolithes ruber (Schneider, 1801) Tiger-toothed croaker Trey Chang-caum Bey Otolithes cuvieri (new name proposed here by E. Trey Chang-caum Bey 316 Lesser tiger-toothed croaker Trewavas) Toch 317 Protonibea diacanthus (Lacepede, 1802) Spotted croaker or Black jew Trey Pama Samot 318 Pseudosiaena polyatis ? trey Kroab Khnuor or Emperors, scavengers Ang Koeuy 319 Lethrinus baematopterus ? 320 Lethrinus choerorhynchus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Bluestreak emperor Trey Ang Koeuy Blackspot emperor or Thumbprint Trey Ang Koeuy Khnao 321 Lethrinus harak (Forsskal, 1775) emperor khmao Redspot emperor or Purple- 322 Lethrinus lentjan (Lacepede, 1802) Trey Ang Koeuy Sar headed emperor Longface emperor or Sweetlip 323 Lethrinus miniatus (Schneider, 1801) Trey Ang Koeuy emperor 324 Lethrinus ornatus Valenciennes, 1830 Ornate emperor Trey Spong Chnot

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No. Scientific name: (Species) Vernacular name Local name Pentapodidae Large-eye breams 325 griseus (Schlegel, 1843) Grey large-eye bream 326 Gymnocranius robinsoni (Gilchrist & Thompson, 1908) Blue-lined large-eye bream Mullidae 327 cyclostomus (Lacepede, 1801) Goldsaddle 328 Parupeneus heptacanthus (Lacepede, 1801) Spotted golden goatfish 329 Parupeneus indicus (Shaw, 1903) Indian goatfish 330 Parupeneus chrysopleuron (Schlegel, 1843) Yellow striped goatfish 331 Parupeneus barberinoides (Bleeker, 1801) Swarthy-headed goatfish 332 Parupeneus rubescens (Lacepede, 1801) Rosy goatfish 333 Upeneus bensasi (Temminck & Schlegel, 1842) Bensasi goatfish 334 Upeneus sulphureus Cuvier, 1829 Yellow goatfish 335 Upeneus sundaicus (Bleeker, 1855) Ochrebanded goatfish Freckled goatfish or darkband 336 Upeneus tragula Richarson, 1846 goatfish 337 Upeneus taeniopterus (Cuvier, 1829) Fin-stripe goatfish 338 Upeneus vittatus (Forsskal, 1775) Yellow-striped goatfish Spadefishes 339 Ephippus orbis (Bloch, 1787) Spadefish Platacidae Batfishes Pinnate batfish or Long-finned 340 Platax pinnatus (Linnaeus, 1758) batfish Drepanidae Sicklefishes 341 Deprane longimana (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 342 Deprane punctata (Linnaeus, 1758) Spotted Sicklefishes Trey Trachiek Damrey Scatophagidae Scats 343 Scatophague argus (Linnaeus, 1766) Spotted scat Chaetodontidae 344 collare Bloch, 1787 Collare 345 Chaetodon modestus (Temminck & Schlegel, 1842) 346 Chaetodon ornatissimus Cuvier, 1831 Ornate butterflyfish 347 Parachaetodon ocellatus (Cuvier, 1831) Ocellate coralfish 348 Heniochus acuminatus (Linnaeus, 1758) Longfin bannerfish 349 chrysozonus (Cuvier, 1831) Orange-banded coralfish Angelfishes 350 Pomacanthus annularis (Bloch, 1787) Blue-ringed angelfish Trey Me Ham Boa 351 Pomacanthus imperator (Bloch, 1787) Emperor angelfish Semicircle angelfish or Blue 352 Pomacanthus semicirculatus (Cuvier, 1831) angelfish Cepolidae Bandfishes 353 Cepola schlegeli ? Damselfishes 354 planifrons ? 355 Pomacentrus tripunctatus Cuvier, 1830 Threespot damsel 356 Neopomacentrus cyanomos (Bleeker, 1856) Regal demoiselle 357 Abudefduf sordidus Forsskal, 1775 Blackspot sergeant major Wrasses, hogfishes, razorfishes, Labridae coris, tuskfishes 358 Bodianus macrourus (Lacepede, 1801) Black-banded hogfish 359 Choerodon anchorago (Bloch, 1791) Orange –dotted tuskfish 360 Choerodon robustus (Gunther, 1862) Robust tuskfish 361 Choerodon sp. Tuskfish 362 Labroides dimidiatus (Valenciennes, 1839) Cleaner wrasse 363 Pseudolabris gracillis ? Scaridae Parrotfish Yellowscale or Blue-barred 364 Scarus ghobban Forsskal, 1775 Trey Sek Loeung parrotfish 365 harid (Forsskal, 1775) Candelamoa parrotfish Trey Sek Pinguipedidae Sandmelts, sandperch, grubfishes Barfaced sandmelts or Red-barred 366 Parapercis nebulose (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824) grubfish 367 Parapercis pulchella (Temminck & Schlegel, 1843)

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No. Scientific name: (Species) Vernacular name Local name Uranoscopidae Stargazers 368 Uranoscopus guttatus (Cuvier, 1829) Champsodontidae Gapers 369 Champsodon snyderi ? 370 Champsodon microphthalmus (Regan, 1908) Callionymidae Dragonets 371 Callionymus calliste ? Blenniidae Combtooth and sabertoot blennies 372 Salarias fasciatus (Bloch, 786) Banded blenny 373 Xiphasia setifer Swainson, 1839 Hair-tail blenny Cutlassfishes, hairtailtail fish, frost Derepodichthydae fishes, scabbardfish 374 Derepodichthys alepidotus ? Brotulidae 375 Hoplobrotula armata ? Siganidae Spinefeet, Rabbit fishes White-spotted spinefoot or 376 Siganus canaliculatus (Park, 1797) Trey Kantang Ploeung Smudgespot spinrfoot Streaked spinefoot or Java 377 Siganus javus (Linnaeus, 1766) Trey Kantang spinefoot 378 Siganus fuscescens (Houttuyn, 1782) Black spinefoot Trey Kantang Phes Trichiuridae Hairtails 379 Trichiurus lepturus Linnaeus, 1758 Largehead hairtail Trey Kok 380 Eupheurogrammus muticus (Gray, 1831) Smallhead hairtail Scombridae Tunas 381 Auxis rochei (Risso, 1810) Corseletted frigate mackerel Trey Chheam 382 Auxis thazard (Lacepede, 1803) Frigate mackerel, Bullet tuna 383 Rastrelliger brachysoma (Bleeker, 1851) Short-bodied mackerel Trey Kamong / Pla Thu 384 Rastrelliger kanagurta (Cuvier, 1817) Indian mackerel Trey Palang 385 Scomberomorus commerson (Lacepede, 1800) Narrow-barred Spanish mackerel Trey Beka 386 Scomberomorus guttatus (Bloch & Schneider, Indo-Pacific Spanish mackerel Trey Beka 387 1801)Scomberomorus lineolatus (Cuvier, 1831) Streaked Spanish mackerel Trey Beka 388 Scomberomorus sinensis ? Trey Beka 389 Sarda orientalis (Temminck & Schlegel, 1844) Striped bonito or Oriental bonito Trey Chheam 390 Thunnus maccoyii (Castelnau, 1872) Southern bluefin tuna Trey Beka Indo-Pacific swordfishes, Xiphiidae Sailfishes, Marlins 391 Xiphias gladius Linnaeus, 1758 Swordfish Stromateidae White pomfrets 392 Pampus argenteus (Euphrasen, 1788) White pomfret, Silver pomfret Trey Chap Sar Ariommidae Ariommas 393 Ariomma indica (Day, 1870) Indian ariomma(= Indian driftfish) Gobies 394 histrio (Valenciennes, 1837) Broad-barred Maori goby 395 Acentrogobius gracilis (Bleeker, 1875) Mangrove goby 396 (Ruppell, 1830) Ornate goby Gobioididae 397 Ctenotrypauchen microcephalus ? 398 Laenioides gracilis ? 399 Odontamblyopus rubicunchus ? Scorpaenidae Scorpion fishes 400 Apistops coloundra (De Vis, 1886) Shortfinned waspfish 401 Pterois antennata (Bloch, 1787) Ragged-finned firefish Plaintail turkeyfish or Spotless 402 Pterois russellii Bennett, 1831 firefish 403 Synanceja verrucosa (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Reef stonefish Trey Khmoch 404 Sinanceja horrida (Linnaeus, 1766) Estuarine Stonefish 405 Sebastapistes cyanostigma (Bleeker, 1856) Yellow- spotted scorpionfish 406 Scorpaena aquabe (Flower & Steinitz, 1956) Scorpion fish Trey King Kuok 407 Scorpaenodes littoralis (Tanaka, 1917) Shore scorpionfish Trey King Kuok 408 Scorpaenopsis gibbosa (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Humpbacked scorpionfish Trey King Kuok

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No. Scientific name: (Species) Vernacular name Local name 409 sinensis (Valenciennes, 1833) Spotted Stinger Triglidae Gurnards & Searobin 410 Lepidotrigla argus Ogilby,1910 Long-Finned Gurnard Spiny flatheads 411 Cociella crocodilus (Tilesius, 1812) Crocodile flathead Trey Kantuy Krabey 412 indicus (Linnaeus, 1758) Bartail flathead Trey Kantuy Krabey 413 Suggrundus macracanthus (Bleeker, 1869) 414 Trysanophrys cirronasus ? 415 Trudis arenarius ? 416 Plalycephalidae gen sp. ? Exocoetidae 417 Cypselurus sp. ? Flyingfish Trey Chap Flying gurnards Trey Chap 418 Dactyloptaenia orintalis (Cuvier, 1829) Oriental flying gurnard 419 Dactyloptaenia peterseni (Nystrom, 1887) Starry flying gurnard Psettodidae Spiny , halibut Indian spiny turbots, Indian 420 Psettodes erumei (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Trey Oob Tuuk Kmao halibuts Lefteye Flounders Trey Andat Chke 421 Arnoglossus profundud (Kotthaus, 1977) 422 Chascanopsetta lugubris (Alcock, 1894) Pelican flounder 423 Engyprosopon grandisquama (Temminck & Largescale flounder 424 SGrammatobothus hl l 1846) polyophthalmus (Bleeker,1866) Three-spot flounder 425 Pseudorhombus arsius (Hamilton, 1822) Largetooth flounder Trey Oob Tuuk Krahom 426 Pseudorhombus dupliocellatus (Regan, 1905) Ocellated flounder 427 Pseudorhombus elevatus Ogilby, 1912 Deep flounder 428 Pseudorhombus javanicus (Bleeker, 1853) Javan flounder 429 Pseudorhombus malayanus (Bleeker, 1866) Malayan flounder 430 Pseudorhombus quinquocellatus (Weber & de Fivespot flounder 431 BPseudorhombus f t 1929) triocellatus (Gilchrist, 1905) Natal flounder Righteye flounders 432 Samaris cristatus Gray, 1831 Cockatoo flounder 433 Samariscus inornatus (Lloyd, 1909) Soles 434 Aseraggodes cyaneus (Alcock, 1890) 435 Pardachirus pavoninus (Lacepede, 1802) Peacock sole 436 Solea ovata (Richardson, 1849) 437 Zebrias quagga (Kaup, 1858) Fringefin zebra sole Cynglossidae Tongue soles Trey Andat Chke 438 abbreviatus (Gray, 1834) Threelines tongue sole Trey Andat Chke 439 Cynoglossus bilineatus (Lacepede, 1802) Fourlined tongue sole Trey Andat Chke 440 Cynoglossus cynoglossus (Ham. Buch., 1822) Bengal tongue sole Trey Andat chke 441 Cynoglossus puncticeps (Richardson, 1846) Speckled tongue sole Trey Andat Chke Echeneidae , sharksucker, discfishes Live sharksucker or Slender 442 Echeneis naucrates Linnaeus, 1758 suckerfish 443 remora (Linnaeus, 1758) Remora Triacanthidae Tripodfish, triplespine 444 Triacanthus strigilifer (Cantor, 1849) Long-spined tripodfish Balistidae 445 stellatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Starry trigger fish Trey Kuor 446 Balistapus undulatus (Park, 1797) Red-lined triggerfish Balistes fuscus ? Pseudobalistes fuscus (Bloch & 447 Yellow-spotted triggerfish Schneider, 1801) 448 vidua (Solander, 1844) Pinktail triggerfish Monacanthidae Filefishes, leather jackets 449 Chaetoderma penicilligera (Cuvier, 1817) Prickly leatherjacket 450 Paraluteres prionurus (Bleeker, 1851) Mimic leatherjacket Yellow finned or Unicorn 451 Aluterus monoceros (Linnaeus, 1758) Trey Kuor leatherjacket 452 Aluterus scriptus (Osbeck, 1765) Scribbled leatherjacket

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No. Scientific name: (Species) Vernacular name Local name 453 Paramonacanthus japonicua (Tilesius, 1809) Psilocephalidae 454 Psilocephalus barbatus ? Boxfishes, cowfishes Trey Kuor 455 cornuta (Linnaeus, 1758) Longhorn cowfish 456 Ostracion cubicus Linnaeus, 1758 Yellow boxfish 457 Ostracion gibbosus ? Hunchback boxfish or Black- 458 Tetrasomus gibbosus (Linnaeus, 1758) blotched turretfish Tetraodontidae Puffer fish, blow fish, tobies Trey Kampot Bristly puffer or Stars and Stripes 459 Arothron hispidus (Linnaeus, 1758) toadfish 460 Arothron stellatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Star puffer 461 Arothron leopardus (Day, 1878) 462 Chelonodon patoca (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) Milk-spotted toadfish 463 Fugu rubrispes ? 464 Fugu oblongus (Bloch, 1786) 465 Fugu niphobbes ? Lagocephalus inermis (Temminck & Schlegel, 466 Smooth golden toadfish 1844) 467 Lagocephalus lunaris (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Rough golden toadfish 468 Lagocephalus scleratus (Gmelin, 1788) Silver toadfish Diodontidae Porcupine fishes 469 Diodon holacanthus (Linnaeus, 1758) Freckled porcupine fish 470 Diodon hystrix Linnaeus, 1758 Porcupine fish Batrachoididae Frogfishes 471 Batrichthys grunniens? Frogfishes (also sea mice, Antennariidae anglerfish) 472 Antennarius hispidus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Shaggy anglerfish 473 Histrio histrio (Linnaeus, 1758) Sargassum fish Pegasiidae 474 Pegasus elongatus ? Apogon volitans (Linnaeus, 1758) = Pegasus 475 Slender seamoth volitans Linnaeus, 1758 476 Apogon umitengu ?

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ANNEX 2 List of Marine Crabs of Cambodia (Sources: Jensen & Try, 2002)

No. Scientific name Common name Khmer name

1 Chryptopodia fornicate (Fabricius, 1781) Kdam Snok

2 Ozins quttatus Milne Edward,1834 Spottedbelly rock crab Kdam Phkor Loin

3 Scylla serrata (Forsskål, 1775) Giant mud crab Kdam Thmor

4 Thalamita crenata (Latreille, 1829) Crenate swimming crab Kdam Thmor khiev Episesarma singaporenes (Tweendie, 5 Singapore vinegar crab Kdam Choi 1936) 6 Episesarma versicolor (Tweendie, 1940) Violet vinegar crab Kdam Choi

7 Matuta victor (Fabricius, 1781) Common moon crab Kdam Sor/Loeng Khchal

8 Dorippe frascome (Herbst, 1785) Kdam Saka Do

9 Parthenope longispinis (Mier, 1879) Kdam Ping Peang Ban Lar

10 Charybdis natator , Hrebst Hairy swimming crab Kdam Neak

11 Podophthalmus vigil (Fabricius, 1798) Sentinel crab Kdam Phnek Veng

12 Charybdis feriatus (Linnaeus, 1758) Crucifix crab Kdam Khla

13 Portunus pelagicus (Linnaeus, 1758) Flower crab Kdam Ses Kdam Ping Peang Kut 14 Doclea tetraptera Walker, 1890 Srouch Two spined arm swimming 15 Charybdis anisodon (de Haan, 1850) Kdam Dang Kieb Sor crab 16 Dorippe granulate de Hann, 1841 Kdam Saka Do

17 Lincosia rhomboidalis de Hann, 1850 Haswell’s button crab Kdam Khlok

18 Hyastenus pleione (Herbst, 1803) Kdam Ping Peang

19 Ixa cylindricus (Fabricius, 1777) Kdam Dom Bong

20 Arcania sagamiensis Sakai, 1969 Khdam Pong Peang

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ANNEX 3 List of Marine Molluscs of Cambodia (Sources: Jensen & Try, 2002)

MARINE BIVALVES No. Scientific name Common name Khmer name

1 Amusium pleuronectes (Linnaeus, 1758) Asian moon scallop Khchorng/Krom Plet

2 Malleus albus Lamarck, 1819 White hammer oyster Khchorng/Krom PoThav Dai

3 Trisidos tortuosa (Linnaeus, 1758) Prepellor ark Kreng Chheam Korng Har

4 Placamen calophyllum (Phillipi, 1846) Frilled venus clam Ngeav/Krom Sror kar Neak

5 Anadara nodifera (Martens, 1860) Nodular ark Kreng Chheam

6 Pteria penguin (Röding, 1798) Penguin wing oyster Khchorng/Krom Tror Ses

7 Pinna bicolor Gmelin, 1791 Bicolor pen shell Khchorng/Krom Chorb Chik

8 Tridacna squamosa Lamarck, 1819 Fluted giant clam Krom Yaik

9 Vepricardium sinese (Sowerby, 1841) Chinese cockle Kreng Chheam Moit Viech

10 Meretrix lyrata (Sowerby, 1851) Lyrate hard clam Kchorng/Kreng Sor

11 Perna viridis (Linnaeus, 1758) Green mussel Khchorng/Krom Chom Pus Tea

12 Scapharca inaequivalvis (Bruquière, 1789) Inequivalve ark Kreng Chheam Moit Viech

13 Pharella javanica (Lamarck, 1818) Javanese razor clam Khchorng Bam Pung/Krom Veng

14 Anadara binakayanensis (Faustino, 1932) Globose ark Kreng Chheam Mo Mis

15 Meretrix lusoria (Röding, 1798) Poker-chip venus Ngeav Sor/Ngeav Hol

16 Polymesoda erosa (Solander, 1786) Common geloina Ngeav Phouk

17 Donax cuneatus Linnaeus, 1758 Cradle or cuneate donax Ngeav Sar/Lies Sa Mort

18 Paphia undulata (Born, 1778) Undulate venus Ngeav/Krom Kra la Hol

19 Anomalocardia squamosa (Linnaeus, 1758) Squamose venus Ngeav Khloy/Kreng Moit Viech

20 Gafrarium tumidum Röding, 1798 Tumid venus Ngeav Phlet

21 Modiolus metcalfei (Henley, 1843) Yellowbanded horse mussel Krom Chorng Chak/ Ta Puk

22 Asaphis violascens Forsskåll, 1775 Pacific asaphis Kreng Chheam/Sor

23 Grassostrea belcheri (Sowerby, 1871) Belcher’s oyster Khchorng Dam Rey/Bei Dom

24 Anadara granosa (Linnaeus, 1758) Blood cockle or Granular ark Kreng Chheam

MARINE GASTROPODS No. Scientific name Common name Khmer name

1 Turbo marmoratus Linnaeus, 1758 Green Turbo or Green snail Khchorng Brak/Kuch

2 Turbo petholatus Linnaeus, 1758 Tapestry turban Khchorng Kror La Prum

3 Rapana rapiformis (Born, 1778) Turnish shaped rapa Khchorng Ban La Choeung Muoy

4 Strombus canarium Linnaeus, 1758 Dog conch Khchorng Choeung Muoy

5 Haliotis asinina Linnaeus, 1758 Donkey’s ear abalone Khchorng Pao Hoeu Veang

6 Haliotis ovina Gmelin, 1791 Oval abalone Khchorng Pao Hoeu Khley

7 Cypraea tigris Linnaeus, 1758 Tiger cowrie Khchorng Beer Leak

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No. Scientific name Common name Khmer name

8 Strombus luhuanus Linnaeus, 1758 Strawberry conch Khchorng Thnot/Khbal Khla

9 Harpa major Röding, 1798 Major harp Khchorng Kam Bau/Spoeu

10 Cypraea talpa Linnaeus, 1758 Mole cowrie Khchorng Beer Thnot

11 Turritella terebra (Linnaeus, 1758) Screw turret Khchorng Sang/Dek Kol

12 Vexillum taeniatum Lamarck, 1811 Banded vexillum Khchorng Dek Khoung Poir

13 Phallium glaucam (Linnaeus, 1758) Grey baonnet Khchorng Kan Dul

14 nobilis (Lightfoot, 1786) Nodle volute Khchorng Thnot

15 Lambis chiragra chiragra (Linnaeus, 1758) Chiragra spider conch Khchorng Bat Dai/Ban La

16 Ellobium aurisjudae (Linnaeus, 1758) Judas ear cassidula Khchorng Moit Viech

17 Melo melo (Lightfoot, 1786) Indian volute Khchorng Dong

18 Natica lineata (Röding, 1798) Lined moon snail Khchorng Phnek Broeus Chnot

19 Cassis cornuta (Linnaeus, 1758) Horned helmet Khchorng Khla/Som Bol Bei

20 Chicoreus ramosus (Linnaeus, 1758) Ramose murex Khchorng Ban La/Khchorng Sang

21 Cellana testudinaria (Linnaeus, 1758) Turtoiseshell limpet KhchorngDong/Dors Kra Mom

22 Cellana radiata (Born, 1778) Indo-Pacific limpet Khchorng Doun/Dors Kra Mom Khchorng Choeung Moiy Kror La Sam 23 Ficus subintermedia (Orbigny, 1852) Underlined fig shell Nanh 24 Bufonaria ranaLinnaeus, 1758 Common frog shell Khchorng Ban La Kley

25 Conus straitus Linnaeus, 1758 Straited cone Khchorng Thnot Kror La Kom

26 Conus textile Linnaeus, 1758 Textile cone Khchorng Kror La Sam Nanh

27 Babylonia areolata Link, 1807 Maculated ivory whelk Khchorng Pong Kroch

28 Conus betulinus Linnaeus, 1758 Beech cone Khchorng Ang Re

29 Strombus urceus (Linnaeus, 1758) Little pitcher conch Khchorng Sang Toch

30 Chicoreue brunneus (Link, 1807) Adusta murex Khchorng Ban La Teal

31 Phalium bisulcatum (Schuber&Wagner, 1829) Sophia’s bonnet Khchorng Huch

32 Murex trapa Röding, 1798 Rarespined murex Khchorng Ban La Vieng

33 Telebralia palustris (Linnaeus, 1758) Mud creeper Khchorng Deak Kol

34 Cerithidae quadrata (Sowerby, 1866) Quadrate horn shell Khchorng Chak Chreang

35 Archetectonica perspectiva (Linnaeus, 1758) Clear sundial Khchorng Rong Vel

36 Pugilina cochlidium (Linnaeus, 1758) Spira melongena Khchorng Ban La Teal

37 Polinices didyma Röding, 1798 Bladde moon snail Khchorng Phnek Broeus Leat

38 Turbo bruneus (Röding, 1798) Brown pacific turban Khchorng Brak Khchorng Phneak Broeus/ Khchorng 39 Natica vitellus (Linnaeus, 1758) Calf moon snail Pong Chab 40 Monodonta labio (Linnaeus, 1758) Labio monodont Khchorng Kror Ob Moit Chrok

41 Pugilina ternatana (Gmelin, 1791) Ternate melongena Khchorng Kam bor

42 Pugilina colosseus (Lamarck, 1860) Colossal melongena Khchorng Kam Bor Kout Moul

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – CAMBODIA ANNEX 4 PAGE 3

ANNEX 4 List of Marine Mammals of Cambodia (Sources: Tana, 1997; Beasley et al., 2001; Longdy & Sokhannaro 2002)

No. Scientific name Common name Khmer name

1 Orcaella brevirostris Irrawaddy dolphin Psoit Kbal Trorlok

2 Neophocaena phocaenoides Finless porpoise Psoit Oet Bruy Khanorng

3 Sousa Chinensis Indo-Pacific Hump-backed dolphin Psoit Khaleach

4 Dugong dugon Dugong Chrouk Toeuk

5 Tursiops aduncus Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin Psoit Chror Mos Dorb Chompus Khley

6 Tursiops truncatus Common bottlenose dolphin Psoit Chror Mos Dorb Chompus Veng

7 Stenella attenuata Pantropical spotted dolphin Psoit Uch

8 Delphinus capensis Long-beaked common dolphin Psoit Khamao Leoung Stenella longirostris 9 Dwarf spinner dolphin Psoit Chhanaut Phanek roseinventris 10 Globicephala macrorhynchus Short-fined pilot whale Ba Lenn Kbal Thom

11 Balaenoptera edeni Bryde’s whale Ba lenn Yairk

12 Pseudorca Crassidens False killer whale Ba LennKam Nach or Ba Lenn Kror Bey

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand

United Nations UNEP/GEF South China Sea Global Environment Environment Programme Project Facility

NATIONAL REPORT

on

The Fish Stocks and Habitats of Regional, Global, and Transboundary Significance in the South China Sea

INDONESIA

Mr. Parlin Tambunan Focal Point for Fisheries Directorate General of Capture Fisheries Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Jl Medan Merdeka Timur No. 16, Pusat 10110, Indonesia

PREFACE

This National Report is based on the results of the study completed by the UNEP/GEF consultant into Reversing Environment Degradation Trends in The South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand, with the title “Fish Stocks and Habitats of Regional, Global and Transboundary Significance in the South China Sea - Indonesia”. The review is based on previous studies, secondary data, and information gained from a number of linked institutions as previously agreed by the RWG-F. The Editorial Team would like to thank: (i) the Director of Fisheries Resources, Directorate General of Capture Fisheries as the Fisheries Focal Point for his support to the team in finishing the report; (ii) the National Committee of Fisheries and other linked institutions that have provided valuable inputs and other assistance so that we could complete this National Profile on fisheries together. Finally, we hope that this report may be useful as a source of information regarding Indonesian fisheries for interested parties.

NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – INDONESIA

Table of Contents 1. BACKGROUND ...... 1

1.1 OVERVIEW OF THE FISHERIES SECTOR ...... 1 1.1.1 Total catch by fishing area, port of landing or province (by species/species group).1 1.1.2 Fishing effort by gear ...... 3 1.1.2.1 Trawl ...... 4 1.1.2.2 Purse seine/ring net...... 5 1.1.2.3 Gill net...... 6 1.1.2.4 Traps...... 6 1.1.3 Economic value of catch...... 6 1.1.4 Importance of the Fisheries Sector in Terms of Employment & Dependence ...... 7 2. SPECIES OF REGIONAL, GLOBAL AND/OR TRANSBOUNDARY SIGNIFICANCE...... 8

2.1 RANKING OF IMPORTANCE IN TERMS OF...... 8 2.1.1 Landings (by site or province)...... 8 2.1.2 Local market value...... 10 2.1.3 Status (endangered, threatened, rare etc.) ...... 10 2.1.4 Food security (locally)...... 11 2.2 BIOLOGY & ECOLOGY OF THE SPECIES (FROM AVAILABLE INFORMATION)...... 11 2.2.1 Large pelagic fishes...... 11 2.2.2 Small pelagic species ...... 11 2.2.3 Demersal fish species...... 13 2.2.4 Commercially exploited invertebrates...... 13 2.2.4.1 Penaeid shrimps ...... 13 2.2.4.2 Squids...... 14 2.2.4.3 Sea urchins...... 14 3. CURRENT STATUS & THREATS...... 14

3.1 STATUS OF THE FISHERY IN TERMS OF CPUE ...... 14 3.2 STATUS OF FISH STOCKS BASED ON HISTORICAL REVIEW OF LANDINGS AND CPUE...... 15 3.3 THREATS ...... 15 3.3.1 Current...... 15 3.3.2 Potential...... 16 4. HABITATS & AREAS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE MAINTENANCE OF EXPLOITED FISH STOCKS ...... 16

4.1 PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS...... 16 4.1.1 Spawning and nursery grounds...... 17 4.1.2 Fishing grounds ...... 19 4.2 STOCKS WITH UNDEFINED SPAWNING GROUNDS ...... 19 4.3 THREATS (CURRENT AND POTENTIAL)...... 19 4.4 RANKING OF HABITATS ...... 19 4.4.1 Association with species of importance to food security ...... 19 4.4.2 Association with high values species ...... 19 4.4.3 Association with endangered, rare, threatened species...... 19 5. CURRENT MANAGEMENT REGIMES...... 19

5.1 LEGAL INSTRUMENTS ...... 19 5.2 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS (RESEARCH, MONITORING, CONTROL, & ENFORCEMENT) ...... 20 5.3 THE GOVERNMENT OF INDONESIA'S POLICY TO OVERCOME IUU FISHING PRACTICES ...... 21 5.4 OVERVIEW OF PATTERNS OF RESOURCE OWNERSHIP AND TRADITIONAL UTILISATION ...... 22 6. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS ...... 22

6.1 FISH RESOURCES ...... 22 6.2 HABITAT DEGRADATION...... 23 6.3 HUMAN RESOURCES ...... 23 REFERENCES...... 24

ii NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – INDONESIA 1

1. BACKGROUND

1.1 Overview of the Fisheries Sector

The objectives of capture fisheries management in Indonesia are to improve the welfare of the fishers, conserve fisheries resources and their environments, and increase foreign exchange earnings. The fisheries sector not only plays an important role in providing food for the nation, it also serves as a source of employment, income, and foreign exchange.

Small-scale fisheries play a dominant role in contributing fish for the domestic market or local consumption. On the other hand, landings for export are mostly derived from semi-industrial fisheries. Most inshore fish resources have been more intensively exploited than those offshore have.

Accordingly, fisheries in the South China Sea waters of Indonesia require sound management aimed at rebuilding resources and sustaining marine and coastal ecosystem integrity. The central and provincial governments have established a number of fisheries regulations, although they need to be implemented more vigorously. In managing the country’s fisheries, the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries has been used as a prime reference by government.

Over the 10-year period from 1991 to 2001, Indonesian fisheries have demonstrated slight increases in landings and their contribution to the national economy. Fish production from both capture fisheries and aquaculture in the South China Sea area increased at an average of 4.47% per annum during the period. Marine capture fisheries increased as much as 2.05% per annum. Fish landings for export of tunas and shrimps increased by an average of 8.49% and 5.48% per annum, respectively. During the same period, the contribution of fisheries to GDP increased at an average of 4.27% per annum.

1.1.1 Total catch by fishing area, port of landing or province (by species/species group)

During the last 10 years, Indonesia’s landings of marine fishes from the South China Sea and its adjacent waters, as part of the Sunda Shelf, have increased at an average of 2.05% per annum. It is surprising that during the same period, landings of skipjack tuna increased by more than 20%. So far, landings of other tunas have been variable, decreasing slightly from 1997 to 1998, followed by slight increases in recent times.

There are a number of landing places for the fleet fishing in the South China Sea, namely those located on the Island of Sumatra (Provinces of Riau, Jambi, South Sumatra and Bangka Belitung) and Kalimantan (Province of West Kalimantan). Figures 1 provides a map of Indonesian waters, whilst Figure 2 shows the Indonesian provinces that border the South China Sea. On average, fish landings in each province are approximately 200,000 tonnes per year, except in Jambi where landings are rarely more than 50,000 tonnes in a year.

Growth in total marine landings from the South China Sea accelerated from 1991 to 2000, although declined to approximately 0.5 million tonnes in 2001. In 2001, the total marine landings of 516,671 tonnes consisted of 40.27% (208,080 tonnes) demersal fishes, 31.15% (160,944 tonnes) pelagic fishes, 18.73% (96,783 tonnes) crustaceans, 6.13% (31,653 tonnes) molluscs, and 0.24% (1,237 tonnes) miscellaneous species or groups. Table 1 presents the landings of each group from the South China Sea from 1991 to 2001. Note that the catch of demersal fish levelled off since 1996. Similarly, the catch of pelagic fishes was stable from 1996 to 1999. Landings of demersal fish declined from 2000 to 2001. In light of increased levels of fishing effort, these catch trends indicate overfishing, especially for demersal fish stocks.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 2 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – INDONESIA

100° 110° 120° 130° 140°

N

W E 10° S 10° PACIFIC OCEAN SOUTH CHINA SEA

SULAWESI SEA

S U M A 0° T KALIMANTAN 0° E R A SULAWESI P A P U A JAVA SEA BANDA SEA J A V A FLORES SEA IN ARAFURA SEA DI 10° AN 10° O CE A N

100° 110° 120° 130° 140°

Figure 1 Map of Indonesian Waters, including the South China Sea, Java Sea, Flores Sea, Sulawesi Sea, Pacific Ocean, Banda Sea, Arafura Sea, and Indian Ocean.

100° 104° 108° 112° 116°

M N A L A W E C C A S S SOUTH CHINA SEA T R A IT 4° 4° N O S U R M TH A TE R A EAST R I KALIMANTAN A

W U S E U S WEST 0° M T 0° A KALIMANTAN T E R A CENTRAL J A M B I KALIMANTAN BANGKA B SOUTH E BELITUNG IN N SOUTH KALIMANTAN G D K SUMATERA I U A L 4° N U 4° O C E A LAMPUNG N JAVA SEA

100° 104° 108° 112° 116°

Figure 2 Indonesian provinces bordering the South China Sea, including the provinces of Riau, Jambi, South Sumatra, Bangka-Belitung, and West Kalimantan.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – INDONESIA 3

Table 1 Total landings of fish groups in the South China Sea from 1991 to 2001 (tonnes).

Category 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Demersal 377,760 404,995 417,069 426,244 462,487 510,777 529,461 526,491 566,019 668,992 208,080 Pelagic 749,593 803,873 827,928 846,208 918,877 1,014,588 1,050,817 1,044,774 1,123,784 1,332,128 160,944 Crustaceans 27,907 29,257 29,237 30,966 30,640 32,487 41,865 51,704 45,800 51,224 96,783 Molluscs 11,679 12,566 15,597 14,687 18,494 16,626 20,231 15,797 22,432 25,793 31,653 Other 0 3,280 2,361 472 1,261 1,334 262 0 0 23 1,237 Total 1,166,939 1,253,971 1,292,192 1,318,577 1,431,759 1,575,812 1,642,636 1,638,766 1,758,035 2,078,160 498,697 Source: Directorate General of Fisheries (DGF) (1993; 2003)

The bag gillnet (a gillnet fitted with a bag and pulled by a fishing boat) and fish net are commonly used by the commercial sector to exploit demersal fishes. Whilst set gillnets, hook and lines, and tidal-traps are most commonly used by fishers to catch demersal fish, especially in the eastern areas of Sumatra, including Riau, Jambi, South Sumatra, and Bangka-Belitung provinces. Sumiono et al. (2003) provide a review of the demersal fishery in the South China Sea, particularly the assessment of the distribution and abundance of demersal fish resources. Assessment of the status of currently fished demersal stocks indicates that these resources are biologically fully-exploited. In 2001, marine fisheries in the South China Sea area contributed 516,671 tonnes, or about 13%, to the total landings of marine fish in Indonesia. Total landings in Riau Province were 306,092 tonnes (59.24% of the total landings in the South China Sea), followed by West Kalimantan with 65,049 tonnes (12.59%), Bangka-Belitung with 54,223 tonnes (10.49%), South Sumatra with 46,192 tonnes (8.94%), and Jambi with 45,115 tonnes (8.73%) (Table 2).

Table 2 Marine fish landings (tonnes) in Indonesian provinces adjacent to the South China Sea in 2001. Category Province Total Demersal Pelagics Crustaceans Molluscs Others Riau 116,644 116,544 51,175 20,492 1,237 306,092 Jambi 16,677 6,878 19,009 2,551 0 45,115 South Sumatera 24,718 14,799 6,154 521 0 46,192 Bangka-Belitung 26,961 17,974 3,525 5,763 0 54,223 West Kalimantan 23,080 22,723 16,920 2,326 0 65,049 Source: DGF (2003)

1.1.2 Fishing effort by gear

The distribution of fish resources in Indonesian waters of the South China Sea is concentrated in inshore waters. The bulk of marine fish landings are derived from small-scale fisheries conducted in coastal waters. Fishing activities are significantly influenced by the occurrence of the two monsoon periods that alternate on a biannual basis.

The fisheries statistics published annually by the Directorate General of Fisheries (DGF) highlight the wide range of gear types and fishing boats employed in Indonesian fisheries. Specifically, 29 fishing gear types are used, ranging from simple traditional gears, including hand lines, to more complex “modern” gears, including purse seines and longlines.

For planning purposes, Indonesia’s marine fisheries sector is divided into small, medium, and large- scale fisheries. Both medium and large-scale fisheries are distinguished from small-scale fisheries by the use of inboard engine powered boats. Similarly, large-scale fisheries are differentiated from medium-scale fisheries based on investment levels and the areas in which they are permitted to operate. In this report, fishing activities are divided into 2 categories.

According to DGF, all boats powered by inboard engines (typically diesel) can be classified as either medium or large-scale. Small-scale fisheries, which are the most important in terms of employment, number of fishing units, and quantity of landings, are distinguished from the other categories by type of boat employed.

Indonesian marine fisheries in the South China Sea are mostly small-scale. Small-scale fisheries are defined as those in which fishing is conducting using boats powered by sail or outboard engines.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 4 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – INDONESIA

Fishers operating fishing gear without boats are also classified as small-scale. So far, Indonesia’s small-scale fishing fleet has been divided into the following 3 categories: (i) Dug out boat, i.e., boat made of hollowed-out logs. In 2001, only 0.02% of this boat type in Indonesia was observed in the South China Sea. (ii) Non-powered plank built boats are divided into small (<7 m in length); medium (7 to 10m), and large (>10 m) categories. In 2001, the combined total number of these boats was 40,470, or 15.49% of the total fishing boats in Indonesia. (iii) Out-board motor powered boats have engines attached to the rear of the boat. Some of these boats use modified gasoline or diesel generators with a long trailing propeller shaft and engine from 2 to 15 HP. In 2001, there were 230 boats of this type, or 0.22% of the total fishing boats in Indonesia.

The numbers of units of each fishing boat type are presented in Table 3.

At present, marine capture fisheries in the Indonesian part of the South China Sea are characterised by the use of various types of fishing gear to catch a diverse range of Indonesian fish species. These fishing gears are categorised into commercial fishing gears, including Danish seines, purse seines, drift/gillnets, and traditional fishing gears, including hook and line, trammel nets, liftnets, and traps. However, the fishing gears contributing to the bulk of the landings include Danish seines, purse seines, drift/gill nets, hook and line, and tidal-trap nets. Table 4 provides the number of fishing gear units used in the Indonesian part of the South China Sea.

Table 3 Number of fishing boats by sub-sector and size used in Indonesian waters of the South China Sea in 2001.

Boat type Boat number Percentage 1. Small-scale fishery

dug-out boat 19 0.03 plank-built boat - small 5,592 9.61 - medium 5,831 10.02 - large 1,055 1.81 out-board motor 4,979 8.56 Sub total 17,476 30.03 2. Medium-scale fishery

In-board powered boats: - less than 5 GT 29,208 50.20 - 5 to 10 GT 9,243 15.87 - 10 to 20 GT 1,522 2.62 - 20 to 30 GT 501 0.86 Sub total 40,474 69.55 3. Large-scale fishery

- 30 to 50 GT 110 0.19 - 50 to 100 GT 75 0.13 - 100 to 200 GT 44 0.08 - 200 to 300 GT 1 0.001 Sub total 230 0.42 T o t a l 58,180 100 Source: DGF (2003)

1.1.2.1 Trawl

As trawl fishing has been banned in Indonesian waters since 1980, except in the Arafura Sea, there is no trawling conducted legally in the Indonesian part of the South China Sea. The Indonesian Government is now combating illegal fishing in its territorial waters and exclusive economic zone (EEZ). It is also working with neighbouring countries to curb regional problems with illegal fishing.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – INDONESIA 5

Table 4 The number of fishing gear units used in Indonesian waters of the South China Sea from 1991 to 2001.

Fishing gear 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Payang (included 1,094 817 1,233 1,208 1,146 1,239 2,005 3,282 35,375 3,764 543 Lampara) Danish seine 240 296 297 281 240 201 221 241 241 241 375 Beach seine 1,140 1,122 1,154 1,114 2,117 2,168 1,741 1,782 16,975 1,952 1,726 Purse seine 71 62 62 77 129 155 734 840 1,011 1,210 1,187 Drift gill nets 7,397 7,493 7,724 8,202 7,808 8,233 9,531 10,202 10,372 10,281 7,486 Encricling gill nets 432 465 478 491 583 549 343 608 428 248 277 Shrimp gill nets 2,423 2,852 3,120 2,491 1,935 2,099 1,449 2,444 20,995 1,858 597 Set gill nets 3,359 3,358 3,453 3,529 5,148 5,175 4,481 4,966 4,973 5,098 5,135 Trammel nets 2,267 1,969 1,823 1,713 1,772 1,820 4,667 2,629 2,591 2,103 2,878 Boat/Raft nets 828 1,213 900 0 932 1,015 1,069 1,030 0 0 0 Bagan (included Kelong) 2,366 2,459 3,056 4,138 3,621 3,783 4,501 5,107 4,437 4,689 3,115 Scoop nets 1,316 1,085 805 558 1,103 796 796 1,293 690 279 512 Other lift nets 3,915 1,330 1,290 1,200 1,184 1,157 1,149 1,050 893 1,114 1,515 Tuna long line 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Drift long line 639 709 596 394 306 325 358 179 592 464 526 Set long line 2,249 1,945 2,258 2,468 3,263 6,093 6,475 6,736 7,585 4,772 4,748 Skipjack pole and line 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other pole and line 9,468 9,393 10,106 10,428 8,241 11,595 12,238 13,752 10,760 9,916 8,107 Troll line 830 889 1,210 1,202 760 877 1,295 1,362 1,217 1,269 1,236 Guiding barriers 1,100 1,603 1,569 1,855 2,795 2,680 3,281 3,650 3,125 2,675 1,996 Stow nets 2,996 3,380 2,342 2,642 2,793 2,738 3,816 3,006 3,710 5,852 5,534 Portable traps 792 364 882 714 1,367 2,827 1,687 1,851 1,570 1,368 1,390 Other traps 1,435 1,649 1,505 1,880 2,429 2,466 2,436 2,184 21,355 2,204 1,735 Shell fish collection 2,744 2,327 4,356 2,636 1,462 1,515 1,342 1,389 1,280 1,678 1,998 Sea weed collection 77 0 0 36 0 0 0 0 0 99 0 Muroami 33 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 21 100 Cast nets, Harpon, etc. 956 806 1,138 573 53 134 412 409 322 477 534 Source: DGF (1993;2003)

1.1.2.2 Purse seine/ring net

Since the banning of trawl fishing in the 1980's, landings from the purse seine fleet have played a significant and dominating role in Indonesia’s fish production. Purse seines are commonly used in all Indonesian waters to catch small tunas and other pelagic fishes. However, purse seine use is particularly prevalent in the Sunda Shelf area of Indonesia. The number of purse seine boats operating in the Indonesian part of the South China Sea increased from 71 units in 1991 to 1,187 units in 2001. Purse catches have increased accordingly from 2,141 tonnes in 1991 to 35,935 tonnes in 2001 (DGF 1993; 2003). Despite this growth trend, the catch per unit effort (CPUE) of purse seine operations has steadily declined over the last five years.

According to Potier and Sadhotomo (1994), 3 kinds of purse seine boats are used in the Java Sea, the South China Sea, and the Makassar Strait. Mini-purse seine fisheries use wooden boats with semi dugout and planked boats. The fishing areas are located along the coast, approximately 30 miles offshore. They stay at sea for 1 to 3 days. The medium sized purse seine fisheries use wooden boats fitted with inboard engines of 35 to 100 HP. Boat lengths range from 15 to 20m, with a capacity to hold between 20 and 25 tonnes of fish. They stay at sea for 8 to 15 days. The large purse seine fisheries use flat bottom boats fitted with inboard engines of at least 160 HP. These boats typically have a fish holding capacity of 50 to 80 tonnes, and are operated by a crew of 30 to 40 fishers.

The large purse seine boats usually operate in the Indonesian part of the South China Sea. Most of the purse seine boats in the South China Sea area are wooden, with a size range from 80 to 100 GT. Most boats are equipped with electronic and mechanical devices, including a generator (6000 watt), sonar, depth sounder, radar, direction finder, and power block. In general, 1 to 3 deployments are conducted per boat per night. The purse seine itself is usually 400 to 750m long, 50 to 100m deep, with a mesh size of 0.75 inches in the bunt area. Purse seine catches are dominated by shortfin scad (Decapterus macrosoma), followed by Indian mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 6 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – INDONESIA

1.1.2.3 Gill net

Gill nets are single-walled nets found in various mesh sizes. Fish of different body shapes and sizes are gilled, wedged, or entangled in gillnets as they attempt to swim through them. Trammel nets are included in this group. These are passive gear, but fishers may drive or herd fish into gill nets. The use of drifting gill nets is widespread and most common in the Indonesian part of the South China Sea. The netting material is monofilament for small-scale gill nets, and multifilament for large-scale gill nets. Drifting gill nets hang on floats just below the surface and are used to capture various pelagic species. Gill nets used to catch demersal species are set on the seafloor with the use of anchors and ballast. However, trammel nets are increasingly replacing set gill nets. Trammel nets consist of 3 panels of netting of different mesh size. The primary target species of trammel nets are shrimp.

Drifting gillnets are commonly used to catch pelagic fish in coastal waters adjacent to Riau and West Kalimantan Provinces. The number of units of this gear type used in the Indonesian part of the South China Sea increased from 7,397 units in 1991 to 10,281 units in 2000. However, the number of trammel nets used remained relatively stable during the same period.

1.1.2.4 Traps

This gear category includes large stationary gears (guiding barriers and stow nets) and various small traps. Guiding barriers (sero) consist of a long stationary barrier set perpendicular to the current. Generally, guiding barriers are used along the coast of eastern Sumatra and the Malacca Straits. Typically, these gears consist of a series of four enclosed chambers, flanked by two wings and a prolonged leader. This arrangement is made of bamboo poles and slabs of split bamboo. It is regarded as a traditional fishing gear, and is used to catch demersal finfish and shrimps in shallow protected waters. Stow nets (jermal), or filter bag nets, are set or towed against a current. They usually have wings made of netting, bamboo matting, or leaves and branches. In the waters of East Sumatra and West Kalimantan, the wings of jermal are made from bamboo poles. In these areas, this gear is set semi-permanently in relatively deep waters, with the bamboo pole wings leading into the trap mouth.

A survey was conducted during a series of high tides in the coastal waters of Riau from October to November 1998. Badrudin et al. (2001) reported that the catches of guiding barrier and stow nets ranged from 100 to 200 kg per haul. The net was usually hauled twice a day.

1.1.3 Economic value of catch

The total value of Indonesian marine fish landings from the South China Sea was 3,345,864 million Rupiah. From the view point of value, Riau Province generated revenues as high as 1,201,802 million Rupiah in 2001, followed by Bangka-Belitung Province with 728,041 million Rupiah, West Kalimantan Province with 946,282 million Rupiah, South Sumatra Province with 270,311 million Rupiah, and Jambi Province with 199,426 million Rupiah (Table 5).

Table 5 Volume and value of Indonesian marine fish landings from the South China Sea in 2000 and 2001. 2000 2001 Province Volume Value Volume Value (ton) (Rp. 1,000.-) (ton) (Rp. 1,000.-) Riau 286,290 1,163,592,330 261,519 120,1802356 South Sumatera 157,530 394,821,930 46,192 270,311,450 Jambi 41,106 308,375,005 44,935 199,426,680 West Kalimantan 61,503 766,724,585 64,616 946,282,452 Kepulauan Bangka Belitung*) 107,409 728,041,855 Total 546,429 2,633,513,850 524,671 3,345,864,793 *) New province since 2001. Source: DGF (2003) (1 US$ = 8,500 to 9,500 Rupiah)

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – INDONESIA 7

During 1999, the main fish groups exported from Indonesia's catches in South China Sea areas were penaeid shrimp and tuna, including skipjack tuna and eastern little tuna. Riau Province made the largest contribution to fish exports (87,935 tonnes), followed by the provinces of South Sumatra (9,690 tonnes), West Kalimantan (2,829 tonnes), and Jambi 2,068 (tonnes). Of the total 102,522 tonnes of fish product exports, penaeid shrimps and tuna contributed 11,024 tonnes and 2,656 tonnes, respectively. The remaining 88,842 tonnes was comprised of ‘other’ non-specified species (Table 6).

Table 6 Fishery exports from Indonesian provinces bordering the South China Sea in 1999 (tonnes). South West Fish resources Riau Jambi Total Sumatra Kalimantan Penaeid shrimps 4,667 1,866 1,812 2,679 11,024 Tunas 2,636 0 20 0 2,656 Others 80,632 202 7,858 150 88,842 Total 87,935 2,068 9,690 2,829 102,522 Source: DGF (2001).

1.1.4 Importance of the Fisheries Sector in Terms of Employment & Dependence

The province of Riau has Indonesia’s largest South China Sea fishing area. As a result, Riau is the largest fish producing and exporting province adjacent to the South China Sea. Additionally, Riau Province has the largest number of fisheries labourers. In 2001, this province provided employment for 94,502 full-time and 33,109 part-time fishers. At that time, the number of full-time and part-time fishers employed in other provinces was: South Sumatra Province, 9,121 and 10,462; West Kalimantan Province, 17,409 and 24,887; Jambi Province, 2,382 and 1,283; and Bangka-Belitung Province, 32,228 and 8,229 (Table 7).

Table 7 Number of full-time and part-time fishers in Indonesian provinces adjacent to the South China Sea in 2001.

Province Full-time Part-time Total Riau 94,502 33,109 127,611 Jambi 2,382 1,283 3,665 South Sumatra 9,121 10,462 19,583 West Kalimantan 17,409 24,887 42,296 Bangka-Belitung 32,288 8,229 44,517 Total 146,634 69,768 216,402 Source: DGF (2003).

There are many small fishing boats working in Indonesian areas of the South China Sea, namely: (i) non-powered boats; (ii) boats with outboard engines; and (iii) boats with inboard engines. In 2001, there were 29,208 fishing boats with inboard engines and a size of 5 GT or less, 12,497 non-powered boats, and 9,243 boats with inboard engines and a size from 5 to 10 GT (Table 8).

Riau and West Kalimantan Provinces own more boats than the other provinces. A number of large inboard engine fishing boats (100 to 200 GT) are based in West Kalimantan Province. Table 8 Number of different sized fishing boats operating in Indonesian waters of the South China Sea in 2001.

Province Non- Outboard <5 GT 5 – 10 10-20 20-30 30-50 50-100 100-200 powered engine GT GT GT GT GT GT Riau 8,193 1,808 17,385 6,366 787 101 74 31 29 Jambi 107 0 3,570 408 167 147 1 0 0 South Sumatra 910 100 2439 410 46 132 12 17 0 West Kalimantan 1,685 1,66 1,652 1,367 317 121 23 27 16 Bangka-Belitung Isl. 1,602 1,807 4,162 683 205 0 0 0 0 Total 12,497 4,979 29,208 9,243 1,522 501 110 75 45 Source: DGF (2003).

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2. SPECIES OF REGIONAL, GLOBAL AND/OR TRANSBOUNDARY SIGNIFICANCE 2.1 Ranking of importance in terms of 2.1.1 Landings (by site or province) The 208,080 tonnes of demersal fish landed in 2001 was 29% higher than the total volume of pelagic fish landings. Approximately 70% of demersal fish landings were derived from commercial fishing. Traditional fishing gears, especially tidal trap-nets, are the main fishing gear types used to catch demersal fish species in eastern Sumatran waters. Within the last decade, i.e., from 1991 to 2001, demersal fish catches were dominated by red snappers (7.48%), followed by sea catfish (6.55%), croakers (4.90%), Bombay-duck (4.50%), threadfin bream (4.37%), sharks (3.64%), and rays (3.31%) (Table 9). The remaining groups of demersal fish belonged to the 'others' category that composed about 43.46% of total catch (DGF 1993; 2003). So far, the category of 'other' has been used for demersal fish of poor commercial value, including species of the families of Apogonidae, Plotosidae, Pomacanthidae, Platycephalidae, Tetraodontidae, and Ophiidae, as well as juveniles of commercially important species such as the white pomfret (Pampus argenteus). This category dominated catches in the tidal trap-net fishery conducted along the east coast of Sumatra and the west coast of Kalimantan. According to Badrudin et al. (2001), the catches of tidal trap-nets in coastal waters of Riau Province were dominated by juveniles of Bombay- duck (Harpodon nehereus), hair-fin anchovy (Setipinna spp.), small individuals of black pomfret (Formio niger), marine catfish (especially Arius caelatus), and shrimps. Based on the results of a trawl survey conducted in Indonesia’s South China Sea areas, there are a number of demersal species, including red fish (Priacanthus tayenus), red seabreams (Scolopsis taeniopterus, Nemipterus tambuloides, and Nemipterus peronii), lizardfish (Saurida undosquamis), and goatfish (Upeneus bensasi), that are almost always present in landings.

Table 9 Catch composition by group of species of demersal fish (tonnes) in Indonesian waters of the South China Sea from 1991 to 2001.

Common names 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Ave. (%) Indian halibuts 559 556 941 369 627 958 1,279 1,772 1,446 1,373 1,541 0.50 Flat fishes 154 172 427 24 102 437 1,046 783 767 273 287 0.19 Bombay duck 13,784 11,188 11,018 10,765 9,538 8,622 9,346 9,613 6,763 6,785 6,093 4.50 Pony fishes 1,726 1,840 1,959 2,837 3,517 2,882 5,123 4,617 5,913 6,229 1,555 1.66 Sea 10,418 10,250 11,668 12,696 15,464 16,379 16,803 16,785 15,061 14,073 110,130 6.55 Lizard fishes 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 Goat fishes 201 200 154 137 353 1,183 748 850 857 1,149 1,288 0.31 Grunters 2,152 2,144 2,809 2,783 2,953 3,370 3,901 3,886 3,230 3,581 3,400 1.49 Red snappers 12,948 14,586 13,574 14,002 14,693 17,840 18,556 18,912 18,642 14,848 13,585 7.48 Groupers 1,572 3,286 5,837 16,509 4,837 5,274 5,525 5,852 5,941 7,129 6,933 2.99 Emperors 850 429 866 826 1,640 2,276 2,568 2,995 2,994 3,172 2,413 0.91 Barramundi 2,747 2,114 2,364 2,064 6,305 4,906 5,066 7,924 8,156 5,944 6,115 2.33 Treadfin breams 8,292 8,672 8,181 8,996 9,400 13,003 8,956 10,315 9,903 8,531 6,229 4.37 Big eyes 341 273 12 8 119 6 357 7 0 463 0 0.07 Yellow tails/Fusiliers 3,894 3,064 2,055 4,138 3,296 7,814 10,747 10,240 10,211 9,097 8,956 3.19 Croakers/Drums 6,795 8,502 10,012 6,312 7,524 12,802 11,906 11,739 14,226 11,482 11,436 4.90 Sharks 6,372 7,396 9,084 6,964 8,082 7,627 7,489 7,690 7,841 8,265 6,859 3.64 Rays 5,372 5,904 6,128 5,350 6,382 7,606 8,114 8,780 9,333 8,506 4,730 3.31 Black pomfret 3,918 3,714 4,035 5,844 4,063 4,934 5,360 4,751 4,904 4,935 5,314 2.25 Silver pomfret 2,046 2,191 2,234 2,450 2,895 4,041 3,972 4,560 5,593 6,311 5,509 1.82 Threadfins 3,425 2,536 2,418 2,662 8,016 4,828 6,156 6,309 7,243 7,150 7,320 2.52 Hair tail 1,720 2,362 1,838 1,129 1,931 15,482 1,942 2,609 2,501 1,977 2,520 1.57 Others 87,045 90,327 90,788 88,766 83,718 89,519 88,746 88,440 101,744 122,848 68,023 43.46 Total 176,331 181,706 188,402 195,631 195,455 231,789 223,706 229,429 243,269 254,121 280,236 100 Source: DGF (1993; 2003).

The landing of pelagic fishes from the South China Sea was 160,944 tonnes in 2001. Most of the landings, about 72%, came from Riau Province, 14% from West Kalimantan Province, 11% from Bangka-Belitung Province, 9% from South Sumatra Province, and 6% from Jambi Province. Landings of pelagic fish from the South China Sea from 1991 to 2001 are presented in Table 10.

Eastern little tuna (10.43%), fringescale sardinella (8.99%), Indian mackerel (7.65%), narrow-barred king mackerel (6.49%), wolf herring (6.41%), and anchovies and trevallies (5.98%) dominated catches of pelagic fish. The remainder of the catch was recorded under the category of 'others', representing as much as 30.83% of total pelagic landings (Table 10).

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Table 10 Catch composition of pelagic fish (tonnes) in Indonesian waters of the South China Sea from 1991 to 2001.

Ave. Common names 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 (%) Barracudas 898 1,051 970 183 1,181 749 716 957 995 804 796 0.03 Scads 285 0 199 202 1,669 2,180 2,907 3,624 4,048 6,592 6,685 1.37 Trevallies 9,345 9,497 8,020 8,985 11,709 12,969 13,342 13,910 14,019 14,557 7,289 5.98 Jacks trevallies 1,462 1,845 1,914 2,931 2,229 2,882 2,373 3,954 4,068 3,427 2,441 1.43 Hjardtail scads 792 892 1,078 1,004 830 1,222 1,323 2,148 2,353 2,436 552 0.71 Queen fishes 2,008 2,127 2,300 1,819 3,262 2,927 3,067 3,737 4,843 4,138 2,901 1.60 Rainbow runner 120 122 147 268 287 190 0 0 0 0 0 0.05 Flying fish 0 0 0 0 176 283 396 470 510 0 0 0.09 Mullets 2,879 4,018 4,191 4,280 4,314 5,236 5,080 4,892 5,281 5,143 4,077 2.39 Needle fishes 70 89 407 583 992 1,386 1,049 1,434 1,475 1,550 4,573 0.66 Anchovies 8,043 8,581 8,378 8,787 11,030 10,756 18,298 15,966 13,777 16,131 3,845 5.98 Rainbow sardine 2,288 2,336 4,358 4,290 5,108 5,391 3,303 5,932 5,742 5,882 9,484 2.62 Fringescale sardinella 16,236 16,688 15,186 14,579 14,962 16,368 15,621 20,487 23,339 23,196 9,161 8.99 Indian sardinella 8,126 8,250 7,352 8,444 9,522 9,544 8,591 9,709 11,446 11,545 278 4.49 Wolf herrings 8,979 7,933 8,447 9,212 12,978 13,589 15,393 13,566 14,424 14,762 13,289 6.41 Chinese herrings 0 0 0 0 0 0 68 100 96 40 920 0.06 Indian mackerels 9,959 10,082 11,027 16,807 19,689 20,558 18,423 13,119 15,740 16,192 6,539 7.65 Indo-pacific king mackerel 568 581 629 630 1,098 954 808 1,011 612 1,137 1,241 0.45 Narrow barred king mackerel 10,843 10,160 9,824 10,334 14,281 14,389 16,913 13,246 13,575 12,036 8,631 6.49 Tunas 91 93 0 0 0 0 0 64 0 0 433 0.03 Skipjack tuna 6 473 0 0 763 717 3,198 3,536 3,649 4,446 4,685 1.04 Eastern little tuna 13,642 14,715 14,830 16,475 19,764 19,252 20,881 21,301 18,790 28,354 27,595 10.43 Others 52,226 55,805 53,973 54,147 51,629 57,105 56,817 61,107 66,290 78,503 45,529 30.63 Total 148,866 155,338 153,230 163,960 187,473 198,647 208,567 214,270 225,072 250,871 160,944 100 Source: DGF (1993;2003)

Atmadja (1999) described the scad population that is fished in the southern part of the Sunda Shelf, i.e., the Java Sea. In general, the distribution of was concentrated in the southern part of the South China Sea. It was found that the scads (Decapterus spp.) provided the major component of the small pelagic fish resources in those areas. Additionally, Wagiyo and Nurdin (2002) describe the small pelagic fish resources of northern Indonesia waters, adjacent to Anambas and Natuna Islands. According to this study, a number of species of Clupeidae and Carangidae dominate the small pelagic fish fauna in this part of the South China Sea. Trolling has recently been conducted to catch large pelagic species such as tuna, whilst fish nets are used in waters less than 40 m deep to catch demersal fish. The other important fisheries resource landed in Indonesian waters of the South China Sea is shrimp. Shrimp fisheries in this area are still limited to waters less than 20m deep. The gears used to catch shrimp by small-scale and medium-scale fishers include Danish seines, trammel nets, lift nets, and tidal-trap nets. In 2001, 43,974 tonnes of shrimp were caught in the South China Sea area. These catches were comprised of white shrimps (17.36%), endeavor shrimps (17.29%), tiger shrimps (8.98%), and smaller sized shrimps (other shrimps) (56.37%). The smaller sized shrimp catch was composed of the genera of Metapenaeus, Parapenaeopsis, and Metapenaeopsis. These species dominate shrimp catch in almost all Indonesian provinces bordering the South China Sea. The total landings by shrimp categories are presented in Table 11. Table 11 Catch of shrimp in Indonesian waters of the South China Sea from 1991 to 2001 (tonnes).

Ave. Category 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 (%) Tiger 1,950 1,634 1,753 1,640 1,736 1,287 1,581 3,522 3,412 4,116 3,950 6.40 White 5,209 6,086 6,179 5,978 6,548 6,418 7,124 9,919 11,632 13,380 7,635 20.75 Endeavor 2,937 2,927 2,819 3,289 3,696 3,946 10,099 19,006 8,530 12,000 7,605 18.52 Other 17,811 18,610 18,487 20,059 18,661 20,836 23,061 19,257 22,226 21,728 24,784 54.33 Total 27,907 29,257 29,238 30,966 30,641 32,487 41,865 51,704 45,800 51,224 43,974 100 Source: DGF (1993; 2003).

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2.1.2 Local market value The development of fish price in the South China Sea and its adjacent waters is as follows: In the province of North Sumatra from January to July 2002, the price of tuna-like fishes and lobsters decreased from 10,250 Rupiah/kg and 80,000 Rupiah/kg to 6,250 Rupiah/kg and 70,000 Rupiah/kg, respectively. On the other hand, the price of shrimp increased from 22,000 Rupiah/kg in January to 25,000 Rupiah/kg in July. During the same period, price for tuna-like species also decreased in the Provinces of South Sumatra, Jakarta, West Java, Central of Java, and East Java. Whilst in the provinces of West and South Kalimantan, tuna prices increased to 14,000 Rupiah/kg. In Jakarta, the price of yellowfin tuna from March to June 2002 was 3,500 Rupiah/kg, whilst that for albacore and skipjack declined from 8,000 Rupiah/kg and 4,000 Rupiah/kg to 6,000 Rupiah/kg and 3,000 Rupiah/kg, respectively. The price of tuna-like fishes declined drastically from January to July. i.e., from 9,500 Rupiah/kg to 2,200 Rupiah/kg. The price of shrimp in West Java Province was stable at 50,000 Rupiah/kg, although in Central Java it increased from 47,850 Rupiah/kg to 52.000 Rupiah/kg 1. Related to the above condition, and the positive demand for fish, the future for Indonesia’s fish markets is positive. Even during the national economic crisis, when the price of chicken meat and eggs increased drastically, Indonesians, especially low-income earners, preferred to purchase relatively low cost . With increased fish production, and the export and import of fish and fishery products, the per capita consumption of fish reached 19.04kg/person/year in 1997, representing an annual average increase of 0.89% from 1994 to 1997. The per capita supply of fish has recently increased at an annual average of 4.63%, or from 19.98 kg/person/year in 1998 to 21.87 kg/person/year in 2000. Increases in fish consumption, mostly driven by improved income levels in Indonesia, will have the additional benefits of improving the diet and overall well being of Indonesians. Indonesians are now aware of the importance of a healthy diet in maintaining or improving quality of life, and fish and related products are increasingly being recognised as healthy food options. Importantly, Indonesians view fish as a source of high quality protein, essential amino acids, and minerals such as iodine. The omega-3 amino acid in fish, is thought to have a range of health benefits, including: (a) the prevention of arteriosclerosis, hypertension, and heart attack; and (b) enhancement of intelligence, and neural, and eye function. 2.1.3 Status (endangered, threatened, rare etc.) Six sea turtle species occur in Indonesia, including the green (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricate), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivaceae), leatherback (Demochelys coriceae), loggerhead (Caretta caretta), and flatback (Natator depressus) turtles, all of which may nest on Indonesian beaches. Table 12 shows the protection status of sea turtles in Indonesian waters. The green turtle is the most abundant species. The meat and eggs of this species are highly valued in Muslim communities, where the consumption of some other meat products is forbidden. There are several major nesting localities throughout Indonesia, and it appears that more than 25,000 females breed annually in western Indonesia. The hawksbill turtle is also abundant, and is taken mostly for its shell. There are some valuable nesting sites for the rare leatherback turtle, and this species is hunted in several parts of the country, including the important Kai and Aru Island region. The major nesting site of this species at northern beach bird’s head of Papua is the fourth largest in the world after Trengganu beach in Malaysia. There is a paucity of information regarding the olive ridley, loggerhead, and flat back turtles. There is evidence of significant decline in green turtle populations connected with sites of heavy meat in Bali, Manado, and Ambon. Exploitation of the hawksbill turtle is increasingly high. This is especially the case in Makassa, where this species is harvested for its shell. More than 15,000 green turtles are brought annually into Bali alone, and there is a store of approximately 15 tonnes of hawksbill turtle shells in Makassar at any one time.

1 Rate of exchange for 1 US Dollar ranged from 9.000 to 10,000 Rupiah (Rp is Indonesian currency).

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Table 12 The protection status of sea turtles that occur in Indonesian waters.

Common Local Status No Family Species name name Cites INA IUCN 1 Chelonidae Caretta caretta Loggerhead Penyu App 1 V P turtle tempayan 2 Chelonia mydas Green turtle Penyu hijau App 1 E - C. mydas C. mydas japonica 3 Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill turtle Penyu Sisik App 1 E P 4 Lepidoche lysolivacea Olive Ridley turtle Penyu Lekang App1 E P 5 Natator depressa Flatback turtle Penyu pipih App 1 E P 6 Dermochelydae Dermochelys lyscoriacea Leatherback turtle Penyu blimbing App 1 E P D. coriacea D. schlegelli Notes: INA = Indonesian Government Regulation; App 1 = Endangered species, not for commercial use; E = Endangered species; V = Vulnerable species; P = Protected. The uncontrolled hunting and collection of protected species, including cetaceans, turtles, and seabirds, is a problem. Indonesia has trouble controlling the exploitation of marine resources and protecting endangered species in marine areas, as some species are highly migratory and may straddle national boundaries. For instance, populations of turtles, dolphins, and whales may be exploited across the entire area of their distribution, which may include the waters of multiple nations. 2.1.4 Food security (locally) The per capita fish consumption in 1998 was 19.25kg/person/year. This represents 72.5% of the 26.55kg/capita/year, which the National Food and Nutrition Meeting in 1993 defined as the average dietary requirement. The per capita fish consumption in 1998 was below normal (i.e., per capita fish consumption in Japan is approximately 100 kg/person/year). 2.2 Biology & ecology of the species (from available information) 2.2.1 Large pelagic fishes A number of species comprise the oceanic tuna and resource of Indonesia’s South China Sea area. They include swordfish (Xiphias) of the family Xiphiidae, sailfish and marlins (Makaira, Istiophorus, and Tetrapturus) of Istiophoridae, and tunas (Euthynnus, Katsuwonus, and Thunnus) of Scombridae. Several species of smaller tuna-like fishes are more important in areas than the open ocean, including frigate and bullet tunas (Auxis spp.) and bonito (Sarda spp.). The actual tuna species occurring in the South China Sea area include skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), kawa-kawa (Euthynnus affinis), longtail tuna (Thunnus tonggol), and frigate tuna (Auxis thazard). 2.2.2 Small pelagic species Taxonomically, the small pelagic fish occurring in Indonesia’s South China Sea area can be classified into two orders. The first are the herring-like , including wolf-herring of the family Chirocentridae, sardines, shads and gizzard shads of the Clupeidae family, and anchovies of Engraulidae. The second are the perch-like , including the carangid scads, jacks, and trevallies of the Carangidae family, and the mackerels of the Scombridae family (Widodo 1997). Clupeoids Clupeoids are shoaling fishes that inhabit waters of the inshore continental shelf. Although they are typically pelagic, they may also be benthopelagic during certain seasons or times of the day. Therefore, it is rather difficult to categorise this group as either pelagic or benthopelagic. Clupeoids and Engraulids occur frequently in demersal trawl catches in areas of the South China Sea. Among the clupeoids, the anadromus Tenualosa macrura and Anadontostoma chacunda belong to the ascending shads. Most of the 20 species of anchovies (Stolephorus spp. and Encrasicholina spp.) are coastal shoaling species. Some of them (e.g. Stolephorus commersonii and S. indicus) enter brackish waters occasionally. The strictly coastal and neritic species include S. heterolobus and S. bataviensis. Stolephorus tri is most abundant near river mouths and frequently enters brackish water areas.

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In addition to the , a number of commercially important clupeoids, belonging to 6 families, exist in Indonesian waters. From these 6 families, 3 occur in the Indonesian part of the South China Sea. These include herring (Chirocentridae), sardines, shads and gizzard sardines (Clupeidae), and anchovies (Engraulidae).

Chirocentridae Chirocentrus dorab (dorab wolf-herring): inhabit coastal waters. Common size: 30-50cm.

Clupeidae ƒ Anadontostoma chacunda (chacunda gizzard shad): inhabit coastal waters. Common size: 15 to 30cm. ƒ Dussumieria accuta (rainbow sardine): inhabit coastal waters and form shoals. Common size: 10 to 15cm. ƒ Tenualosa macrura (longtail shad): inhabits coastal waters, estuaries, and rivers. Common size: 15 to 25cm. ƒ Sardinella fimbriata (fringescale sardinella): inhabits coastal waters. Common size: 10 to 15cm. ƒ S. brachysoma (deepbody sardinella): inhabits coastal waters. Common size: 12 to 16cm. ƒ S. gibbosa (goldstripe sardinella): inhabits coastal waters. Common size: 12 to 18cm. ƒ S. albella (white sardinella): inhabits coastal waters. Common size: 5 to 10cm. ƒ (spotted sardinella, sardine): inhabits coastal waters. Common size: 15 to 20cm.

Engraulidae This family consists of a number of anchovy species, including Stolephorus spp. and Encrasicholina spp. Anchovies inhabit coastal water, river mouth, neritic, and continental shelf areas.

Carangoids Most of the carangid and scombroid mackerels inhabit coastal waters, and are very important to pelagic fisheries in the South China Sea. The smaller scombroids are less diverse than the carangids, but of greater fisheries importance. Rastrelliger spp. are very important to small pelagic fisheries in the region.

Many species of carangoids occur in continental shelf and coastal waters. Among them, scads, jacks, and trevallies are prominent.

Carangidae ƒ Scomberoides commersounnianus (talang queenfish): inhabits coastal and neritic waters to the edge of the continental shelf. ƒ Selaroides leptolepis (yellowstripe scad): inhabits shallow coastal areas, benthopelagic. ƒ Selar crumenophthalmus (bigeye scad): inhabits coastal water areas up to 80m deep, benthopelagic. Lmax 26.7cm (Pauly et al. 1996). ƒ Megalaspis cordyla (torpedo scad): inhabits coastal waters up to 60m deep, pelagic. ƒ Decapterus russelli (Indian scad): inhabits coastal and offshore continental shelf waters, pelagic. Lmax 35.0cm (Pauly et al. 1996).

ƒ D. macrosoma (shortfin scad): inhabits continental shelf waters, pelagic. Lmax 29.0cm (Pauly et al. 1996). ƒ Caranx spp. (trevallies): inhabit shallow waters of coral rocky reefs, benthopelagic.

Scombroids Scombroid mackerels and neritic tunas occur throughout South China Sea waters. They are represented by the following species: Rastrelliger kanagurta (Indian mackerels) and R. faughni (Island mackerel): form large shoals in coastal waters, pelagic. Rastrelliger brachysoma (short mackerel): form large shoals in coastal waters, pelagic. Scomberomorus commerson (narrow-barred Spanish mackerel): inhabits coastal and offshore continental shelf waters, pelagic. S. guttatus (Indo-Pacific king mackerel): inhabits coastal and offshore continental shelf waters, pelagic.

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According to Yanagawa (1997), Indonesia’s South China Sea fisheries for Indian mackerels, eastern little tuna, and narrow barred Spanish mackerel, were stable from 1976 to 1993. Comparatively, the fishery for round scad experienced significant fluctuations in catches during the same period. In general, during the 18-year period discussed here, catches of the 12 main small pelagic species tended to increase, especially after 1987. At present, catches of all species, except for hardtail, are higher than the average observed during the 18-year period discussed. 2.2.3 Demersal fish species Among of the order of Clupeiformes there is a great diversity and range of genera, in both pelagic and benthic-demersal areas. According to Longhurst and Pauly (1987), it is not satisfactory to categorise fish of this order into pelagic or benthopelagic groups, as clupeids and engraulids very often occur in catches from both pelagic and demersal parts of tropical seas. The Perciformes are a significant group of fish in the region. Of the 150 families making up the order, a dozen families dominate the continental shelf fisheries of the tropics (Longhurst and Pauly 1987). Based on habitat associations, the tropical Perciformes represent 3 main groups, including: (i) species associated with inshore muddy substrate; (ii) those associated with sandy bottom substrate; and (iii) those associated with rocky substrate. The Sciaenidae family (28 genera, 160 species) tends to dominate the fish fauna associated with areas characterised by substrates that are muddy, and waters that are brackish and turbid. Some of the drums and croakers, including Sciaena, Pseudotolithus, Johnius, and Umbrina may attain large sizes. Occurring with these croakers are golden-brown threadfins (Polynemidae, 35 species of 7 genera) and laterally flattened spadefishes (Ephippidae, 15 species of 7 genera) (Longhurst and Pauly 1987). In sandy bottom areas, a wider range of Perciformes families are present. Breams (, 100 species of 30 genera), threadfin breams (Nemipteridae, 175 species of 21 genera), and grunts (Pomadasyidae, 175 species of 21 genera) dominate. A range of genera of groups of mostly smaller sized fish, including Priacanthidae, Mullidae, Gerreidae, and the ponyfish (Leiognathidae, 20 to 30 species of 3 genera) also occur (Longhurst and Pauly, 1987). Finally, 3 families of large bass-like fishes, including groupers (Serranidae) and snappers (Lutjanidae) dominate the fisheries resources associated with rocky grounds. Species of these groups may attain very large sizes, and represent many genera, including Epinephelus, Plectropomus, Serranus, Caesio, Lutjanus, and Ocyurus (Longhurst and Pauly 1987). Pleuronectiform also occur in Indonesia’s South China Sea area. These include the left-eyed flounders (Psettodidae), the right-eyed flounders (Pleuronectidae), soles (Soleidae). and tongue soles (Cynoglossidae). Finally, a number of highly evolved groups of fishes, including Balistidae (), Tetraodontidae (puffers), Ostraciontidae (boxfish), and Zeidae (John Dories) are part of the fisheries resources of the continental shelf (Longhurst and Pauly 1987). Elasmobranchs are ubiquitous in South China Sea waters. The larger species are usually pelagic, whilst smaller species of Squalidae occur in all tropical . Several families of bottom-dwelling rays (Rajidae), guitarfish (Rhinobathidae), and stingrays (Dasyatidae) make up part of Indonesia’s South China Sea resource base. Regarding demersal fish communities, Longhurst and Pauly (1987) identified 4 basic kinds of assemblages: (i) those of inshore/estuarine muddy habitats and turbid waters, dominated by sciaenids; (ii) those of sandy habitats and clearer waters, dominated by sparids; (iii) those of rocky reefs, dominated by lutjanids; and (iv) those of coral reefs with no single dominating family.

2.2.4 Commercially exploited invertebrates

2.2.4.1 Penaeid shrimps

Penaeid shrimps play an important role in the economies of some tropical nations, including those countries bordering the South China Sea. Consequently, shrimps of the family Penaeidae have been studied intensely, and many aspects of their biology and population dynamics are clear (Gulland 1971; Holthuis 1980; Garcia & LeReste 1981; International Development & Research Council 1982).

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Many countries adjacent to the South China Sea aim to increase shrimp exports via the intensification of fishing effort and aquaculture. However, other than possibly saturating shrimp markets, the feasibility of these plans depends on 2 key factors. The first is the resilience of wild shrimp stocks to fishing effort increases. The second is the capacity of the natural environment to sustain further modifications to coastal wetland habitat for the expansion of aquaculture activities. A key risk associated with the second factor is that the environmental effects of shrimp aquaculture may be sufficient to dimish the productive capacity of wild shrimp populations.

Penaeid shrimps are short-lived, with recruitment to the fishery occurring as soon as 4 months after spawning. Stock recruitment relationships play a critical role in maintaining the quality of shrimp stocks in the region, and there is a need to better understand spatial and temporal variations in parental stock and recruitment.

2.2.4.2 Squids

Squids (Cephalopoda and Teuthoidea) are important components of tropical marine ecosystems, both neritic and oceanic. The true magnitude of their biomass and level of exploitation has become apparent with the extension of Japanese squid fisheries beyond the northwestern Pacific Ocean in the 1980s. A phenomenon that has recently attracted much scientific attention is the explosive growth of populations following the reduction in abundance of other species. This is believed to have occurred in the Gulf of Thailand (Pauly 1979; Caddy 1983).

As there are now several known instances of tropical squid outbursts following the reduction of fish biomass by commercial fishing, it is important to understand the trophic relationships that exist between squid and other commercially important species. Cephalopods are capable of capturing unusually large prey, frequently including smaller individuals of the same species. Specifically, squid feed on crustaceans, fishes, and squids, and are an important dietary item for many other fish species. They are usually exploited with demersal fishes and penaeid shrimps. The increase in regional squid populations is most probably a consequence of a reduction in predation on their young.

2.2.4.3 Sea urchins

The harvesting of sea urchins for their gonads is an economically important activity. Sea urchins also play an important role in the grazing of algae. These algae may be those that are harvested commercially, or those that act to shape the structure of shallow water tropical ecosystems (Gomez et al. 1983). Therefore, the biology and dynamics of sea urchin populations have received considerable attention in recent years, especially the factors controlling their recruitment and fluctuations in abundance.

3. CURRENT STATUS & THREATS

3.1 Status of the Fishery in terms of CPUE

Available data do not enable an accurate assessment of the status of important fish stocks in terms of CPUE. The number of fishing boats in Indonesia’s South China Sea area was 58,180 in 2001, slightly higher than in 2000. The number of boats by size and by province from 1991 to 2001 presented in Table 13 provides some insight into the rate at which fisheries have developed over the past 10 years.

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Table 13 The number of marine fishing boats by size of boat in Indonesia’s South China Sea from 1991 to 2001.

Size of fishing 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 boats Non powered boat 18,066 18,243 18,475 19,704 20,250 27,872 23,992 23,655 20,708 13,028 12,497 Outboard motor 4,026 4,335 5,249 6,030 7,018 6,425 8,418 8,773 6,864 7,550 4,979 <5 GT 13,416 14,124 15,937 16,523 17,211 17,736 20,097 21,287 18,111 25,959 29,208 5 - 10 GT 1,435 1,578 2,567 1,576 1,718 1,671 3,730 4,037 6,348 7,663 9,243 10 - 20 GT 171 230 226 237 500 616 641 772 1,184 1,069 1,522 20 - 30 GT 116 121 163 166 59 62 313 241 349 184 501 30 - 50 GT 20 27 17 25 12 0 0 19 18 28 110 50 -100 GT 1 0 0 3 7 0 0 0 0 0 75 100 -200 GT 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 44 200 -300 GT 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Total 37,251 38,658 42,634 44,264 46,775 54,382 57,191 58,784 53,582 55,481 58,180 Source: DGF (1993; 2003)

3.2 Status of Fish Stocks Based on Historical Review of Landings and CPUE

(i) Pelagic fishes A fishery acoustic survey carried out in September 2001 indicated that the density of fish stocks ranged between sampling location from 101 to 920 individual fish per 1000m3, with an average of 162. By converting the acoustic target strength to the biomass, it was found that the density of small and large pelagic fishes in the South China Sea was 2.26 and 1.10 tonnes per km2, respectively.

Trevallies (14.9%), anchovies (15.6%), sardinella (8.4%), wolf herring (21.0%), and mackerels (10.7%) dominated catches of small pelagic fishes. The main fishing season for small pelagics in Indonesia’s South China Sea area is from October to December.

(ii) Demersal fish Bottom trawl sampling indicates that the density of demersal finfish and penaeid shrimps is approximately 1.2 tonnes/km³. The area of distribution of demersal finfish and shrimps in Indonesia’s part of the South China Sea is 558,000km2 and 337,000km², respectively (Widodo 1998). Accordingly, potential yields are estimated at 334,800 tonnes/annum for demersal finfish and 6,720 tonnes/annum for penaeid shrimps that constituted by 10% of tiger shrimp, 28% of banana shrimps and others. The estimated density of lobsters was 1.34 tonnes per km2, with a potential yield of 400 tonnes per year. The total catch of lobsters in 1997 was 272 tonnes. Fish stock assessments were conducted in 1997 and 2000. The results indicate that a number of fish resources have been exploited at levels close to or beyond their productive capacity. The resources that appear to have no further room for development include demersal finfish, coral reef fishes, penaeid shrimps, and squids. There is potential to develop the remaining fish resources in a precautionary manner 3.3 Threats 3.3.1 Current Destructive fishing practices have been adopted in Indonesia for many years; however, demand for reef fish in Asian markets may have contributed to a proliferation of such practices. Cyanide and explosives are mainly used for capturing coral reef fishes, including groupers, snappers, Napoleon wrasse, and ornamental fishes. Almost all of Indonesia’s coastal fish resources in the South China Sea area have been overexploited. Smaller sized fish from lower trophic levels, and typically of lower commercial value, are beginning to dominate catches previously composed of large fish from high trophic levels. This is especially the case for the longtail shad (Hilsa toli) in waters of Riau province. This species, exploited for its roe for many decades, is now almost commercially extinct.

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In some important areas, overfishing is causing catches to decline in volume and value, and smaller sized fish are increasingly dominating landings. This is especially common along the of Java, eastern Sumatra, and the Celebes region. Furthermore, the overexploitation of molluscs and ornamental coral fish for the souvenir and aquarium industries may have serious consequences for the ecological balance of reefs.

3.3.2 Potential

Demand for live reef fish and penaeid shrimp in Asian markets has increased rapidly, perhaps beyond the productive capacity of wild stocks. Accordingly, fishers are expending excessively large amounts of effort towards the capture of these species, which has often led to the neglect of resources and the environments upon which they depend.

The main depleted groups of fish species include the groupers, snappers, Napoleon wrasse, pomfrets, and rabbit fish. The tiger and banana shrimp (Penaeus monodon and P. merguiensis) are the Penaeid shrimp species most extensively exploited. Populations of mangrove crab have also suffered the negative consequences of overexploitation, especially in areas adjacent to high population centres.

4. HABITATS & AREAS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE MAINTENANCE OF EXPLOITED FISH STOCKS

The Sunda Shelf of the South China Sea extends through the Java and Timor Seas, and after an interruption by the deep basin of the Banda Sea, extends to the Sahul Shelf of Northern (Longhurst and Pauly 1987). This shelf is usually shallow: the central part is less than 100 m deep, whilst between Sumatra and Kalimantan it is only 10 to 40 m deep.

As part of the Southeast Asian region, double monsoons, as well as the effects of climate change on sea level in the Pacific Ocean, and Pacific to Indian Ocean through flows, significantly influence the South China Sea (Sharp 1966). The north monsoon starts in October and peaks in January, pushing surface currents in a southerly direction until they reach the equator, where they are deflected southeastward.

Rates of through flow depend on both sea level and surface wind speed and direction. The south monsoon peaks in July and August, when southward transport dominates the water column. This is because surface winds affect the surface currents, and there is always a substantial sea level difference driving the movement of water from the Pacific Ocean to the Indian Ocean. Year to year climate-driven ocean variability, at both local and regional scales, plays an important role in fisheries of the South China Sea region.

The fishery situation in the South China Sea region is further complicated by the dominance of shoal topography, dominated by either coral reef or mangrove ecosystems. Both are affected by the strong vertical stratification set up by monsoonal rainfall and the large seasonal inflow of fresh water from rivers of the Sumatra and Kalimantan Islands. Accordingly, ecological dynamics of the South China Sea area reflect regional climate dynamics.

4.1 Physical, chemical, and biological characteristics

Some topographical features of Southeast Asia favour the development of strong surface circulation. The main feature is associated with the area formed by the South China Sea, the straits between Sumatra and Kalimantan, the Java Sea, the Flores Sea, and the Banda Sea, which has its main axis aligned with wind flux during both monsoons. This, along with the relative constancy of the winds, favours the development of surface circulation patterns strongly connected to the wind regime (Roy 1996).

High sea surface temperature (SST) (>25oC) and low seasonal amplitude (<3oC) are the dominant characteristics of Southeast Asian waters. Moreover, the spatial distribution of water temperature is relatively uniform, with a small gradient over the entire region. SSTs are high all year round with maximum values of 27.5oC observed during January and February in the southern part of the South China Sea. Maximum values are observed to be between 29.2oC (Sunda Strait) and 29.8oC (Malacca Strait).

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High annual rainfall, largely exceeding evaporation, causes an average salinity of less than 34ppt. This rainfall, the river runoff it causes, and the archipelagic nature of the South China Sea region are responsible for an extremely variable spatial distribution of surface salinity. River runoff into the South China Sea drives low salinity levels in many coastal waters, even in some offshore areas. Low salinity levels are most common in April and May when water masses are transported from the Java Sea into the southern South China Sea. In June, water of higher salinity (>32ppt) enters the Java Sea from the east, and then moves further north into the southern part of the South China Sea. During the northeast monsoon, relatively high salinity levels are observed in the South China Sea.

Sediments are extremely sandy (mostly made up biogenic materials from coral reefs) in the straits between some of the major islands, such as the Malacca Strait. In the deeper areas to the north, as the Sunda Shelf slopes into the South China Sea basin, sediments are mostly soft mud (Longhurst and Pauly 1987).

The fish communities, on which tropical fisheries are based, typically follow the distribution and abundance patterns of their main dietary items, including benthic and pelagic invertebrates (Longhurst and Pauly 1987). The demersal fish fauna of Indonesia’s South China Sea area is determined by environmental factors, including the amount of organic mud in the substrate, the occurrence of isolated patches of rocky or biogenic reefs, the occurrence of brackish, estuarine conditions associated with river mouths, and the nature of the oceanic water mass lying over the waters.

There is a great wealth and diversity of pelagic fish in the South China Sea, and important fisheries are based upon them. Pelagic fisheries in the South China Sea are based on a variety of different taxonomic groups, some of which belong to stocks shared by a number of regional nations.

The marine habitats of the South China Sea and its adjacent waters are unique. Here, the interaction of land and sea creates complex systems where local processes may prevail over global dynamics. In addition, the monsoon regimes create such a strong seasonality of the characteristic of the environment. The alternation of the north and south winds completely reorganise surface circulation, which can be expected to significantly influence environmental conditions.

4.1.1 Spawning and nursery grounds

Fishes are well known for their high fecundity, with most species releasing thousands to millions of eggs annually (Bond 1979). Since each fish species occurs under a unique set of ecological conditions, it has a unique reproductive strategy, with special anatomical, behavioral, pysiological, and energetic adaptation. The success of any fish species is ultimately determined by the ability of its members to reproduce successfully in a fluctuating environment, thereby maintaining viable populations. Based on their reproductive strategy, fishes can be categorised into egg-layers (oviparous condition) and live- bearers (ovoviviparous, viviparous).

Some fishes engage in mass spawning. Spawning often occurs after migration to a suitable site, and into a current that will carry eggs and larvae to a nursery area. Pelagic spawners spawn in open waters, often near the surface. Many such spawners are schooling fishes, such as tuna (Scombridae) and sardines (Sardinella). Although pelagic spawning is most often associated with pelagic fishes, many benthic fishes temporarily rise off the bottom to spawn. Benthic spawners are of three basic types, those that spawn on gravel or rocks, those that spawn on aquatic plants, and those that spawn on sand.

Spawning grounds of demersal species are close to coastal waters of the South China Sea, where eggs can settle on the substrate or adhere to vegetation. Demersal fish spawning grounds are concentrated along the east cost of Sumatra, coastal waters adjacent to the many islands of Riau Province, Bangka and Belitung Islands province, and along the west coast of Kalimantan. Whilst pelagic fish spawning and nursery grounds are scattered in the ‘open waters’ of the South China Sea, specifically from the north of the southern Bangka and Belitung Islands to Natuna Islands in the north (Figures 4.1 and 4.2).

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103° 10 5 ° 107° 109° 111°

N 4° 4° Natuna MA L A Y SIA

2° 2° LAUT CINA SELATAN #S Pemangkat

#S Pontianak 0° 0°

SUM A T E R A #S Ketapang 2° 2° 40 0 40 80 Km

103° 10 5 ° 107° 109° 111°

Figure 4.1 Spawning areas of demersal finfish and small pelagic fish species in Indonesia’s South China Sea area (Sumiono and Widodo 2003).

5

4

3

2

1

0

-1

-2

-3

100 102 104 106 108 110 112

= spawning ground = nursery area = nursery areas of Sardinella

Figure 4.2 Spawning and nursery grounds of small pelagic fishes in Indonesia’s South China Sea area (Haryati et al. 2003).

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4.1.2 Fishing grounds

Most fisheries in Indonesia and, in particular, the pelagic fisheries in the South China Sea are seasonal (Bailey et al. 1987). The fish resources of the South China Sea can be classified as small pelagic fishes, large pelagic fishes, and demersal finfish and invertebrates. Most of the central part of the Indonesian South China Sea is a trawlable area suitable for demersal fishing. Additionally, demersal fishing grounds are also located in the coastal waters along the east coast of Sumatra and west coast of Kalimantan Islands.

Small pelagic fishes can be harvested almost anywhere in the South China Sea, including coastal and offshore waters. Fishing grounds for large pelagic species are concentrated in northern waters, especially oceanic waters of high salinity (Figure 4.2).

4.2 Stocks with undefined spawning grounds

The spawning grounds of some species of small pelagic fishes, including Decapterus spp. and Rastrelliger kanagurta, and some large pelagic species, including skipjack and other tuna, have not yet been determined.

4.3 Threats (current and potential)

Coastal sand mining is being conducted on several islands of Riau Province. These activities can potentially threaten the spawning, feeding, and fishing grounds of fish caught by artisanal fishers. Additionally, deforestation of mangroves is occurring, especially on the eastern coast of Sumatra Island. Finally, destructive fishing practices are used throughout Indonesia, especially in coral reef areas.

4.4 Ranking of habitats

4.4.1 Association with species of importance to food security

Habitats along the eastern coast of Sumatra Island and the western coast of Kalimantan Island play a significant role in sustaining populations of fish important for food security. In these coastal areas, there are a large number of artisanal fishers. Artisanal fisheries are an important source of food, income, and employment in these regions.

4.4.2 Association with high values species

Habitats along the eastern coast of Sumatra Island and western coast of Kalimantan Island play an important role in preserving high value fish species, including large demersal reef fish and a number of penaeid shrimps species. Wild shrimp production still exceeds that from aquaculture.

4.4.3 Association with endangered, rare, threatened species

Habitats along the eastern coast of Sumatra Island, western coast of Kalimantan Island, and north of the Bangka and Belitung Islands, are important habitats for endangered, rare, and threatened species, especially reef fishes.

5. CURRENT MANAGEMENT REGIMES

5.1 Legal instruments

A large number of laws and regulations comprise Indonesia’s legal framework for fisheries. Many of these regulations are valid for some parts of the South China Sea under Indonesia's jurisdiction.

Indonesia is an archipelagic State made up more than 17,500 islands. With a vast mass of water surrounding small pockets of land, Indonesia’s marine and coastal areas contain a diverse and rich range of living aquatic resources. Approximately 8,500 fish species, 2,000 species, 20,000 mollusc species, 30 marine mammals species, and 6 species of sea turtles inhabit Indonesian waters. All of these species are fisheries resources according to Act No.9 of 1985 concerning fisheries. According to this law, the fishery sector is responsible for the management of these species. This basic Act should be read together with law no.5 of 1983, which, among other things, designates the officers qualified to enforce fisheries laws within Indonesia’s EEZ, and defines law enforcement procedures.

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The Fisheries Act no.9 of 1985 established a licensing regulation, whereby any individual or legal entity wishing to engage in fishing activities in Indonesian waters is required to be properly licensed. Subsistence fishers are not subject to this requirement. As a rule, fishing in Indonesian waters is restricted to Indonesian nationals or Indonesian legal entities, unless the national fleet does not have the capacity to harvest the total allowable catch as set by the minister with responsibility for fisheries management.

Furthermore, the Government Regulation no. 15 of 1990, juncto Government Regulation no. 141 of 2000 concerning Fisheries Business, and some other Ministerial Decrees, such as the Ministerial Decree no.15 of 1990 juncto the Ministerial Decree no 428 of 1999, were issued to detail the rules and procedures governing the licensing system.

The issuance of Act no.22 of 1999 concerning Regional Administration caused some modification to Act no.9 of 1985, including regulations for "Fishing Zones" and "Fish Aggregating Devices".

Following recent discussions with all Provincial Fisheries Services of Indonesia, and officials within the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, the Act no.9 of 1985 is currently being revised.

The management and protection of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) listed species is the responsibility of the Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation (PHPA), Ministry of Forestry.

5.2 Institutional arrangements (research, monitoring, control, & enforcement)

The rapid economic development and population growth of Indonesia over the past several decades has accelerated the loss of natural habitat and biodiversity. This is particularly evident in the coastal zone, where human populations are growing at more than twice the national average. Historically, coastal economies have prospered from trade and fisheries.

Coastal economies are now more diverse, including extraction of oil and minerals, aquaculture, forestry, recreation and tourism. However, the diverse needs of a large and growing coastal population, especially in the coastal areas of western Indonesia, are limited by a fixed supply of coastal resources (carrying capacity).

Based on information from the Central Research Institute of Marine Fisheries of Indonesia (CRIFI), the study of small pelagic fishes and fish stock abundance began in 1972. The occurrence of pelagic fishes around Karimata Island was detected during collaborative trawl surveys conducted by Indonesian and German Governments in 1975 and 1978.

Acoustic surveys of pelagic fish stocks were conducted during late 1985 in the waters adjacent to Natuna and Anambas Islands. The estimated pelagic fish stock in both areas was 150,000 tonnes and 183,000 tonnes, respectively.

Indonesia’s South China Sea area is 550,000km2, with a potential annual yield of small pelagic fishes of 506,000 tonnes. Based on research conducted by CRIFI, it is believed that 30% of this potential yield is caught annually

The result of acoustic surveys conducted in September and October 2001 showed a density of small pelagic fishes in Indonesia’s South China Sea waters of approximately 162 fishes per 1000m3. The high density of the fish occurred in surrounding islands was low density occurred in certain areas. The average density of large pelagic fishes was 0.32 tonnes per km2 or 1.1 tonnes per km3, whereas the small pelagic density was 2.26 tonnes per km2.

The results of these surveys also indicated that small pelagic fishes had been overexploited in several areas, especially in traditional fishing areas including eastern Sumatra in the South China Sea area. The Javanese purse-seine fleet has intensely exploited the pelagic resources of Indonesia’s territorial waters and EEZ since 1983. This has been accompanied by investment in new large vessels (80 to 100 GT) and improvement in fishing methods, including the use of artificial light and fish aggregating devices (FADs). During 2000, the number of fishing boats in West Kalimantan was 216 units (10 to 20 GT), 54 units (20 to 30 GT), and 28 units (30 to 50 GT). Of these fishing boats, 110 used purse seines.

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Monitoring, Control, and Surveillance (MCS) is a very important part of Indonesian fisheries management. Despite there being very few rules or regulations pertaining to fisheries in Indonesia, compliance levels are low and enforcement is weak. Monitoring: implementation based on the Ministerial Decree no.03 of 2002, which requires the use of a fisheries logbook by certain sizes of fishing boats. Control: implementation based on various legal instruments, including 4 Acts, 7 Government Regulations, 5 Presidential Decrees/Instructions, and more than 20 Ministerial Decrees. Surveillance: Surveillance is conducted by WASKI. WASKI in cooperation with the Navy and Police Enforcement, Law Enforcement is being implemented through PPNS in cooperation with the Attorney General.

Recently, the abundance of some of these species has declined at an alarming rate, whilst some others have suffered depletion. Despite the importance of marine resources to Indonesia's economy and environment, the sustainable management of these resources has not occurred. The pressure on marine resources is growing rapidly, and many fishers have adopted the use of destructive, non- sustainable fishing methods in the race for fish. The result thus far, has involved the degradation of aquatic habitats and the overexploitation of fisheries resources.

Realising that demand for fish resources is probably greater than the productive capacity of Indonesia’s waters, the Government of Indonesia has instituted a range of initiatives aimed at sustaining biodiversity. These include the: a. Establishment of artificial rearing and restocking programs for endangered species; b. Establishment and management of conservation areas; c. Use of restocking in fisheries management; d. Preparation of a gene bank as a buffer for species of high economic value; e. Establishment of quotas and methods for controlling fishing effort appropriate to these; and f. Development of a network of researchers (Indonesian Network on Fish Genetic Research and Development).

5.3 The Government of Indonesia's Policy to Overcome Iuu Fishing Practices

A key problem encountered in the development of marine affairs and the fisheries sector in Indonesia is that of illegal fishing, particularly in the Indonesian EEZ. The utilisation of fish resources within Indonesia’s EEZ is high, although the benefits accrued by Indonesia are insufficient. At present, approximately 70% of the 7000 fishing boats licensed to operate in Indonesia’s EEZ are foreign owned. In this setting, Indonesia may incur losses as a result of the following: ¾ Foreign fishing boats (licensed to fish in Indonesian vessels) buying diesel fuel at domestic prices (Indonesian Rupiah) that are relatively low. ¾ The loss of export earnings since large volumes of catch are landed in foreign jurisdictions. ¾ Foreign fishing boats using foreign crews, causing the skill development fund obtained by the Government to be lower than it should be. ¾ Foreign fishing boats not paying fees as appropriate. ¾ Foreign fishing boats violating fisheries rules and regulations by catching fish in territorial waters.

Losses are estimated to be US$1.36billion per year. Specific losses include: - Loss of fuel price differences: US$ 0.24 billion - Loss of country earnings: US$ 1.00 billion - Loss of skill developing fund: US$ 0.02 billion - Loss of unpaid fees: US$ 0.10 billion

In reference to an FAO report, up to 1.5 million tonnes (or US$1 to 4 billion) of fish are caught illegally each year. Other losses include those relating to national sovereignty and pride.

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5.4 Overview of patterns of resource ownership and traditional utilisation

As mentioned previously, Indonesian fishers operating in the South China Sea are mainly based in the Provinces of Riau, Jambi, South Sumatra, and West Kalimantan.

In the Indonesian sense, traditional or small-scale fisheries involve fishers using only 1 fishing boat, either non-powered, or powered by an out-board or an in-board motor less than 5 GT, and fishing only for subsistence purposes.

In some parts of Indonesia, there is traditional community based fisheries management, such as in Maluku and Aceh provinces. However, in case of the South China Sea, there is an Indonesia - Malaysia Agreement on Malaysian Traditional Fishing Rights in the Indonesian Archipelagic Waters and EEZ 1982.

The Agreement defined "traditional fishing" as "fishing by Malaysian traditional fishermen using traditional methods in the traditional areas" within the archipelagic waters. Point 7 of the Record of Discussion, dated February 25 1982, between the 2 countries, also states that the fishing area "shall not include maritime belts of 12 nautical miles, measured from the law water mark, around Indonesian Islands". Point 9 of the Record states that Malaysian traditional fishing rights shall also be exercised "in the designated area in the EEZ" of Indonesia in the South China Sea (see map 2 as attached).

In terms of ownership and exploitation rights, it should be emphasised that, based on the concept of Mare Liberum, the sea including the fish within it, is by nature Common and not susceptible to possession. Neither individuals nor governments can claim fish, and their possession is limited only through their being caught. It is a concept that continues to prevail today in Indonesia, despite the number of property rights (e.g. Individual Transferable Quotas) and regulatory regimes that have been adopted in response to the growing awareness of the tendency to overexploit in the open access setting. Therefore, transfer of authority over the exploration, exploitation, and management of fishery resources from the central government to regional and local government does not amount to a transfer of ownership of the fishery resources. Field interviews have revealed that the fundamental distinction between ownership and rights in relation to fishery resource use is not clear. It is therefore important that the central government launch an awareness campaign aimed at explaining the nature of the authority to be transferred to regional and local levels of government.

6. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS

A number of recommendation regarding management action required at the national and regional level have been prepared. These relate to fish resources, habitat degradation, and human resources.

6.1 Fish Resources

Recommendation:

National fisheries statistics are collected and analysed mainly based upon the reports delivered by provincial fisheries offices. The main sources of the fisheries data are those of fisheries reports from a large number of fish landing sites. The reporting system from landing sites to local fisheries offices should be improved in order to obtain continuous data that meets quantitative and qualitative standards.

National Plan of Action: (i) Detailed regional level fisheries statistical data, especially relating to catch and effort, should be collected from Indonesia’s South China Sea area at least once every 5 years, in order to enable the assessment of changes in the total catch (species and size compositions), catch per unit effort, and species diversity, abundance and distribution. (ii) Special surveys on the spawning, feeding, and nursery areas of economically, ecologically, and regionally important species need to be carried out in South China Sea areas subjected to high levels of fishing effort and habitat alteration or degradation

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Regional Plan of Action: (i) It is necessary to carry out a regional survey concerning transboundary, migratory, straddling, shared, and endangered species. The results of this survey may assist the formulation of management strategies for fisheries involving these species. (ii) A regional institutional arrangement should be established to implement management measures for transboundary fish stocks (including combating IUU fishing in the region) that have been agreed to by countries bordering the South China Sea.

6.2 Habitat Degradation

Recommendation:

Rehabilitation of habitats used for spawning, feeding, nursery areas, and fishing for transboundary species of the South China Sea needs to be carried out as soon as possible. Involvement of local communities should be encouraged through targeted educational programs.

National Plan of Action

In reversing the degradation of habitats used for spawning, feeding, nursery, and fishing for transboundary species, it is urgent that institutions are empowered to enforce laws relating to the deforestation of mangroves, destructive fishing practices, and sand mining. Involvement of local communities should be encouraged through targeted educational programs.

Regional Plan of Action

A regional institutional arrangement may play an important role in reversing the habitat degradation that is having wide-ranging negative impacts on the spawning, feeding, nursery, and fishing grounds for transboundary species in the region.

6.3 Human Resources

Recommendation:

Institutional arrangements are needed to avoid the conflicts of interest among national and regional fishers exploiting similar and limited transboundary fish resources in South China Sea waters.

National Plan of Action

The fish resources of the South China Sea are not only being harvested by local fishers, but also by fishers from other part of Indonesia. Institutional arrangements are needed to avoid the conflicts of interest among fishers exploiting similar and limited fish resources in South China Sea waters.

Regional Plan of Action (i) Regionally, fishers of different nations exploit the fish resources of the South China Sea. Institutional arrangements are needed to avoid the conflicts of interest among fishers exploiting similar and limited transboundary fish resources in South China Sea waters. (ii) Regional training in fisheries statistics, especially regarding sampling techniques, and data management needs to be carried out in order to obtain fisheries data that is compatible across the whole South China Sea area.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 24 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – INDONESIA

REFERENCES Atmadja, S.B., 1999. Geographical variation of scads catch in the waters of the southern part of Sunda Shelf. Jurnal Penelitian Perikanan Indonesia. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Perikanan Jakarta. Vol. V (3): 62- 70 [in Bahasa Indonesia. abstract in English] Badrudin, B. Sumiono., T.S.Murtoyo.,2001. Species composition and diversity of tidal trap net catches in the waters of Indragiri Hilir, Riau, Indonesia. Indonesian Fisheries Research Journal, Agency for Marine and Fisheries Research, Jakarta. Vol. 7 (1): 47-53. Bailey, C., A. Dwiponggo, and F. Maharudin., 1987. Indonesian marine capture fisheries. ICLARM Stud. Rev. 10. 196p. Bond, C.E. 1979. Biology of fishes. Sounders College Publishing. Philadelphia. USA. 514p. Caddy, J.F., 1983. The cephalopods: factors relevant to their population dynamics and to the assessment and management of stocks. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap. 231. 452p. Garcia, D. & L. LeReste., 1981. Life cycle, dynamics, exploitation and management of coastal penaeid shrimp stocks. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap. 203. 215p. Directorate General of Fisheries, 1993. Fisheries Statistics of Indonesia, 1991. Directorate General of Fisheries, 2003. Statistical of Capture Fisheries of Indonesia, 2001. Gomez, E.D., R.A. Gueib, and E. Aro., 1983. Studies on the predators of commercially important seaweeds. Fisheries Research J. Philipp. 8:1-17. Gulland, J.A., 1971. The fisheries resources of the oceans. Fishing News Books. West Byfleet. England. Haryati,T., S.B. Atmadja, Suwarso.,2003. Review of habitat of spawning ground and nursery areas of small pelagic fish in the South China Sea. Research Institute for Marine Fisheries: 17p. [in Bahasa Indonesia, unpublished]. Holthuis, L.B. 1980. Shrimps and of the world – an annotated catalogue of species of interest for fisheries. FAO Fish. Synopsis 124. 271p. International Development & Research Council. 1982. Fish bycatch – bonus from the sea. Can. Int. Dev. & Res. Council. Ottawa. Longhurst, A.R. and D. Pauly. 1997. Ecology of Tropical Ocean. Acad. Press. Inc. N.Y. 407p. Moyle, P.B. and J.J. Cech, Jr., 1982. Fishes: an introduction to ichthyology. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs. NJ. USA. 593p. Pauly, D., 1979. Theory and management of tropical multispecies stocks: A review with emphasis on the Southeast Asia demersal fisheries. ICLARM Stud. Rev. 1. 35p. Pauly, D., A. Cabanban and F.S.B. Torres. 1996. Fishery biology of 40 trawl-caught of western Indonesia. p. 135-216. In D. Pauly and P. Martosubroto (Eds.) Baseline studies of biodiversity: the fisheries resources of Western Indonesia. ICLARM Stud. Rev. 23. 312p. Potier, M and B. Sadhotomo.,1994. Seiners fisheries in Indonesia In Potier. M and S. Nurhakim (Eds.): BIODYNEX. Biology, Dynamics, Exploitation of the Small Pelagic Fishes in the Java Sea. AARD-ORSTOM- EU : 49-95. Roy, C., 1996. Variability of sea surface features in the Western Indonesian Archipelago: Inference from the COADS Dataset. p. 15-23. In D. Pauly and P. Martosubroto (eds.) Baseline studies of biodiversity: the fish resources of Western Indonesia. ICLARM Stud. Rev. 23. 312p. Sharp, G.D., 1996. Oceanography of the Indonesian Archipelago and adjacent areas. p. 7-14. In D. Pauly and P. Martosubroto (eds.) Baseline studies of biodiversity: the fish resources of Western Indonesia. ICLARM Stud. Rev. 23. 312p. Sumiono,B., Badrudin, and A. Widodo.. 2003. The assessment of the density and distribution of demersal fish resources in the water of South China Sea. Proceeding Forum Stock Assessment on Marine Fish 2003. Research Institute for Catch Marine Fisheries : 57-65 [in Bahasa Indonesia]. Sumiono, B. and A. Widodo, 2003. Review of habitat of spawning ground and nursery areas of penaeid shrimp in the South China Sea. Research Institute for Marine Fisheries: 15p [in Bahasa Indonesia, unpublished]. Wagiyo, K. and E. Nurdin., 2002. Survey on small pelagic and demersal fish resources in the waters of South China Sea. Survey report. Research Institute for Catch Marine Fisheries. Jakarta: 15p [in Bahasa Indonesia. interim report]. Widodo, J., 1997. Review of the small pelagic fisheries of Indonesia. p. 199 – 226. In Devaraj, M & P. Martosubroto (Eds.) Small pelagic resources and their Fisheries in the Asia-Pacific region. Proceedings of the APFIC Working Party on Marine Fisheries. First Session,13 – 16 May 1997. Bangkok, Thailand. RAP Publication 1997/31. 445p. Widodo, J., 1998. Potential yield, exploitation rate, and development of the marine fish resources in Indonesia (in Bahasa Indonesia). National Committee of Marine Fishery Stock Assessment. Jakarta, Indonesia. Yanagawa, H., 1997. Small pelagic fisheries in the South China Sea. p. 365 – 380. In Devaraj, M & P. Martosubroto (Eds.) Small pelagic resources and their Fisheries in the Asia-Pacific region. Proceedings of the APFIC Working Party on Marine Fisheries. First Session, 13 – 16 May 1997. Bangkok, Thailand. RAP Publication 1997/31. 445p.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand

United Nations UNEP/GEF South China Sea Global Environment Environment Programme Project Facility

NATIONAL REPORT

on

The Fish Stocks and Habitats of Regional, Global, and Transboundary Significance in the South China Sea

PHILIPPINES

Mr. Noel Barut Focal Point for Fisheries National Fisheries Research and Development Institute Department of Agriculture 940 Kayumanggi Press Building, Quezon Avenue, Quezon City 1103, Philippines

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES

Table of Contents

1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION...... 1

1.1 GEOGRAPHIC AND OCEANOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION...... 1 1.2 BIOGEOGRAPHIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC FEATURES...... 2 1.3 OVERVIEW OF THE FISHERIES SECTOR ...... 2 1.3.1 Total landings by fishing area...... 5 1.3.2 Fishing effort by gear ...... 5 1.3.3 Economic value of fisheries production ...... 10 1.3.4 Importance of the fisheries sector in terms of employment and dependence...... 11 2. SPECIES OF REGIONAL, GLOBAL, AND TRANSBOUNDARY SIGNIFICANCE ...... 11

2.1 RANKING OF IMPORTANCE ...... 11 2.1.1 Ranking in terms of landings ...... 11 2.1.2 Local market value...... 12 2.1.3 Status...... 13 2.1.4 Food Security...... 13 2.2 BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF THE PRIORITY SPECIES ...... 13 2.2.1 Large pelagic fishes...... 14 2.2.2 Small pelagic fish species...... 20 2.2.3 Demersal fish species...... 20 2.2.4 Commercially exploited invertebrates...... 21 3. STATUS AND THREATS ...... 22

3.1 CURRENT STATUS ...... 22 3.1.1 Fisheries Status in terms of CPUE ...... 22 3.1.2 Status of fish stocks based on historical review of fish landings and CPUE...... 24 3.2 CURRENT AND POTENTIAL THREATS ...... 25 3.2.1 Current threats...... 25 3.2.2 Potential threats...... 26 4. HABITATS AND AREAS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE MAINTENANCE OF EXPLOITED FISH STOCKS ...... 27

4.1 BIOPHYSICAL PROFILE...... 27 4.1.1 Known spawning grounds...... 30 4.1.2 Known nursery areas and feeding grounds...... 33 4.1.3 Known fishing grounds ...... 34 4.2 UNKNOWN ISSUES SUCH AS STOCKS WITH UNDEFINED SPAWNING GROUNDS ...... 35 4.3 CURRENT AND POTENTIAL THREATS ...... 35 4.4 RANKING OF HABITATS ...... 36 4.4.1 Association with species of importance to food security ...... 36 4.4.2 Association with high-value species ...... 39 4.4.3 Association with endangered, rare, or threatened species ...... 40 5. CURRENT MANAGEMENT REGIME ...... 40

5.1 LEGAL INSTRUMENTS ...... 40 5.2 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS (RESEARCH, MONITORING, CONTROL, AND ENFORCEMENT).....44 5.3 OVERVIEW OF PATTERNS OF RESOURCE OWNERSHIP AND TRADITIONAL UTILIZATION ...... 46 5.4 HUMAN AND INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITIES ...... 46 5.5 REVIEW OF STAKEHOLDERS...... 47 6. RECOMMENDATIONS...... 49

6.1 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GOVERNMENT FOLLOW-UP ACTION...... 49 6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR REGIONAL COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS ...... 49 7. REFERENCES...... 50

ii NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES 1

1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION

1.1 Geographic and oceanographic description

The Philippines (Figure 1) is an archipelago with an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 2,200,000km2, of which 266,000km2 is coastal (12%) and 1,934,000km2 is oceanic (88%). Its shelf area covers 184,600km2, with the coral reefs spanning 30,000km2. Four major water bodies surround the archipelago: the Pacific Ocean in the east; the Celebes Sea in the south; the South China Sea (SCS) in the west; and the Philippine Sea in the north. Its bathymetric features are complex, consisting of various trenches, submarine ridges, deep-sea basins, island arcs, and plateaus.

The North Pacific Equatorial Current mainly influences the properties and dynamics of eastern Philippine waters. This current flows from the Pacific Ocean toward the eastern coast of the archipelago and then splits into a northward branch generating the Kuroshio Current and a southward branch that deflects eastward across the Pacific Equatorial Counter Current, with a minor stream forming the Mindanao Current flowing toward the Celebes (or Sulawesi) Sea. On the other hand, seasonal monsoon winds have the dominant effects on the surface circulation of western Philippine waters. An eddy reportedly forms on the western side and encloses a warm water patch whose position shifts with the season; such an eddy is vertically smaller than the eddy that dominates the water circulation off eastern Luzon (Ronquillo 1975). Eddies in the SCS are predominantly cyclonic in winter and anticyclonic in summer, with sizes from small to medium scale. During the northeast monsoon (October to March), a southwesterly flow, originating from a cyclonic pattern of surface water movements in the SCS, develops along the coast of Luzon and Palawan. In the same season, Wyrtki (1961) found that surface water masses from the Pacific Ocean are transported into the SCS through the Luzon Strait, mainly along the western side of the SCS at depths from 400 to 900m. This condition reverses during the summer season; Western Pacific waters enter the northern SCS through the Luzon Strait and, after mixing, form distinct water masses. Continental freshwater runoff is also very significant. The dominant current during the southwest monsoon (April–August) flows in a northeasterly direction through the Luzon Strait and into the West Philippine Sea (Wyrtki 1961; Barut et al. 1997).

The marine environment of the Philippines is typically tropical, with relatively warm and less saline waters. Sea surface temperature varies between 24 and 30ºC, depending on the season but with mean values varying slightly between 27 and 28ºC. Mean annual range in the temperature of waters west of Luzon is around 5ºC. Salinity variations are relatively narrow; in the west-northwest part of the Philippines, sea surface salinity ranges from 33.7 to 34.6 psu (Rojana-anawat et al. 2000). The South China Sea portion exhibits a marked reduction in surface salinity during the southwest monsoon as the western part of the archipelago experiences the rainy season. Temperature decreases with depth by 0.03ºC/m from the surface to 200 m depth. The thermocline layer, ranging from 12 to 15ºC, occurs at 150m depth on the western side (Rojana-anawat et al. 2000), which is thinner and shallower than the thermocline formation on the eastern side of the archipelago. Recent estimates of primary productivity in the northern SCS portion ranged from 0.10 to 1.53gC/m2/d (Furio and Borja 2000).

Water quality of the western Philippines has shown signs of deterioration. Saramun and Wattayakorn (2000) found DDPH (dissolved dispersed petroleum hydrocarbons) in the area, at concentrations of 0.03 to 0.47 μg/l and 0.02 to 1.47 μg/l for the nearshore and offshore zones, respectively. The DDPH were attributed to maritime and shipping activities, as well as oil exploration and production in the west and northwest area of the Philippines. Several areas along the SCS side of the Philippines are identified as pollution hotspots (Talaue-McManus 2000). Pollutive effects have been attributed to high sediment loading and waste disposal, mostly of anthropogenic origin, that may severely affect marine habitats in the SCS. Various forms of waste come from domestic, industrial, and agricultural sources, causing the degradation of aquatic environments. The possible eutrophication effect of agricultural runoff, which may trigger harmful algal blooms, is a major concern. The pollution threat of Manila Bay, Subic Bay, and Batangas Bay to the waters of the SCS is clear, given the presence of industrial estates and oil refineries/depots around these bays. Other areas at high risk and exhibiting a strong sensitivity to pollution include Masinloc Bay (Zambales), Bacuit Bay (Palawan), and Apo Reef (Mindoro).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 2 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES

1.2 Biogeographic and demographic features

The South China Sea portion of the Philippines is geographically delimited by western Luzon, Palawan, and Mindoro Occidental, covering administrative regions I and III, and parts of Region IV and the National Capital Region (NCR). In dealing with aquatic resources in the area, especially fisheries, data constitute those obtained from the extensive coast and several embayments along western Luzon, including the Batanes Islands further north, as well as from western Palawan waters and the northern Mindoro coast (Figures 1 and 14). A review of demographic profile, resource accounting, and environmental assessment of the area is provided in Talaue-McManus (2000), with related data on other countries bordering the SCS. The SCS portion of the Philippines, excluding Batanes Islands, is around 50,000km2, harbouring 16 cities and a total population of 26.3 million people (from 1996 data in Talaue-McManus 2003). Population density in the same year stands at 472 persons/km2, with a finite growth rate of 2.1%. The area has a watershed spanning 27,500km2, with five major rivers emptying into the SCS.

Mangroves, coral reefs, and seagrasses abound along the South China Sea side of the archipelago, but measures of total coverage of these resources for the SCS sub-region are lacking. These vital resources, which serve prominently as crucial habitats for diverse marine life, have been under severe stress and the threats of further destruction remain unabated. Nationwide, the total cover of mangroves in the Philippines has declined by 60%, with only 160,000ha remaining at present. Over a 70-year period, a mean loss rate of 460ha/y translates to around US$1.7 million that is lost to the local economy. Two-thirds of the mangrove forests around the entire SCS, including those found in other countries, have been decimated due to human utilisation and intervention. Coral reefs along the SCS coast of the Philippines exhibit a degradation rate ranging from 10 to 30%, and about 50% of the remaining stands are at high-risk. Similarly, around 30 to 50% of Philippine seagrass beds have been severely damaged, with the SCS-wide meadows experiencing the same rates of loss. The rampant destruction of these resources is mostly attributed to irresponsible resource-use practices, reflecting a widespread disregard of their crucial ecological roles.

The distribution and condition of mangroves, corals, and seagrasses, along with their associated fauna and flora, within the Philippine territory of the South China Sea are detailed below. The transboundary relevance of these resources mainly pertains to the cross-border effects of losses in biodiversity and fisheries productivity, along with issues associated with the trade of threatened species (e.g. seahorses and marine turtles) and the sharing of responsibilities for conservation and management in the region.

1.3 Overview of the fisheries sector

The fisheries sector of the Philippines is composed of culture and capture sub-sectors. Fishing is classified into municipal or commercial type, depending on the gross tonnage (GT) of the boats used. Municipal fishing includes activities not requiring the use of boats and those using boats not more than 3 GT. Commercial fishing involves the use of boats more than 3 GT. The Philippine Fisheries Code, enacted in 1998, prohibits commercial fishing within municipal waters whose designated offshore boundary is 15 km from the shoreline. This practically grants the right of access to nearshore fishing grounds exclusively to municipal fishers, whose population far exceeds that of commercial fishers. However, with this right comes greater accountability and regulatory control. Municipal fishers secure licences to fish from local government units (LGUs), whereas commercial fishers obtain licences from the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR), which also issues licences to fish in international waters.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES 3

Figure 1 Philippine Marine Jurisdictional Boundaries.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 4 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES

Table 1 Total fish landings (MT) by region in 1997 to 2001. Regions that interact with the South China Sea, wholly or partly, are highlighted.

Region 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

CAR 1,417 1,650 3,318 3,279 3,570 I 41,308 48,871 52,972 60,805 63,617 II 21,542 22,187 30,475 35,202 38,417 III 121,752 112,333 116,138 136,810 181,364 NCR 215,114 220,395 165,517 147,959 146,487 IV 607,184 588,866 613,107 643,315 619,858 V 119,352 113,282 111,947 115,065 150,514 VI 320,961 309,174 337,070 356,998 357,596 VII 153,970 152,332 159,243 164,545 191,531 VIII 73,707 72,312 76,200 78,728 91,318 IX 392,526 409,750 405,181 407,220 398,083 X 56,949 57,539 63,746 67,738 84,187 XI 41,996 41,141 44,481 45,170 49,180 XII 100,256 142,805 180,927 188,323 192,508 ARMM 455,893 468,790 482,907 453,912 505,096 CARAGA 69,629 68,093 80,543 88,263 93,204

Total 2,793,556 2,829,520 2,923,772 2,993,332 3,166,530

COMMERCIAL MUNICIPAL TOTAL 2,250,000

2,000,000

1,750,000

1,500,000

1,250,000

1,000,000

750,000 Landings MT 500,000

250,000

- 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Year

Figure 2 Total marine fish landings (MT) of the Philippines by sector in 1980 to 2002.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES 5

1.3.1 Total landings by fishing area Fisheries constitute an important component of the agricultural sector in the Philippines. Total fish landings increased steadily from 1980 to 2002, with the commercial yield increasing from 488,478 MT in 1980 to 1,042,193 MT in 2002 (Figure 2). In contrast, total municipal landings declined from the early 1990s until 1998, but peaked slightly from 1999 to 2002 (Figure 2). The total marine fish landings by administrative region are presented in Table 1. Fish landings from Regions I and III, including parts of Region IV and the NCR, constitute the catches from the SCS area (Figures 3 and 4). Figure 5 shows the different fishing grounds, which in Philippine waters are designated into statistical areas, including the SCS sub-region. The landing sites monitored by the National Stock Assessment Program are also indicated. The SCS is one of the most important fishing grounds in the country. Although continuous fishing takes place during the first semester of each year, the volume of fish catch contributes significantly to total fish production. During the second semester, inclement weather associated with the southwest monsoon hinders commercial fishing, thus commercial operations occur during periods of calm weather conditions while municipal fishing takes place throughout the year. There are no direct records of landings from the SCS portion of the Philippines. To provide a rough picture of fisheries exploitation in the area, marine landings of Regions I and III, as well as those of Manila Bay and West Palawan, in 1992 to 1995 are shown in Table 2. Although records of landed catch for Regions I and III exist only until 2001, data for Manila Bay and West Palawan are available only until 1995. Capture fisheries production in the SCS area during 1992 to 1995, ranged from 12 to 17% of total annual production in the Philippines, and was much higher than the 1996 value of 120,592 MT/y reported by Talaue-McManus (2000). As shown in Table 2, the commercial sub-sector made the greatest contribution to total marine landings from the SCS, mostly from activities in the West Palawan area. This reflects the relative superiority of commercial fishing technology (e.g. purse seines and ringnets). Municipal landings, however, surpassed the commercial landings in West Luzon, except in Manila Bay, possibly due to a large difference in the number of fishers. Table 2 Philippine marine landings (MT) from the South China Sea area in 1992 to 1995. Values in parenthesis indicate the share (%) of commercial and municipal sub- sectors, respectively.

Year Region I Region III Manila Bay* West Palawan Total (SCS area) Nationwide 1995 23,172 (16/84) 28,607 (21/79) 22,836 (100/na) 162,420 (81/19) 229,786 (68/32) 1,889,226 (49/51) 1994 23,686 (10/90) 17,888 (31/69) 30,386 (100/na) 198,448 (82/18) 260,762 (73/27) 1,838,325 (46/54) 1993 25,364 (10/90) 23,853 (39/61) 38,417 (100/na) 191,110 (79/21) 266,549 (71/29) 1,851,906 (45/55) 1992 21,726 (6/94) 21,908 (37/63) 36,695 (68/32) 234,676 (80/20) 315,005 (71/29) 1,820,275 (43/57) *- Municipal landings in 1992 to 1994 not available (na) for Manila Bay.

Commercial fish landings by the major fishing gears are presented in Figure 6. At the national level and in terms of total production, purse seine is the most important commercial fishing gear, contributing 47 to 58% of the total marine fish landings in 1992 to 1995, followed by ringnet that contributed 14 to 21% (Figure 6). In the case of municipal landings by gear type during the same period, gillnet accounted for 31 to 33% of the total, followed by line gears (hook and line, handline) with 18 to 24% (Figure 7). To extract the same data for the SCS-wide fisheries, a ratio and proportion scheme was employed with the assumption that the gear types used and the percent composition of each gear are the same for the nationwide and SCS-wide scales. The gears used specifically within the SCS sub-region must be verified in the future. Considering the limitations of the data used in Figures 6 and 7, there is an apparent increase in the landings from purse seines and ringnets for the commercial sub-sector, and gillnets and hook and line for the municipal sub-sector from the SCS area. The dominant municipal gears are relatively size and species selective, and conceivably more suited to the rough sea conditions and the hard ground relief on the SCS side of the archipelago.

1.3.2 Fishing effort by gear

So far, the available records on fishing effort in the SCS area only pertain to registered commercial fishing vessels from Regions I and III (Table 3), without indicating the kind of fishing gears used. Concerning the latter, preliminary inventory indicates that the major gears used in the SCS area are ringnets, purse seines, modified Danish seines, gill nets, handlines, bagnets, and pushnets. Similar

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 6 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES

data on municipal vessels for the SCS area are unavailable since their registration/licensing are the responsibility of the respective local government units. Table 3 therefore underestimates the nominal effort for the SCS sub-region; fishing boats from Region IV and the NCR must also be taken into account. Attempt to disaggregate the fishing effort cannot be made without any baseline data on total vessels and gears from the localities constituting the SCS sub-region. This highlights the need for an improved and expanded collection of catch and effort statistics specific to the area.

56,000 Commercial Municipal Total

48,000

40,000

32,000

24,000 Landings MT 16,000

8,000

- 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Year

Figure 3 Marine fish landings from western Philippine waters (Regions I and III).

300,000 Commercial Municipal Total 270,000

240,000

210,000

180,000

150,000

120,000

Landings MT 90,000

60,000

30,000

- 1992 1993 1994 1995 Year

Figure 4 Marine fish landing from western Philippine waters (Manila Bay and West Palawan).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES 7

22.00

21.00

20.00

19.00

18.00

17.00

16.00

15.00

14.00

13.00

12.00

11.00

10.00

9.00

8.00

7.00

6.00

5.00

4.00 114.00 115.00 116.00 117.00 118.00 119.00 120.00 121.00 122.00 123.00 124.00 125.00 126.00 127.00 128.00

Figure 5 Map of the Philippines showing the different statistical fishing areas (enclosed by lines) and sampling sites per administrative region (arrowheads).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 8 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES

500,000

450,000

400,000

350,000

300,000

250,000

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000

- 1992 1993 1994 1995

140,000

120,000

100,000

80,000

60,000

40,000

20,000

- 1992 1993 1994 1995

Purse Seine Ring Net Trawl Danish Seine Bag Net Hook & Line Others

Figure. 6 Commercial marine fish landings (MT) by major fishing gear for the entire Philippines (upper panel) and the SCS sub-region (lower panel) in 1992 to 1995. SCS sub-region constitutes landings from Regions I and III, Manila Bay, and West Palawan waters. Gear type and composition (%) per gear assumed the same for the nationwide and SCS-wide scales.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES 9

300,000

250,000

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000

- 1992 1993 1994 1995

80,000

70,000

60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

- 1992 1993 1994 1995

Gill Net Hook & Line Beach Seine Fish Corral Ring Net Baby Trawl Spear Long Line Danish Seine Fish Pot Bag Net Crab Purse Seine Others

Figure 7 Municipal marine fish landings (MT) by major fishing gear for the entire Philippines (upper panel) and the SCS sub-region (lower panel) in 1992 to 1995. SCS sub-region constitutes landings from Regions I and III, Manila Bay, and West Palawan waters. Gear type and composition (%) per gear were assumed the same for the nationwide and SCS-wide scales.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 10 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES

Table 3 Total Number and Gross Tonnage (GT) of Commercial Fishing Vessels In Regions I and III from1990 to 2002. Na – Not available.

Region I Region III Total Year Number Total GT Number Total GT Number Total GT

1990 3 41 27 628 30 668 1991 na na na na na na 1992 67 1,366 50 808 117 2,174 1993 na Na na na na na 1994 59 1,229 298 4,815 357 6,044 1995 59 1,229 298 4,815 357 6,044 1996 59 1,229 298 4,815 357 6,044 1997 73 1,286 35 981 108 2,268 1998 60 1,232 32 866 92 2,089 1999 113 1,833 40 1,081 153 2,914 2000 113 1,833 40 1,081 153 2,914 2001 113 1,833 40 1,081 153 2,914 2002 113 1,833 40 1,081 153 2,914

1.3.3 Economic value of fisheries production

Fisheries contribution to total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2002 was 2.2% at current prices and 4.0% at constant prices. Philippine GDP in 2002 was US$356 billion. On the other hand, the contribution of the fisheries sector to the Gross Value Added (GVA) in agriculture, fishery, and forestry by industry group for 2002 is shown in Table 4. Fisheries GVA amounts to PhP90,180 million (15.2%) at current prices, whereas PhP41,772 million (20.3%) at constant prices. Nationwide, the total value of fisheries production, both sub-sectors and aquaculture included, increased steadily from PhP70,215 million in 1993 to PhP113,244 million in 2002 (Table 5). For the SCS sub-region, the economic value of landings was estimated using the average contribution of each sub-sector to total capture fisheries production, i.e. excluding aquaculture, in 1992 to1995. The four-year average contribution of the SCS municipal sub-sector and commercial sub-sector to nationwide total production was 7.8% and 22.5%, respectively. Thus, municipal and commercial landings from the SCS sub-region in 1993 were valued at PhP1,718 million and PhP4,055 million, respectively (Table 5). In 2002, the value of the SCS landings increased to PhP2,976 million and PhP8,928 million for the municipal and commercial sub- sectors, respectively. By aggregation, the total value of marine landings from the SCS sub-region increased from PhP5,773 million in 1993 to PhP11,904 million in 2002 (Table 5).

Regarding the balance of trade, national fishery exports in 2002 (182,032 MT valued at US$506 million) were higher than in 2001 (159,069 MT valued at US$459 million). The volume of fisheries imports for both years was higher than the volume of exports. Nevertheless, there was a positive balance of trade for both years in terms of value (Table 6).

Table 4 Agriculture, fisheries, and forestry contribution to the Gross Value Added (GVA) by industry group. Prices are in PhP million.

% to % to Agricultural At Constant Industry Group At Current Prices Agricultural Sector Prices Sector Agricultural crops (Palay, corn, 343,295 58.0 105,163 51.0 coconut, etc.) Livestock 78,983 13.3 26,580 12.9 Poultry 50,960 8.6 23,611 11.5 Agricultural activities 27,920 4.7 8,737 4.2 Fishery 90,180 15.2 41,772 20.3 Forestry 803 0.1 335 0.2 TOTAL 592,141 100 206,198 100

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES 11

Table 5 Value (PhP million) of nationwide and SCS-wide (landings from Regions I and III, Manila Bay, and West Palawan) fish production in 1993 to 2002. P–preliminary.

NATION-WIDE SCS-WIDE* Year Culture Municipal Commercial Total Municipal Commercial Total (PhP) (PhP) (PhP) (PhP) (PhP) (PhP) (PhP) 2002 35,404 38,159 39,681 113,244 2,976 8,928 11,904 2001 36,634 34,222 36,089 106,945 2,669 8,120 10,789 2000 32,148 32,595 33,879 98,622 2,542 7,623 10,165 1999 29,046 31,034 32,242 92,322 2,420 7,254 9,674 1998 26,430 28,966 29,737 85,133 2,259 6,691 8,950 1997 27,289 27,393 25,935 80,617 2,137 5,835 7,972 1996 33,347 25,373 24,555 83,275 1,979 5,525 7,504 1995 33,658 26,464 23,065 83,187 2,064 5,190 7,253 1994 35,003 24,475 20,714 80,192 1,909 4,539 6,448 1993 30,163 22,031 18,021 70,215 1,718 4,055 5,773 * The estimator for the SCS-wide sub-sector value was the ratio of SCS-wide landings over the nationwide landings for each sub-sector from 1992 to1995; estimation was limited to that period due to data limitation in the SCS sub-region. Estimator values were 0.078 for the municipal sub-sector and 0.225 for the commercial sub-sector.

Table 6 Balance of trade for the fisheries sector in 2001 and 2002.

2002 2001 Category Quantity FOB Value Quantity FOB Value (MT) (PhP M) (US$ M) (MT) (PhP M) (US$ M) Fishery Export 182,032 26,178 506 159,069 22,723 459 Fishery Import 218,585 5,073 97 179,994 3,815 76 Trade Balance 36,553 21,105 409 20,925 18,908 383

1.3.4 Importance of the fisheries sector in terms of employment and dependence

The fisheries sector employs around a million people broken down into following: municipal 68%; aquaculture 26%; and commercial 6%. This constitutes 3 to 4% of the national labor force. Assuming that a typical family is comprised of 5 to 6 persons, then around 5 to 6 million people are directly dependent on fisheries. In addition, the fisheries sector indirectly provides employment to those engaged in fish distribution, marketing, processing, operation of ice plants and cold storage, and related industries such as net-making, boat-building, and boat-engine sales and repairs.

2. SPECIES OF REGIONAL, GLOBAL, AND TRANSBOUNDARY SIGNIFICANCE

2.1 Ranking of Importance

The Regional Working Group on Fisheries identified 13 pelagic and 9 demersal fish species, 10 cephalopods, and 11 crustaceans to be considered in the initial review as species with transboundary significance (see Tables 1a, 2a, 3a, and 4a of Annex 4 UNEP/GEF/SCS/RWG-F 2/3). The 13 pelagic species belong to four major groups under the ISSCAAP (International Standard Statistical Classification of Aquatic Animals and Plants) classification system: Selar crumenophthalmus, Decapterus macrosoma, and D. maruadsi under Group 34 (Jacks, Mullets, Sauries, etc.); Sardinella spp. and Stolephorus spp. under Group 35 (Herrings, Sardines, Anchovies, etc.); Scomberomorus commerson, S. guttatus, Auxis thazard, A. rochei, Euthynnus affinis, and Thunnus tonggol under Group 36 (Tunas); and Rastrelliger kanagurta and R. brachysoma under Group 37 (Mackerels). On the other hand, the 9 demersal species are lumped under Group 33 (Red fishes, Basses, Congers, etc.).

2.1.1 Ranking in terms of landings

In the Philippines, the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (BAS) of the Department of Agriculture (DA) generates the statistics for aquaculture, commercial, and municipal fisheries. Species-specific information for marine fish is limited to the top 30 species. These 30 species belong to eight groups under the ISSCAAP system and account for almost 68% of nationwide fish production (Table 7). Hence, any significant fluctuation in total fish landings, especially of the pelagic species, would definitely affect the country’s position as a global fish producer. Further, almost half of the top 30

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species are in the priority list and they form the bulk of species traditionally harvested/landed in areas/regions facing the SCS. The proportion of the eight species groups in fish catches from the SCS area is much higher compared to the national average (Table 8), except for Group 42 (Crabs). This could be explained by the fact that West Palawan, which is part of Region IV, is a major contributor to commercial fish production (~19%) in the Philippines.

2.1.2 Local market value

Wholesale and retail prices of selected fish species groups are given in Table 9. Except for Groups 57 (Squids) and 45 (Acetes), price data are available for representative species of all groups. Although the traditional group with the highest local market value is crabs, only Groups 33 and 37 are the fish groups typically consumed locally and command a high price. This is possibly attributed to the high price of some demersal species, e.g. threadfin bream and fusilier in Group 33, compared to the small pelagics.

Table 7 Average landings (MT) and percentage share to total marine fish production of the priority species groups.

Share Productiona Valueb ISSCAAP Code (%) (MT) (PhP million) Group 33 (Slipmouth, Threadfin bream, Fusilier, Goatfish, Grouper, Snapper, Siganid, 8.8 195,864 5,254 Parrotfish, Porgies) Group 34 (Roundscad, Big-eyed scad, Crevalle, Flying 18.0 403,030 10,812 fish, Cavalla, Mullet) Group 35 (Indian sardine, Fimbriated sardine, 17.3 386,314 10,364 Anchovy, Round herring) Group 36 (Skipjack, Frigate tuna, Yellowfin tuna, 15.4 344,078 9,231 Eastern little tuna, Spanish mackerel) Group 37 (Indian mackerel, Indo-Pacific mackerel, 3.9 88,090 2,363 Hairtail) Group 42 (Blue crab) 1.4 32,326 867 Group 45 (Acetes) 0.7 15,890 426 Group 57 (Squid) 2.2 48,916 1,312 Total 67.8% 1,514,508 40,630 a Refers to yearly production from 1997 to 2001 as reported by the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (BAS). b Refers to the Weighted average value.

Table 8 Percentage share of priority species caught from selected areas/regions facing the South China Seaa in 1992 and 1995 in comparison with the national average.

ISSCAAP Code Nat’l Average 1992 Catch 1995 Catch Group 33 (Slipmouths, etc.) 8.77 12.36 12.61 Group 34 (Roundscads, etc.) 18.01 32.95 29.67 Group 35 (Indian sardines, etc.) 17.32 14.34 25.32 Group 36 (Tunas) 15.40 18.51 16.47 Group 37 (Mackerel, etc.) 3.94 9.44 7.40 Group 42 (Blue crab) 1.44 0.56 0.80 Group 45 (Acetes) 0.71 3.90 2.21 Group 57 (Squid) 2.20 3.54 3.19 Total 67.79% 95.61 97.67 aRefers to landings from Lingayen Gulf, Manila Bay, Batangas Coast, and West Palawan.

Table 9 Wholesale (W) and retail (R) prices for selected fish species in Philippine peso.

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 ISSCAAP Code W R W R W R W R W R Group 33 (Demersalsa) 45.4 70.3 46.8 72.1 50.9 76.1 54.1 80.7 57.4 85.3 Group 34 (Roundscad) 31.9 45.0 34.4 47.4 40.0 53.4 41.5 54.9 44.4 59.4 Group 35 (Anchovies) 28.1 44.1 31.2 44.9 32.6 46.7 35.8 48.0 36.0 50.2 Group 36 (Frigate tuna) 35.3 46.3 36.4 49.0 42.4 51.3 43.5 52.6 48.0 57.3 Group 37 (I. mackerel) 47.9 60.9 49.3 61.7 53.6 64.8 56.8 67.5 60.2 70.7 Group 42 (Blue Crab) 51.6 74.2 58.4 77.4 61.6 82.2 61.5 88.8 62.4 98.0 aAverage price for threadfin bream, slipmouth, and fusilier.

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2.1.3 Status

IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature, presently World Conservation Union) classifies species into 9 categories: Extinct (EX); Extinct in the Wild (EW); Critically Endangered (CR); Endangered (EN); Vulnerable (VU); Near Threatened (NT); Least Concern (LC); Data Deficient (DD); and Not Evaluated (NE). So far, none of the 43 species identified by the Regional Working Group on Fisheries are listed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

2.1.4 Food Security

Local fish production exhibited a steady increase from 1997 to 2001, accounting for 96% of the national fish supply, while the contribution of food fish imports averaged about 4% (Table 10). Assuming such rates to remain constant while population increases by 2% and per capita consumption remains at 2000 level, domestic fish production will have to increase, with necessary reinforcement by imports.

Table 10 Annual fish supply and consumption (MT) from 1997 to 2001.

Item 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Production 2,136,264 2,144,184 2,227,660 2,286,293 2,380,735 Food Fish Import 118,069 51,893 120,586 120,180 68,388 Apparent Food Use 1,894,210 1,837,612 1,984,944 2,034,235 2,088,499 Per Capita Use (kg) 26.62 25.32 26.81 26.59 26.80 Population 71,145,556 72,581,223 74,045,637 76,498,735 77,925,894 Total Fish Supply 2,254,333 2,196,077 2,348,246 2,406,473 2,449,123

2.2 Biology and ecology of the priority species

About 2,400 fish species have been recorded in the Philippines, but the number occurring along the western (South China Sea) portion of the country is still unknown. It is therefore likely that the number occurring in the Philippines, and in other countries in the region, is much larger than that currently recorded.

The Regional Working Group (Fisheries) has issued a comprehensive list of demersal and pelagic fish, as well as invertebrates, with defined levels of transboundary significance. Information on the biology and ecology of the listed species occurring in the Philippines were derived largely from databases, particularly FISHBASE and CEPHBASE, and from available reports and publications.

Table 11 shows those species in the comprehensive list that have been recorded in the Philippines. Several species have no records of occurrence in areas along the South China Sea, although they have been observed at several localities in the country. In such cases, the locality/area where they have been observed is indicated. Most of the listed species, however, occur in areas bordering the South China Sea.

Depending on the availability of references, the information includes: a) geographical distribution of the stock; b) migration pattern; c) size-related aspects of the stock; d) growth parameters; e) reproductive biology; f) spawning time (season); g) spawning areas; h) nursery grounds (areas); and i) food and feeding habits.

Most data regarding commonly occurring species pertain to relative abundances in catches and estimates of population parameters; reproductive biology (particularly spawning areas) and feeding habits are relatively scarce, although useful insights may be provided by data on related species or the same species from other fishing grounds in the country or region. Any local (Philippine) information is therefore vital and incorporated into the sheets. The lack of information is usually remedied by citing relevant data from the next most similar area. Focus is placed on two major areas, Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay, mainly because of available information. Relevant areas include the Batanes Islands, Ilocos Coast, Subic Bay and Zambales coast, Batangas–Mindoro waters, Malampaya area and northern Palawan, and the Kalayaan (Spratlys) Islands Group.

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2.2.1 Large pelagic fishes

This group includes the various tuna species. In the Philippines, there are a total of 21 tuna and tuna- like species, but only six are caught in commercial quantities (PCAMRD 1993). The six species include the highly migratory Thunnus albacares (yellowfin) and Katsuwonus pelamis (skipjack), which are normally caught in offshore waters, and Thunnus obesus (big-eyed), Euthynnus affinis (eastern little), Auxis thazard (frigate), and A. rochei (bullet), which are more frequently caught in inshore waters.

Tuna spawning grounds are located throughout Philippine waters (Figure 8), including the waters off West Palawan, Mindoro Strait, and West Luzon. The major spawning ground, however, is the Celebes Sea in the south. Migration through the Sulu Sea (Figure 9) allows the mixing of stocks between the Pacific Ocean (via the Celebes Sea) and the SCS.

The prevalence of young tuna (TL<30 cm) in commercial and municipal catches has been a major concern since the 1980s because it may lead to growth overfishing (Aprieto 1982). Worse, the use of fish aggregating devices (FADs), locally called “payaos”, tends to enhance cannibalism thus exacerbating the above situation (PCAMRD 1993). Of the six tuna species mentioned above, only T. obesus is believed to be facing a high risk of extinction and is thus listed under the vulnerable category.

Large pelagics typically include other oceanic fish such as Makaira spp. (marlin), Xiphias gladius (swordfish), Istiophorus platypterus (sailfish), Scomberomorus commerson (Spanish mackerel), Elopidae (tenpounder), Sphyraenidae (barracuda), Coryphaenidae (dolphinfish), large Caranx spp. (cavalla), Elagatis bipinnulatus (rainbow runner), and Chanos chanos (milkfish). As a group, these fish contribute around 7% to total landings of pelagic fish (Pagdilao et al. 1991), but little is known about their biology or ecology in local waters. Milkfish are extensively cultured in the Philippines, but only those caught in the wild are included as large pelagics.

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Pacific

South

China Sea Ocean

Sulu

Sea

Celebes

Sea

Figure 8 Tuna spawning grounds in the Philippines (Wade 1951).

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South Pacific China

Sea

Ocean

Sulu Sea

Celebes Sea

Figure 9 Tuna migration routes to the South China Sea.

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Table 11 Species of transboundary significance and their recorded occurrences in waters of the South China Sea side of the Philippines.

SPECIES Common name Occurrence Aetobatus narinari Spotted eagle ray Manila Bay kuhlii Blue-spotted stingray Lingayen Gulf; Manila Bay; Cavite Manta birostris Giant manta ray No information Taeniura lymma Blue-spotted ribbontail ray Ulugan Bay, Palawan Alopias pelagicus Pelagic No information Alopias vulpinus Thintail thresher shark No information Carcharhinus dussumieri Whitecheek shark Dumaguete, Negros Oriental (*) Carcharhinus limbatus Blacktip shark Pilas Is., Basilan, Sulu Sea (*) Carcharhinus longimanus Oceanic whitetip shark No information Carcharhinus melanopterus Blacktip reef shark Manila (market) Carcharhinus sorrah Spottail shark Cavite Chiloscyllium indicum Bamboo shark Manila Bay Chiloscyllium griseum Bamboo shark Sim Sim Laut Is., Sulu Sea (*) Chiloscyllium plagiosum Bamboo shark Manila Bay; Calapan, Mindoro Chiloscyllium punctatum Bamboo shark Manila Bay Rhicodon typus Whale shark Mariveles Bay, Bataan; Manila Bay; Batangas Bay and Bauan, Batangas Sphyrna lewini Scalloped hammerhead shark No information Sphyrna zygaena Smooth hammerhead shark Cavite; Taytay, Palawan Istiophorus platypterus Indo-pacific sailfish Makaira indica Black marlin Makaira mazara Indo-pacific blue marlin Makaira nigricans Atlantic blue marlin Xiphias gladius Swordfish Manila Bay; Western Philippines Auxis rochei Bullet tuna Western Philippines Auxis thazard Frigate tuna Nasugbu and Balayan Bay, Batangas Province, Luzon, Euthynnus affinis Kawakawa Western Philippines Katsuwonus pelamis Skipjack tuna Taal and Balayan Bay, Batangas Thunnus albacares Yellowfin tuna Western Philippines Thunnus tonggol Longtail tuna Western Philippines Rastrelliger brachysoma Short mackerel Bauang, La Union; Manila Bay; Calapan, Mindoro Rastrelliger faughni Island mackerel Visayan Sea (*) Rastrelliger kannagurta Indian mackerel Nasugbu, Batangas Province, Luzon;

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Table 11 cont. Species of transboundary significance and their recorded occurrences in waters of the South China Sea side of the Philippines. SPECIES Common name Occurrence Scomberoides commersonnianus Talang queenfish No information Scomberoides lysan Double-spotted queenfish Vigan, Ilocos Sur; Manila Bay; Bolbok, Batangas; Malampaya Sound, Palawan Scomberoides tala Barred queenfish Manila Bay; Cavite Scomberomorus commerson Narrow-barred spanish mackerel San Fabian, Pangasinan; Manila Bay Scomberomorus guttatus Indo-pacific king mackerel Guinlo, Malampaya Sound, Palawan Scomberomorus lineolatus Streaked seerfish No information hippurus Common dolphin fish Fortune Is., Nasugbu, Batangas; Naujan, Mindoro; Malampaya Sound, Palawan Cypselurus spp. Flying fish Batangas; Manila Bay Alepes djedaba Shrimp scad Samar Sea; San Pedro Bay Atule mate Yellowtail scad Bauang, La Union; Manila Bay Decapterus macrosoma Shortfin scad Manila Bay Decapterus maruadsi Japanese scad Amurang, North Celebes Decapterus russelli Indian scad Iloilo (*) Bauang, La Union; Mariveles, Bataan; Balayan Bay, Batangas; Linapacan Island, Megalaspis cordyla Torpedo scad Palawan Selar crumenopthalmus Bigeye scad Bangui, Ilocos Norte; Orion, Bataan; Manila Bay; Calapan, Mindoro Selaroides leptolepis Yellow-stripe scad Bauang, La Union; Manila Bay Amblygaster sirm Spotted sardinella No information Santa Maria, Ilocos; San Fernando, La Union; Lingayen Gulf; Orani and Orion, Anadontostoma chacunda Chacunda gizzard shad Bataan; Manila Bay; Cavite; Balayan Bay, Batangas Chirocentrus dorab Dorab wolf herring Vigan, Ilocos Sur; Rosario, La Union; San Fabian, Pangasinan; Manila Bay; Cavite Chirocentrus nudus Whitefin wolf herring No information Basud River and Port Jamelo, Luzon; Sta. Cruz, Marinduque; Panabutan Bay, Sardinella albella White sardinella Zamboanga (*) Sardinella brachysoma Deepbody sardinella Manila Bay, Luzon Sardinella fimbriata Fringescale sardinella Bauang, La Union; Manila Bay; Nasugbu, Batangas Sardinella gibbosa Goldstripe sardinella Vigan, Ilocos Sur; Orani and Orion, Bataan; Manila Bay Encrasicholina devisi Devi's anchovy No information Encrasicholina heteroloba Shorthead anchovy No information Encrasicholina punctifer Buccaneer anchovy No information Stolephorus commersoni Commerson's anchovy Manila Bay

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Table 11 cont. Species of transboundary significance and their recorded occurrences in waters of the South China Sea side of the Philippines. SPECIES Common name Occurrence Stolephorus indicus Indian anchovy Balayan Bay, Batangas; Puerto Galera, Mondoro Epinephelus akaara Hongkong grouper No information Dagupan, Pangasinan; Subic Bay, Zambales; Calapan, Mindoro; Linapacan Is. and Epinephelus bleekeri Duskytail grouper Ulugan Bay, Palawan Epinephelus fuscoguttatus Brown-marbled grouper Manila Bay; Puerto Galera, Mindoro; Ulugan Bay, Palawan Epinephelus malabaricus Malabar grouper Cavite; Calapan, Mindoro; Cuyo Is., Palawan Epinephelus sexfasciatus Sixbar grouper Bauang, La Union; Manila Bay; Nasugbu and Lemery, Batangas Epinephelus tauvina Greasy grouper Cavite, Cavite Province Plectropomus aereolatus Squaretail coral grouper No information Plectropomus leopardus Leopard coral grouper Manila Bay; Port Hamilo, Batangas; Bolalo Bay and Endeavor Straits, Palawan Plectropomus maculatus Spotted coral grouper Verde Is. Passage; Endeavor Strait, Palawan Lutjanus argentimaculatus Mangrove red snapper Camiguin Is., Batanes; Mariveles, Bataan; Cavite; Pagapas, Batangas Mariveles, Bataan; Port Jamilo, Batangas; Calapan, Mindoro; Quiminatin and Cuyo Lutjanus lutjanus Bigeye snapper Is., Palawan Lutjanus malabaricus Malabar blood snapper Dagupan, Pangasinan; Manila Bay; Batangas Lutjanus sanguineus Humphead snapper Manila bay; Balayan Bay, Batangas Lutjanus sebae Emperor head snapper Linapacan and Cuyo Is., Palawan Lutjanus vitta Brownstripe red snapper Manila Bay; Cavite Pristipomoides filamentosus Crimson jobfish Cebu; Dumaguete, Negros Oriental; Balabac Strait (*) Pristipomoides typus Sharptooth jobfish Manila (market); Nasugbu, Batangas Port Matalvi, Zambales; Limbones Cove, Cavite; Nasugbu, Pagapas Bay and Port Caesio cuning Redbelly yellowtail fusilier Hamilo, Batangas; Taytay, Palawan Bauang, La Union; Cape Bolinao, Pangasinan; Manila Bay; Balayan Bay, Batangas; Saurida spp. Lizardfish Cuyo Is., Palawan Curimao, Ilocos Norte; San Fernando, La Union; San Fabian, Pangasinan; Orion, Nemipterus spp. Threadfin breams Bataan; Manila Bay Priacanthus macracanthus Red bigeye Tayabas Bay, Quezon (*) Priacanthus tayenus Purple-spotted bigeye San Fernando and Bauang, La Union; Mansalay, Mindoro Trichiurus lepturus Largehead hairtail No information (*) – Indicates areas not bordering the South China Sea.

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2.2.2 Small pelagic fish species

Small pelagic is an arbitrary category of various fishes that are generally surface dwelling within continental shelf waters. Most of these small, fast-growing, and short-lived species belong to 13 families: Scombridae (mackerels), Carangidae (crevalles and other jacks), Clupeidae (herrings and sardines), Engraulidae (anchovies), Chirocentridae (wolf herring), Trichiuridae (hairtails), Atherinidae (silversides), Hemiramphidae (halfbeaks), Exocoetidae (flying fish), Mugilidae (mullets), Strongyluridae (garfish), Megalopidae (tarpon), and Caesionidae (fusiliers) (Dalzell and Ganaden 1987).

As a group, small pelagics comprise 40% of the total fish landings. The dominant groups are anchovies (Stolephorus spp.), sardines (Sardinella spp.), roundscads (Decapterus spp.), and mackerel (Rastrelliger spp.). Population parameter estimates for small pelagic stocks from different fishing grounds are available in Ingles and Pauly (1984), Corpuz et al. (1985), Lavapie et al. (1987), and several unpublished reports from 1990 to 2000.

A recent review of their general biology and ecology is given in Calvelo (1997). Small pelagic fish generally attain a maximum weight of not more than 500 g. They are generally short-lived, with lifespan of two to three years, although the round scads may live to about four years (Calvelo 1997). Many exhibit inshore-offshore migrations, but most are limited to the neritic zone. Because of the difficulty in identifying their larvae to the or species level, specific spawning locations are unknown. Previous studies, however, point to such areas as Mindoro Strait and the waters off Manila Bay as likely spawning grounds for some pelagic fish in the South China Sea (Ronquillo 1975). Most pelagic species are planktivorous, although some are carnivorous particularly on the young of other species. As planktivores, they are known to live near the water surface and are therefore strongly influenced by environmental conditions (PCAMRD 1993). The high seasonal variation in their abundance is attributed to environmental influences such as monsoons, rainfall, salinity regimes, and plankton biomass.

2.2.3 Demersal fish species

A total of 46 species groups comprise the demersal landings in the Philippines, with the Leiognathidae (slipmouths) comprising about 15% of the total (Pagdilao et al. 1991). Others groups include the Nemipteridae (threadfin breams), Mullidae (goatfish), and Synodontidae (lizardfish), which are common in soft-bottom areas, and Lutjanidae (snappers), Lethrinidae (emperor fish), Siganidae (rabbitfish), and Serranidae (groupers), which are generally associated with reefs. Also included in this category are the many species of sharks, skates, and rays (elasmobranchs). Together, these nine groups represent over 50% of demersal fish landings in the Philippines (Pagdilao et al. 1991). Because of their diversity in form, feeding, and behavior, demersal fish are exploited with various gears over different substrate types, including mangrove swamps, seagrass beds, and coral reefs. As bottom-dwellers, their food includes seaweeds and seagrasses, worms, small shrimps, small fish, and even shelled organisms and corals.

The classification of elasmobranchs as by-catch is typical in most fisheries of the Philippines. As a result, their catches are likely underreported. Little is known about their biology and ecology in local waters because fishers usually discard their carcasses at sea after removing and retaining their fins. Six rays and 43 sharks that reportedly occur in the Philippines, although not necessarily in the SCS area, are included in the Red List. Of the rays, Urogymnus asperrimus (porcupine ray) and Aetomylaeus nichofii (banded eagle ray) are vulnerable (at high risk of becoming extinct in the wild), another two species are near threatened (likely to be vulnerable in the future), whereas data are deficient for both Aetobatus narinari (spotted eagle ray) and Manta birostris (manta ray). Of the 43 sharks in the Red List, only Carcharhinus hemiodon (pondcherry shark) is listed as critically endangered (extremely at high risk of extinction in the wild), 4 other species are endangered (facing a very high risk of extinction), 10 are vulnerable, including Rhincodon typus (whale shark), 7 are near threatened, 15 are almost nearly threatened, while 6 have insufficient data for categorizing.

Reef-associated fish are also included in this category. While the higher valued species, such as groupers and snappers, are exploited for human consumption, a number of species not consumed by humans have also been exploited for the live aquarium fish trade (Nañola and Aliño 1999). The more commonly targeted aquarium fish include chaetodontids (butterflyfish) and pomacanthids (angelfish). Seahorses and pipefishes (syngnathids) are also exploited and marketed as “aphrodisiacs” in other countries (Nañola and Aliño 1999). Among the syngnathids, nine species (including two pipefish) are

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redlisted, five as vulnerable, and four with insufficient data. Those categorised with insufficient data are species whose biology and ecology are prone to disruption from observed levels of exploitation. Syngnathids brood their eggs in male abdominal pouches, and as such, the number of eggs produced per female is very limited. Aside from seahorses, eight other bottom dwelling fish are included in the Red List, inlcuding three groupers (Cephalopolis boenak, Cromileptes altivelis, and Epinephelus lanceolatus), the humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus), two dragonfishes (), and two gobiiform fish. 2.2.4 Commercially exploited invertebrates The commercially exploited invertebrates in the country include species of molluscs, crustaceans, and . Each of these groups is very diverse. A listing of species would be too extensive to include in this review. For several invertebrates, rearing and culture techniques have been investigated and developed for the purpose of propagation. As such, susceptibility to local extinction would be negligible. These include sea urchins (Tripneustes gratila) (Juinio-Meñez et al. 1998), sea cucumbers, shrimps, crabs, and several molluscs, including giant clams. The latter group is of special conservation concern as most are slow-growing and have reduced abundances in the wild. Six species of locally occurring giant clams are included in the Red List, categorised as either vulnerable (Tridacna derasa and T. gigas) or least risk (Hippopus hippopus, H. porcellanus, Tridacna maxima, and T. squamosa), although the vulnerability of the least risk group to current exploitation levels cannot be ignored. Some biological information on the 15 cephalopod species occurring in the SCS area is provided in Table 12.

Table 12 Summary of biological and ecological information for cephalopod species with transboundary significance in the South China Sea.

Species Max. Size Prey Items Other Information References Octopus (Octopus) 120–150cm hermit crab, blue Boletzky and Hanlon (1983); Roper macropus TL crab, shrimp et al. (1984) O. (O.) membranaceus O. (O.) aegina 30cm ML Roper et al. (1984) Sepia 10cm ML Roper et al. (1984) (Acanthosepion) brevimana S. (A.) lycidas 38cm ML shrimp Boletzky and Hanlon (1983) S. (A.) aculeata 23cm ML , mysid Boletzky and Hanlon (1983); Roper et al. (1984) S. (Sepia) pharaonis 43cm ML ♂ Hatching size:0.1g Roper et al. (1984); Wood and O'Dor 33cm ML ♀ Size/age at maturity: 84.1g, (2000) 110d; 3300deg-d Sepiella inermis prawn, crab, Hatching size: 0.01g Boletzky and Hanlon (1983); Wood fish, Size/age at maturity: 36.6g, and O'Dor (2000) 90d; 2700deg-d Sepioteuthis 36cm ML fish, mysid, Hatching size: 0.044g Boletzky and Hanlon (1983); Wood lessoniana shrimp, Size/age at maturity: 122.7g, and O'Dor (2000) 90d; 2700deg-d Uroteuthis 30cm ML Roper et al. (1984) (Photololigo) chinensis U. (P.) duvauceli: 29cm ML Roper et al. (1984) U. (P.) edulis 40cm ML Roper et al. (1984) Nototodarus 15.2cm Caught in depths up to 710m Nateewathana et al. (2000) hawaiiensis Sthenoteuthis 18cm ML ♂ Abound in W. Phil. at 50– Siriraksophon et al. (2000); oualaniensis 26cm ML ♀ 100m; lifespan ~1yr; >75% Nateewathana et al. (2000); Basir diet comprised of fish and (2000); Zakaria (2000) cephalopods; size at 1st mat. ♀: 11cm ML Thysanoteuthis 100cm ML Generally caught in upper Nateewathana et al. (2000) rhombus 50m of water column

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 22 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES

3. STATUS AND THREATS

3.1 Current Status

In this section, the Philippines part of the South China Sea is categorised into two sectors: western Luzon, including the Batanes Islands and the major fishing grounds of Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay, and western Palawan, including the western coast of Mindoro, Calamianes Islands, and the embayments of Malampaya Sound, Bacuit Bay, and Ulugan Bay.

3.1.1 Fisheries Status in terms of CPUE

Fishing effort data are not regularly and adequately included in the published statistics for Philippine fisheries, thus assessment of catch per unit effort (CPUE) is difficult. This section presents information for the years where the computation of CPUE is possible, as well as that stemming from site-specific studies.

At present, CPUE in the SCS area depends on the location and habitat where fishing takes places. In the waters adjacent to Batanes Islands, pelagic fisheries exhibited high levels of CPUE levels in 1997 to 2002 (Table 13). The trend observed is that catch rates have either increased (e.g. simple handline, drift gillnet) or remained constant (e.g. multiple handline, drift lines for flying fish), thus suggesting that the area is still in good condition for pelagic fisheries. This may be attributed to the distance of the fishing grounds from the major fishing ports and the limited fishing period (March–June) imposed by perennially rough sea conditions, which both serve as a natural stopgap mechanism to fishing activities in the area. This is in contrast to its reef fisheries, where exploitation occurs year round. Although catch rates there are mostly higher than elsewhere in the country, latest figures (1998–2002) indicate decreasing CPUE for spear fishing and octopus fishing (Table 13). The high CPUE observed for many gear types in the area may have driven increases in total fishing effort levels. The total number of fishers operating in the area increased 8% from 1997 (1330) to 2002 (1431). Similarly, the number of fishing gear units increased 741% from 423 in 1997 to 3557 units in 2002. A possible cause of the large discrepancy in the effort (boats and gears) data is the change in the survey method.

Most fisheries, especially demersal fisheries, in enclosed bays and gulfs along the SCS indicate an overfished status. In Manila Bay, only 10% of the 1947 level of demersal fish population remained in 1993 (Armada 1993). From a high catch rate of 44kg/h for trawls in 1947, it decreased to only 10kg/h in 1993. Fugure 10 shows the CPUE trend of trawls in Manila Bay. In Lingayen Gulf, catch rates of trawls are even lower at 4.4kg/h in 2002, a huge reduction from the 67.7kg/h observed in 1947.

Table 13 Catch rates (kg/h) of fishing gears used in Batanes waters (from Villarao et al. 2003).

Demersal Reef Pelagic

BS Multi Octo Simp Troll Anch Surf Drift Mod Gar Year Hookah Spear Jigger FF Dline Gnet HL Jig HL Line DInet Gnet Gnet Egnet TL

1997 3.0 1.8 3.9 1.1 3.4 1.7 5.9 4.3 1998 4.4 2.7 6.6 1.1 2.0 5.0 10.4 1.2 1999 5.1 2.7 5.7 1.2 4.3 0.6 8.9 17.7 2.4 0.6 2000 2.3 3.1 22.2 4.7 1.2 1.8 3.7 4.6 2.2 1.5 0.4 2001 2.6 3.3 14.8 1.9 0.2 1.9 4.1 6.0 7.7 14.9 1.9 0.4 2002 4.6 2.9 19.7 3.7 0.7 2.7 3.9 6.5 5.6 15.6 2.7 0.7 Legend: BS Gnet, bottom-set gillnet; Mutli HL, multiple handline; Octo jig, octopus jig; Simp HL, simple handline; Anch DInet, anchovy drive-in net; Surf Gnet, surface gillnet; Drift Gnet, drift gillnet; Mod Egnet, modified encircling gillnet; Gar TL, garfish troll line; FF Dline, flying fish drift line.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES 23

50 -48.41 y = 6E+160x 40 r = 0.680

30

20

CPUE (kg/h)

10

0 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Year

Figure 10 Catch per unit effort (CPUE) of trawls in Manila Bay (from Armada 1993).

40

Danish Seine Trawl

30

20 CPUE (MT/boat/y)

10 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Year

Figure 11 Catch per unit effort (CPUE) of Danish seines and trawls in Lingayen Gulf (from Gaerlan et al. 2003).

There appears to be a succession of fish populations in overfished areas, in which pelagic species replace lost demersal biomass. This has been observed in Manila Bay and Lingayen Gulf, where an increase in pelagic catch replaced the loss in demersal stocks. For instance, data from Lingayen Gulf indicate that from 1998 to 2002, CPUE (tons/boat/y) of Danish seines, which exploit both pelagic and demersal fish, increased by 20.8% while trawl CPUE declined by 26.8% over the same period (Figure 11) (Gaerlan et al. 2003). In Manila Bay, the high variability of trawl CPUE is attributed to seasonal catches of small pelagics within trawl nets constructed with large mouth openings.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 24 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES

In western Palawan waters, pelagic resources remain in good condition, with ringnets and purse seines yielding an average of 42 tons per lunar cycle (~14–16 d/mo) (Ingles 2000). However, in nearby coastal waters adjacent to Busuanga Island, Palawan, small pelagics seem to have disappeared. In this case, catch rates of bagnets have dropped from 15 tons/lunar cycle in 1988 to 0.2 tons/lunar cycle in 1998. At present, the use of bagnets has totally ceased in Coron Bay, Palawan.

In summary, the following generalisations may be drawn from the status and levels of CPUE in the Philippines portion of the SCS: 1. Commercial fishing continues to observe high CPUE and is profitable for two reasons: (a) the offshore relocation of the fleet; and (b) the use of aggregating devices. Fishing fleets based in the SCS area are now fishing further offshore, mostly in lightly exploited western Palawan waters. Whereas vessels using ringnets and purse seines in nearshore areas employ efficient FADs and high-intensity artificial lighting on their boats to attract and concentrate large volumes of pelagic fish. The aggregating devices tend to herd fish into fishable quantities within the zone of action of the netting gears, thus increasing their vulnerability to capture even in highly depleted coastal areas. 2. All nearshore fishing grounds, particularly those within embayments, are overfished. These areas (e.g. coral reefs, shallow soft-bottom areas) are characterised by diminishing catch rates, increased units of most gears, decreasing sizes of fish, and a reduced number of fish species in the fishery. Notable exceptions include the waters adjacent to Batanes Islands, Lubang Island, and some protected areas in west Palawan. 3. In highly exploited and overfished areas such as Manila Bay and Lingayen Gulf, the decline in demersal resources has led to an abundance of pelagic species triggering a massive shift in fishing gears and fish catching techniques. 4. There is a need for new measures of fishing effort that reflect actual and effective fishing capacity and exploitation rates. The use of conventional effort units (e.g. horsepower, gross tonnage) seems inappropriate due to the use of FADs in fishing.

3.1.2 Status of fish stocks based on historical review of fish landings and CPUE

Generally, CPUE exhibited a gradual increase from 1967 to 1987 (Barut et al. 1997). This trend, however, may not portray the true state of fisheries, as the calculation of CPUE relied on the relationship between total yield and total gross tonnage. Boat tonnage is a coarse and perhaps inappropriate indicator of fishing effort. A separation of the data by habitat/ecosystem type indicates that, during the same period, CPUE for small pelagic and demersal fish exhibited a decreasing trend (Figure 12) (Dalzell and Ganaden 1987). The large tuna handline fishery conducted in the southern waters of the Philippines, whose fleet at one time reached ~ 20,000 units, distorted this general trend. The entry of highly efficient Danish seines to the fishery may also have influenced this situation. Both of these gears have very high catch rates using low tonnage boats.

For traditional fishing grounds, including Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay, historical CPUE data describe the various states of the fishery through time. In Lingayen Gulf, the number of boats in the commercial fishing sub-sector remains very high. From three units of Danish seines operating in 1988 (Silvestre et al. 1991), the number increased to 42 units in 2002. Similarly, the 23 units of trawlers in 1985 (Mines 1986) increased to 48 units in 2002. It is important to note that observers in 1985 considered Lingayen Gulf to be overfished. While the combined numbers of commercial boats increased from 1998 to 2002, total gross tonnage actually decreased (Figure 13). This is possibly a result of an increase in the number of Danish seiners and a decrease in the number of larger trawlers.

Manila Bay is one of the oldest fishing grounds in the country and its could be used to infer the status of Philippine fisheries in general and the fisheries along the South China Sea in particular. The historical trend of trawl catch rates in Manila Bay (Figure 10) indicates that the demersal stock observed in 1993 represents just 10% of the total biomass level of demersal species observed in 1947. However, the CPUE of catches of pelagic fish have recently increased, thus indicating that pelagic fish now dominate the area’s fish fauna. In addition, a unit of drift gillnet in 1993 landed an average of 19.1 kg/d whilst a unit of a high bottom-set gillnet averaged 10.4 kg/d, with the catch in the latter gear type mostly being composed of small pelagic species.

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Palawan, which is noted for its pristine waters, is experiencing the same plight. Data in Ingles (2000) indicates a rapid decrease in CPUE for both small- and large-scale fishing gears in West Palawan. Reduced catch rates are common in many small-scale, reef-based fishing gear operations. For instance, catch rates in fisheries supporting the trade of live reef fish, typically groupers and wrasses, have declined in areas depending on reefs that are highly accessible; sighting surveys in 1998 support this observation (Ingles 2000). Fisheries have greatly reduced the population densities of groupers, lobsters, and octopuses on the reefs of Calamianes Islands, Palawan.

3.2 Current and potential threats

3.2.1 Current threats

Legal fishing The absence of a national policy to regulate effort is one of the main causes of resource depletion. In practice, fisheries policies and laws are formulated as a reaction to the current fisheries situation instead of taking into account future needs and trends. Fisheries management as practiced in many areas of the country is “self regulating”, i.e. if the resource collapses, the fishery simply stops.

120000 700,000

Fisheries Production (MT) 100000 600,000 500,000 80000 400,000 60000 300,000 40000 200,000 20000 Commercial Effort (GT) GT prodn 100,000

0 0 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987

Year

3.5 3.0 Small Pelagics Demers al ) 2.5 2.0 1.5

1.0

CPUE (MT/hp/y 0.5

0.0

1965 1970 1975 1980 1985

Year

Figure 12 Total fisheries production (metric tons, MT) and fishing effort (gross tonnage, GT) (upper panel; from Barut et al. 1997) and catch per unit effort (CPUE) of small pelagic and demersal fish (lower panel; from Dalzell and Ganaden 1987) in the Philippines.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 26 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES

2000 100

1600 95 Number of Boats

1200 90

800 85

Total tonnage Total Tonnage 400 80 Total Number

0 75 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Year

Figure 13 Total number and gross tonnage of fishing boats in Lingayen Gulf.

Illegal fishing Destructive fishing methods, particularly in reef areas, are still commonly used. These methods include the use of toxic chemicals, explosives, and fine mesh nets. Market forces The global demand for specific fishery products could drive a fishery to be profitable despite very low population levels of the target species. High prices for invertebrates (e.g. shrimps, crabs, octopuses, lobsters) and other key species (live groupers, Napoleon wrasses) in export markets may encourage fishers to fish out populations, despite low catch rates. 3.2.2 Potential threats

Fisheries development in the Philippines is characterised by the gradual expansion of the fishing grounds at a pace that is dictated by the rate of resource depletion (Ingles 2000). This is also true for the Philippine areas facing the South China Sea. At present, both the municipal and commercial fishers are tending to operate in less fished areas further from the shore, thus catch rates remain constant as the fleet moves to more productive areas. In this setting, the continuous and perhaps increased exploitation of fish resources occurs until reaching the open access limit. Handline fishers, muro-ami operators, and even spear fishers now regularly visit reef patches as far as the Kalayaan Islands. This practice, if not stopped, would continue until the very last of those few remaining pristine areas is overexploited. Pollution Marine pollution, including marine debris, could be a potential threat to the fisheries of the area. Oil spills from oil rigs/depots and maritime accidents could result in irreversible ecodisasters with dire consequences for fisheries production. With oil and gas resources recently discovered in western Palawan waters, the threat of oil spills may escalate in the future. Similarly, the high intensity of shipping activities and oil transport may pose similar dangers. The area is indeed a busy sea-lane for the constant movement of both people and potential pollutants. Population increase The current rate of population growth is 2.1%, implying that the Philippine population will double in 23 years. Hence, the number of fishers would proportionately increase. With the current state of fisheries resources and without any actions aimed at rebuilding depleted stocks, population increases will exacerbate the current pressure on fisheries resources. Climate change Global warming and the impacts of sea-level rise may also affect fisheries. There are studies that demonstrate how ENSO events influence fisheries. Coral bleaching during the 1998 El Niño episode has devastated wide coral reef areas on the western side of the country. In El Nido, Palawan, many of these reefs failed to recover. The effects of coral bleaching on fisheries need to be further studied and better understood.

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Market forces The globalisation of trade in fisheries products may be advantageous to some fishing sectors but disadvantageous to others. The reduction of trade barriers is expected to have short-term impacts on Philippine capture fisheries. Subsidies to fisheries by many developed countries will have a pronounced impact on the competitiveness of Philippine fisheries products. There is likewise a tendency to the imposition of non-tariff barriers (e.g. ecolabeling, sanitary and phytosanitary restrictions) upon fisheries products from developing countries.

4. HABITATS AND AREAS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE MAINTENANCE OF EXPLOITED FISH STOCKS In discussing habitats and areas important in the maintenance of fish stocks, particularly those with transboundary relevance, it is necessary to examine things on a large, at least basin-wide, scale since the focus is on species occurring over a wide geographical range and thus subject to large-scale dispersal mechanisms and other processes. Furthermore, plankton investigations showing spatial egg and larval distributions typically cover large areas rather than specific localities or habitats. Hence, the following discussion deals primarily with fishing grounds or basins rather than specific localities and their habitat characteristics.

In this respect, certain portions of the western Philippine coastline stand out due to coastal topography and available fisheries information. These include Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay, and a group of islands with high topographic complexity, namely Northern Palawan and the Calamianes Islands (Figure 14).

4.1 Biophysical profile

Mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs comprise the most productive shallow water habitats in the marine environment. Besides having their respective resident fauna and flora, they may also serve as habitats for different life stages (e.g. spawning grounds for adults, nursery grounds for juveniles) of various fish and invertebrates. As such, the ecological interconnections between these habitats serve a major role in the productivity of coastal and offshore waters.

The overall distribution of coral reefs in the country is shown in Figure 15, covering about 30,000km2 (McManus 2002) or about 5% of the world’s coral reefs. This includes the double barrier reef system north of Bohol (Danajon Reef) and the barrier reef system several kilometers off the west coast of Palawan in the South China Sea. Other extensive reef areas (not adequately shown in the figure) include the northern Palawan Shelf, the Surigao Shelf, and the Bicol Shelf. Overall, about 400 coral species (Licuanan 2000) and over 1000 reef-associated fish species (Hilomen et al. 2000) have been recorded in the country. Along the western Philippines, coral reefs are most extensive in Palawan, where reef cover is estimated at about 9,800km2, or about 1/3 of the country’s total reef area (PCSD 2000). The northernmost portion of Palawan (Calamianes Islands) ranks as one of the highest in terms of hard coral diversity (305 species) in the country (Werner and Allen 2000; Capili et al. 2002. Other reef areas of high biodiversity significance include the Balabac Strait in Southern Palawan, Southern Mindoro, portions of Batangas and Zambales coasts, western Lingayen Gulf, northern Batanes, Scarborough Reef, and the Kalayaan Island Group (CI 2002).

Maps of the overall distribution of mangrove forests and seagrass beds in the country are unavailable, although maps showing high priority areas in terms of biodiversity conservation are given in Figures 16a and b. At least 50 mangrove and mangrove-associated species have been reported in the country, although the total cover of mangrove forests has been drastically reduced from about 500,000 ha in 1920 to around 100,000ha in 1997 (Calumpong and Meñez 1997). Much of this is attributed to forest conversion to fishponds and other shoreline development activities. Along the western Philippines, priority areas of high biodiversity conservation for mangroves include the entire province of Palawan and a few remaining stands along the coast of Batangas, southeastern Lingayen Gulf, and on the northern coast of Cagayan province (Figure 16a).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 28 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES

Batanes

IlocosIlocos Coast

Lingayen Gulf

Lingayen Gulf

SubicSubi BacBayy, Zambales

ManilaManila Bay Bay

Batangas Mindoro Coast Strait

Malampaya Sound MalamCalamianespaya No.Palawa n Islands KIGKIG Northern Palawan

Figure 14 Map of western Philippines showing locations of main embayments (red squares) and other coastal areas of transboundary significance in the South China Sea. KIG–Kalayaan (Spratlys) Islands Group.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES 29

Low risk

Moderate risk

High risk

Figure 15 Overall distribution of coral reefs of various risk levels in the Philippines. Areas along the western coast with highest priority in terms of reef biodiversity and conservation are indicated by ellipses or squares.

At least 13 species of seagrasses have been recorded in the country (Calumpong and Meñez 1997). Similar to mangroves, the habitat offered by seagrass beds is more important than the species richness of the grasses themselves. In both ecosystems, it is the primary producers themselves (i.e. mangroves and seagrasses) that form and provide the bulk of physical habitat for the diverse faunal and floral (i.e. seaweeds) assemblages commonly found in them. Primary production in both ecosystems is consumed primarily through the detritus pathway, which involves several levels of benthic consumers that in turn serve as (protein-rich) prey for the more mobile and visible invertebrates (e.g. crabs, lobsters, molluscs, and echinoderms) and fish (Odum 1971; Mann 1982). The natural abundance of small benthic detritivores, the physical protection provided by the grasses and the mangrove roots/trees, and the physiological requirements of these shallow water coastal ecosystems make them ideal nursery grounds for a diversity of marine animals.

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4.1.1 Known spawning grounds

Several surveys have been conducted in various parts of the country wherein information regarding spawning grounds is available. However, since larvae are generally only identifiable to family level, species-specific spawning grounds cannot be identified. Spawning grounds for tuna (Figure 8) include the west coast of Palawan, Mindoro Strait extending further into the Sulu Sea, the offshore areas of Manila Bay-Zambales, and the Ilocos coast. Findings that are more recent consider the Celebes Sea, including Moro Gulf, as the major spawning grounds for tuna, with subsequent migration through the Sulu Sea via Balabac Strait, Northern Palawan, and Mindoro Strait (Figure 9). This migration facilitates mixing of tuna stocks from the South China Sea with those from the Celebes Sea, the major spawning ground.

a) Mangrove b) Seagrass Priority Priority Areas Areas

Figure 16 Areas of highest priority for a) mangrove and b) seagrass biodiversity and conservation along the coast of the western Philippines.

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Lingayen Gulf

Pacific South

China Ocean Sea

Mindoro Strait

Malampaya Sound

Sulu

Sea

Celebes

Sea

Figure 17 Major areas of intense fish spawning based on Magnusson (1970) and Tan (1970).

Table 14 provides a summary of zooplankton biomass and ichthyoplankton density in various areas along the western Philippines and adjacent internal waters. Both fish egg and larval density estimates are highest in Malampaya Sound (Estudillo et al. 1980), a rather deep embayment on the west coast of northern Palawan (Figure 14). Zooplankton biomass for the same year was likewise high in this area. Recent estimates of zooplankton density in the Sound (Ingles 2002) also show high values (Table 15). If a zooplankton biomass of 0.01ml/m3 is considered typical of oceanic waters (Hermes and Villoso 1985), then based solely on plankton densities, Malampaya Sound is likely a spawning ground for various fish species. Unfortunately, species composition of ichthyoplankton is not reported.

Ordoñez et al. (1975) reported concentration of fish larvae in Mindoro Strait (Figure 17) during their survey, although reported values were much lower than that recorded in Malampaya Sound (Table 15). Because larval densities have large differences with those observed in internal waters (Batangas Coast/Manila Bay), the area was thus considered a spawning ground, especially for Thunnidae, Carangidae, Serranidae, and Mullidae, which comprised over 75% of the ichthyoplankton in the area.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 32 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES

Specific areas of high larval densities may not necessarily be the area where the spawning actually took place, but more likely at the downstream portion of the latter due to the displacement by water currents. Local hydrography (current speed and direction) would then determine the magnitude of the displaced distance. What is perhaps more relevant is that locations for both spawning (i.e. high egg concentrations) and settlement (high larval concentrations) are equally important for the survival and continued of fish stocks. In the marine environment, both locations are more likely found within at least a portion of a fishing ground rather than in a single specific habitat within the fishing ground (e.g. specific reef or seagrass bed).

Table 14 Comparison of zooplankton biomass (ml/m3) and fish egg and larval densities (ind/100 m3) at locations along the South China Sea side of the Philippines. Egg Larvae Peak Location Biomass References Density Density Density Chamchang and Chayakul South China Sea (W. Phil.) - 18.4 11.9 - (2000) Lingayen Gulf 0.6 115.4 53.6 Dec–Apr Estudillo (1985) Malampaya Sound (Inner) 5.1 1126.7 575.0 May–Sep Estudillo et al. (1980) Malampaya Sound (Outer) 3.6 1081.7 465.2 May–Sep Estudillo et al. (1980) Mindoro Strait 1.9–26 1.08 28–35 - Ordoñez et al. (1975) Northern Palawan - - 10-50 - Armada (1997) Northern Palawan 0.2 41.2 12.3 - Campos (2000) Batangas Coast/Manila Bay - - 1.2 - Ordoñez et al. (1975) Sulu Sea 0.03–0.25 - - - Hermes and Villoso (1985) Visayan Sea 0.86 339.6 67.9 - Campos et al. (2002)

Table 15 Comparison of net primary production (gC/m2/d) and zooplankton density (ind/m3) in the South China Sea and some coastal areas of the Philippines. Net 1o Zooplankton Area Production Density Reference South China Sea (Western Philippines) 0.1–1.53 446–4,683 Furio and Borja (2000) Relox et al. (2000) South China Sea (NW Palawan) 0.4–0.5 – San Diego-McGlone et al. (1999) South China Sea (North of KIG*) 4114±256 Palermo et al. (2003) Lingayen Gulf 0.5–2.8 1,000–9,000 MERF (2002)

Manila Bay 0.7–3.8 220–6240 MADECOR (1995)

Malampaya Sound (Northern Palawan) – 1,900–10,700 Ingles (2002) Visayan Sea – 11,700 Campos et al. (2002) *Kalayaan (Spratlys) Islands Group.

Comparable larval densities have also been recorded in Lingayen Gulf (Estudillo 1985), the SCS (Chamchang and Chayakul 2000), and Northern Palawan (Armada 1997; Campos 2000) (Table 14). In Lingayen Gulf, eggs and larvae were concentrated along the coast from the southern central to the eastern portions of the Gulf. Low ichthyoplankton densities were recorded at the mid-Gulf stations (Estudillo 1985). Unfortunately, the survey did not include the western Gulf area, which includes much of the reefs in there. A more recent plankton survey (MERF 2002) reported a hundredfold difference in zooplankton biomass between the high concentrations in the Western Gulf region extending from Bolinao to the Hundred Islands Reef system, and the rest of the Gulf. Water circulation in Lingayen Gulf (Figure 18) is forced by the northward shelf current passing Cape Bolinao, resulting in a wake feature that forms an eddy across the mouth of the Gulf (Altemerano and Villanoy 2002). Dispersal modeling showed that most particles (i.e. larvae) released near the Bolinao Reef Flat are entrained in the headland eddy, favoring settlement and recruitment along the western Gulf region. Therefore, it is more likely that the latter region is a major spawning ground for reef and other fish within Lingayen Gulf.

In the SCS, highest egg concentrations were recorded at about 100nm off the coasts of Ilocos southward to Zambales, whereas the highest larval densities occurred further south and in internal waters of Mindoro and Northern Palawan (Chamchang and Chayakul 2000). The latter is consistent with the results of Ordonez et al. (1975). The dominant fish groups in more recent surveys include the gobiids, carangids, and apogonids, which were found closer inshore, whereas the scombrids and thunnids were found further offshore (Chamchang and Chayakul 2000).

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In northern Palawan, spawning and settlement grounds are likely further inshore, particularly within the numerous embayments and indentations along the coast (Campos 2000). The major pelagic groups in the area include the carangids, clupeids, scombrids, and engraulids, whereas the most common epibenthic groups are the gobiids, mugilids, and the reef-associated haemulids, monacanthids, and lutjanids. Collectively, these groups comprised about 65% of the larval assemblage in the area (Floro 2003).

From the foregoing discussion and based on available data from plankton surveys, three major spawning areas are identifiable: (a) the western portion of Lingayen Gulf; (b) Mindoro Strait; and (c) Northern Palawan including the Calamianes Islands. While it is believed that Scarborough Shoal and the Kalayaan Island Group (KIG) are major sources of propagules for the country’s archipelagic waters (and fishing grounds), comparable information (e.g. plankton) useful for more definitive examination are lacking.

4.1.2 Known nursery areas and feeding grounds

There is a paucity of available information regarding the potential productivity of waters along the western Philippines. Investigations in 1998 show that the area south of Subic Bay extending to waters west of northern Palawan has higher phytoplankton biomass, as indexed by chlorophyll α concentrations, than waters further north (Bajarias 2000; Furio and Borja 2000). Relatively high concentrations of chlorophyll α have also been reported for the shelf, shoal, and oceanic areas west of northern Palawan (San Diego-McGlone et al. 1999). An overall distribution of chlorophyll α, zooplankton, and small pelagic fish abundance indicators is shown in Figure 19. High zooplankton biomass is also closely associated with areas of high chlorophyll α concentrations (Relox et al. 2000). Purse experiments conducted in the vicinity in 1998 showed that catch rates for small pelagic fish, primarily Decapterus spp., were at least tenfold higher just off the Bataan Peninsula than in other coastal areas further north or south (Pastoral et al. 2000), thus showing a good spatial correspondence with the concentrations of phytoplankton and zooplankton.

High fish biomass is normally supported by high primary and secondary plankton production. From the information presented above, it can also be inferred that, within the SCS sub-region, high fish abundance is in close spatial correspondence with both high zoo- and phytoplankton biomass. Hence, it follows that higher concentrations of nutrients are required to sustain the primary and secondary production, which in turn supports the fisheries production capacities, in coastal embayments. A comparison of net primary production and zooplankton concentrations in the SCS area (Table 15) highlights the large difference. This implies that if early developmental stages (e.g. larvae) of coastal stocks were to benefit from areas that provide natural protection from open water predation, and from those where productivity adequately supports high consumption and rapid growth rates, Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay would likely serve as important nursery grounds.

The prevalence of juveniles in trawl catches in Lingayen Gulf (MERF 2002) and Manila Bay (Armada 1995) is a clear indication that both areas serve as nursing and feeding grounds for many coastal stocks, including those of transboundary significance. Definitely, for some species, these areas would be important spawning grounds as well, although for migratory species such as tuna and other large pelagics, their dependence on such areas for spawning is uncertain.

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17

16.75

16.5

Cape 16.25 Bolinao Bolinao Reef Flat Hundred Islands 16 119.5 119.75 120 120.25 120.5

Figure 18 Water circulation in Lingayen Gulf showing eddy formation at the mouth and entrainment within the western portion of the Gulf (Altemerano and Villanoy 2002).

Figure 19 General distribution of chlorophyll α (green: concentration increases with darkness), high zooplankton concentrations (blue), and highest catch rates for small pelagics (red) in western Philippines during April–May 1998.

4.1.3 Known fishing grounds

Figure 20 shows the major areas where soft-bottom demersal fishing (e.g. trawling) has traditionally been conducted, along with areas where primarily hard-bottom (reef) demersal fisheries normally operate (Simpson 1979). Trawl fishing is concentrated around the two major embayments, with activities in northern and northwestern Palawan restricted to the trawlable portions. Reef fishing only covers a limited area along the Luzon coast.

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In contrast, traditional fishing grounds for pelagic species, particularly small pelagics, cover almost the entire coastline from Ilocos to Batangas, including Verde Island Pass, Lingayen Gulf, and Manila Bay, and further south into Palawan (Simpson 1979). The major fishing grounds for round scads based on landing statistics are located mostly in interisland waters (Figure 21), with the exception of waters around northern Palawan, the coast of Batangas, and in Manila Bay. For small pelagics as a whole, the major fishing grounds along the western Philippines include western Palawan and the waters around Manila Bay (Figure 22). In contrast, the most productive tuna fishing grounds are located in the southern portion of the country (Figure 23), except the coast of Batangas.

In the open waters of the SCS, there is meager information on the spatial distribution of fish catch rates. From historical accounts, however, there have been numerous reports of foreign vessels fishing in the area of Scarborough Shoal, a disputed area about 150nm west of Zambales (Thomas 1999). The structure of shoals, including reef habitats that provide shelter and prey for a variety of fish species and shallow areas that permit benthic primary production to enhance the carrying capacity of the immediate environment, makes them attractive fishing grounds. Also, the topography in and around shoal areas increases the potential for physical entrainment features, which tend to concentrate plankton. Thus, it is theoretically valid to claim that Scarborough Shoal may serve as a source of eggs and larvae of fish and invertebrate stocks along the coast, although there have been no systematic investigations on this matter.

4.2 Unknown issues such as stocks with undefined spawning grounds

There is scarce information about the spawning grounds for elasmobranchs (sharks and rays) and invertebrate groups. In general, elasmobranchs either deposit benthic egg cases or carry their eggs. They have very low fecundity so that protection of their spawning and nursing grounds is necessary to prevent further depletion of their stocks. Little is known about elasmobranchs in the country, even along the SCS coast, maybe due to the absence of a directed fishery for them. Elasmobranchs are still considered as bycatch in fisheries, and the practice of discarding much of the bycatch at sea, except for shark fins, hampers taxonomic identification and measurement of catch.

In the case of invertebrates, there is more information on crustaceans (shrimp and crabs), although most are from the interisland waters. Similar to fish, many invertebrates are broadcast spawners with planktonic early life stages. Thus, their propagules are also subject to dispersal by currents. However, for the less motile invertebrates, such as sea urchins, sea cucumbers, gastropods, and bivalves, it is likely that their stocks are dependent on recruitment from local spawners. This is one of the reasons why developing culture, larval rearing, and reseeding techniques remain a viable option for managing such stocks. Larval rearing techniques have been developed for species of giant clams, some bivalves, and the sea urchin Tripneustes gratila, while the procedures for sea cucumber are still being refined.

Cephalopods, except for Sepioteuthis lessoniana, are lesser studied due to an excessive interest in fish. Even in scientific surveys, most cephalopod species are often unidentified and simply lumped together as squid, octopus, or cuttlefish. There is some data for oceanic squids Tysanoteuthis rhombus and Sthenoteuthis oualaniensis from exploratory fishing cruises in the SCS (Dickson et al. 2000; Siriraksophon et al. 2000).

4.3 Current and potential threats

Threats to the habitats of fishing grounds are summarised in Tables 16 to 19. Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay are bordered by high population centres, although there are fewer industrial operations around Lingayen Gulf. Since both have extensive shallow areas (reef flats and mudbanks in Lingayen Gulf, but mostly mudbanks in Manila Bay), they are vulnerable to global increases in temperature and the consequent rise in the sea level. This is especially true for the coral reef habitats of Lingayen Gulf.

Both Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay are considered overexploited (Armada 1994; MERF 2002) to a point where drastic shifts in the species composition of faunal assemblages have occurred (Armada 1999). Similarly, fisheries in Malampaya Sound have also shown signs of overfishing (Ingles 2002). The latter, together with Calamianes Islands (also located in Palawan) is known to be some of the remaining pristine natural marine habitat in the Philippines. Aside from its high biodiversity and endemicity, the Sound is also a refuge for endangered species, including the dugong and the Irrawady dolphin (Ingles 2002). Unfortunately, even these supposedly pristine areas have exhibited declines in fish catches, an

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indication of overfishing (Werner and Allen 2000). Hence, the greatest immediate threat in northern Palawan is the lack of proper fisheries/habitat management. In the densely populated waters of Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay, the immediate threats are numerous and the persistent problem has been inadequate management of marine resources. The coast of Mindoro facing the Mindoro Strait is economically underdeveloped due to its exposure to rough (sea and land) conditions. As such, many of the perceived threats associated with human activities in this area would be of much lesser magnitude, although the downstream effects of logging and mining are likely considerable.

4.4 Ranking of habitats

4.4.1 Association with species of importance to food security

In terms of total fisheries production and fishing effort, both Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay would rank high, since proper resource management is most needed in both areas. More people are, and will remain, dependent on fisheries production in both areas. Hence, there is a greater need for sustainable use in light of an ever-increasing human population. Northern Palawan and Mindoro Strait are not as heavily populated, although the former is already heavily fished. The areas with greatest need and priority remain to be both Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay.

Figure 20 Distribution of soft-bottom (trawlable: blue) and hard-bottom (reef: red) fishing grounds along the country’s South China Sea coast (Simpson 1979).

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South Pacific

China Ocean Sea

Sulu Sea

Celebes

Sea

Figure 21 Most important fishing grounds for round scads from 1956 to 1970 based on Ronquillo (1975) and PCAMRD (1993).

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Table 16 Present and future threats to Manila Bay based on information from MADECOR (1995) and Armada (1999).

Future Future Threats Present Threats Present (next 10 y) (next 10 y) Destructive harvest Global changes Bottom trawl 3 3 Thermal 3 Use of Explosives 3 3 Sea level rise 3 Plant/animal removal 3 3 Coastal development Pollution Land fill 3 3 Sediment 3 3 Dredging 3 3 Heavy metals 3 3 Coastal erosion 3 3 Oil 3 3 Upland development Organic pollutants 3 3 Changing discharge/runoff 3 3 Eutrophication 3 3 Salinity change 3 3 Pesticides 3 3 Natural disasters Storms 3 3 Flood 3 3 Drought 3 3 Land subsidence 3 3

Table 17 Present and future threats to Lingayen Gulf based on information from various references including McManus et al. (1992), UPMSI (1999), and MERF (2002).

Future Future Threats Present Threats Present (next 10 y) (next 10 y) Destructive harvest Global changes Bottom trawl 3 3 Thermal 3 Use of Explosives 3 3 Sea level rise 3 Plant/animal removal 3 3 Coastal development Pollution Land fill 3 Sediment 3 3 Dredging 3 3 Organic pollutants 3 3 Coastal erosion 3 3 Eutrophication 3 3 Upland development Salinity change 3 3 Changing 3 3 discharge/runoff Natural disasters Storms 3 3 Flood 3 3 Drought 3 3 Land subsidence 3 3

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Table 18 Present and future threats to Northern Palawan (including Calamianes Islands) based on Estudillo et al. (1980), Werner and Allen (2000), and Ingles (2002).

Future Future Threats Present (next 10 y) Threats Present (next 10 y) Destructive harvest Global changes Bottom trawl 3 3 Thermal 3 Use of Explosives 3 3 Sea level rise 3 Plant/animal removal 3 3 Coastal development Pollution Tourism 3 Sediment 3 3 Coastal erosion 3 Natural disasters Upland development Storms 3 3 Changing discharge/runoff 3

Table 19 Present and future threats to Mindoro Strait.

Future Future Threats Present Threats Present (next 10 y) (next 10 y) Destructive harvest Global changes Use of Explosives 3 3 Thermal 3 Plant/animal removal 3 3 Sea level rise 3 Pollution Coastal development Sediment 3 3 Coastal erosion 3 Oil (from collisions) 3 3 Upland development Natural disasters Changing discharge/runoff 3 Storms 3 3

4.4.2 Association with high-value species

Both Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay show clear signs of ecosystem overfishing (Pauly et al. 1989), as shown by the prevalence of fast growing, small, omnivorous, and low-valued fish such as herring and anchovies, and invertebrates such as shrimps and squids (Armada 1999). This is attributed to the loss of large predatory (high-valued) fish (e.g. lutjanids, haemulids, serranids, flatfish, etc.) from the fish community, thus allowing the fast-growing omnivorous prey species to dominate in abundance.

In contrast, such high-valued fish are still common in northern Palawan (Werner and Allen 2000), although the live fish trade (for juvenile groupers especially) will likely take its toll if allowed to continue unabated. Overall, because of less human activities, habitat conditions are healthier and more pristine in northern Palawan than in most other areas in the country. It is likely that the production capacity of the area, including high-valued species, is still high and may be sustained if managed properly.

Mindoro Strait is relatively deep with very narrow shelves on either side of the Strait. Its natural productivity is likely to be influenced more by hydrographic processes (e.g. convergence of water masses) than by the shallow water features (reefs, coastal indentions, seagrass beds, mangroves, etc.) and processes (interconnections between habitats), which are rather more important in northern Palawan. Thus, the Strait has a more physically driven environment where the limits to productivity are natural and generally beyond the scope of management interventions.

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4.4.3 Association with endangered, rare, or threatened species

Due to less disturbed conditions, northern Palawan is among the very few areas in the country where rare and uncommon species can still be found. The high scleractinian coral diversity in the Calamianes Islands (Capili et al. 2002) reflects such conditions. The area is also considered as one of the eight important marine corridors, which serve to maintain the marine biodiversity in the Philippines (Ong and Ibuna 2000). Together with Mindoro Strait, the Mindoro-Calamianes Corridor allows the free movement of stocks, propagules, and ultimately genetic materials between the SCS and the Sulu Sea and nearby internal waters (Figure 24) (Endriga 2003). Faunal affinities (Juinio-Meñez et al. 2003) and similarities in fish species composition (Dantis et al. 1999) have been found between the two areas. In addition, the corridor also serves as a connection between the Kalayaan Island Group and the Tubbataha Reef System, both of which are believed to be major sources of fish and invertebrate larvae for the country’s internal waters (McManus 1994; Dantis et al. 1999). It has been suggested that Palawan likewise serves as an important source of propagules for the SCS (DENR 1997). Thus, whether as corridor or source, the northern Palawan area is of special interest from both conservation and management standpoints.

5. CURRENT MANAGEMENT REGIME

This part discusses the basic instruments and support mechanisms for managing marine habitats and populations. It deals with legal instruments, e.g. national laws that also serve as the basis for local ordinances and for the country’s commitment to international agreements, and institutional arrangements in support of fisheries or coastal resources management initiatives, including the roles of various government agencies, research and academic institutions, and the local government units in monitoring, control, and enforcement. This section also examines patterns of resource ownership, the capacity of human resources and institutions to perform research, monitoring, control, and surveillance, as well as the role of management bodies and stakeholders in managing fisheries and coastal resources.

5.1 Legal instruments

A number of legal instruments form the basis for managing the country’s fish stocks and marine habitats. National laws define the limits and management responsibilities for the use of fishery resources. These laws are mirrored through fishery ordinances at the local level.

Various aspects of fish stock, marine habitat, and coastal resources management are articulated in the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines, the Local Government Code of 1991 (Republic Act 7160), the Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of 1997 (RA 8435), and the Fisheries Code of 1998 (RA 8550).

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Pacific South Ocean China

Sea

Sulu

Sea

Celebes Sea

Figure 23 Top 10 tuna fishing grounds in the country with mean annual landings >30,000 MT from 1983 to 1987 (PCAMRD 1993).

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SOUTH CHINA SEA

SULU SEA

Figure 24 Predominant sea surface currents (broken arrows; from Juinio-Menez et al. 2003) and inferred direction of mixing (red arrows) of stocks of fish and invertebrates in the southeastern SCS area of western Philippines (Endriga 2003).

The Philippine Constitution articulates general principles for the management and use of all natural resources in the Philippines. In the case of fish stocks, aquatic habitats, and coastal resources, the following are the pertinent provisions: • The State shall protect and promote the right to health of the people; the State shall protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature. • The exploration, development, and utilization of natural resources shall be under the full control and supervision of the State. The State shall protect the nation’s marine wealth, and exclusive economic zone, and reserve its use and enjoyment exclusively to Filipino citizens. • The state shall protect the rights of subsistence fishers, especially of local communities, to the preferential use of the communal marine and fishing resources, both inland and offshore. It shall provide support to such fishers through appropriate technology and research and other services. • The right of the people and their organisations to effective and reasonable participation at all levels or social, political, and economic decision-making shall not be abridged.

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The Local Government Code forms the basis for transferring (devolving) national level responsibilities to local government units (LGUs). It places the responsibility for the development and delivery of basic services with LGUs. In managing fish stocks and coastal habitats, it incorporates the following: • Management of fishery resources within the 15-km limit of the coastal waters. • Enhancement of the right of the people to a balanced ecology. • Provision of extension and on-site research services and facilities related to agriculture and fishery activities. • Provision of solid waste disposal system or environmental management system and services and facilities related to general hygiene and sanitation. • Enforcement of forestry laws limited to community-based projects, pollution control law, small mining law, and other laws on the protection of the environment. • Enactment and enforcement of necessary fishery ordinances and other regulatory measures in coordination with non-governmental organisations and people’s organisations in the community. • Forging of joint ventures to facilitate the delivery of certain basic services, capability-building, and livelihood development. • Cooperative undertakings among LGUs for purposes commonly beneficial to them. • Share in the Internal Revenue Allotment (IRA) to enable them to provide the basic services and perform fundamental functions (including fisheries management) at their level.

The Fisheries Code provides the basis for the development, management, and conservation of the country’s fisheries and aquatic resources. It is essentially a consolidation of previous fishery laws and an update of existing laws related to fisheries at the time of its enactment. Pertinent provisions cover various aspects of fisheries, exploitation of fish resources, and their management, namely: • Enactment of appropriate fishery ordinances in accordance with the national fisheries policy. • Enforcement of all fishery laws, rules and regulations as well as valid fishery ordinances enacted by the municipal council. • Integration of the management of contiguous fishery resources/areas, which must be treated as a single resource system. • Granting of fishing permits and privileges to duly registered fisherfolk organizations/ cooperatives. • Ensuring that the municipal waters are utilised by municipal fisherfolk or organisation/cooperatives except when an appropriate fishery ordinance is enacted to allow commercial fishing within the municipal waters. • Maintenance of a registry of municipal fisherfolk for monitoring fishing activities and for other related purposes. • Issuance of permits to municipal fisherfolk and organisations/cooperatives that will be engaged in , seaweed farming, etc. • Granting of demarcated fishery rights to fishery organisations/cooperatives for mariculture operation. • Provision of support to municipal fisherfolk through appropriate technology research, credit, production, and marketing assistance and other services. • Provision of support for the creation of the Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management Councils (FARMCs) at national, regional and local levels.

The major concern of the Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act is not just to modernise agriculture and fisheries. It also aims to serve as a framework for a sustained increase in the production of goods and services and for a more equitable distribution of opportunities, income, and wealth. Its provisions intend to attain the following:

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• Modernise the agriculture and fisheries sectors by transforming them from a resource-based to a technology-based industry. • Enhance profits and incomes in the agriculture and fisheries sectors, particularly the small farmers and fisherfolk, by ensuring equitable access to assets, resources, and services, and promoting higher-value crops, value-added processing, agribusiness activities, and agro- industrialisation. • Ensure the accessibility, availability, and stable supply of food to all at all times. • Encourage horizontal and vertical integration, consolidation, and expansion of agriculture and fisheries activities, groups, functions, and other services through the organisation of cooperatives, farmers’ and fisherfolks’ associations, corporations, nucleus estates, and consolidated farms, and to enable these entities to benefit from economies of scale, afford them a stronger negotiating position, pursue more focused, efficient, and appropriate research and development efforts, and enable them to hire professional managers. • Promote people empowerment by strengthening people’s organisations, cooperatives, and NGOs, and by establishing and improving mechanisms and processes for their participation in government decision-making and implementation. • Pursue a market-driven approach to enhance the comparative advantage of our agriculture and fisheries sectors in the world market. • Induce the agriculture and fisheries sectors to ascend continuously the value-added ladder by subjecting their traditional or new products to further processing in order to minimise the marketing of raw, unfinished, or unprocessed products. • Adopt policies that will promote industry dispersal and rural industrialisation by providing incentives to local and foreign investors to establish industries that have backyard linkages to the country’s agriculture and fisheries resource base. • Provide social and economic adjustment measures that increase productivity and improve market efficiency while ensuring the protection and preservation of the environment and equity for small farmers and fisherfolk. • Improve the quality of life of all sectors.

The Philippines, together with Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and Viet Nam, forms the working group that is drafting guidelines so that the provisions of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (CCRF) will be implemented at the regional level. This is realised through coordination with the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC). As an active participant in the regionalisation of the CCRF, the Philippines also acts to ensure that provisions of the Code of Conduct are incorporated into policies that guide fish stock utilisation and management in the Philippines.

5.2 Institutional arrangements (research, monitoring, control, and enforcement)

Various national government agencies are concerned, directly or indirectly, with fisheries utilisation and management. These include the following: 1. The Department of Agriculture (DA) is responsible for the promotion of agricultural development and growth through increased productivity. Among the primary objectives of the DA is to increase the real incomes of farmers and fisherfolk. The following agencies under the DA are concerned with fisheries, fish utilisation, management, and other support services: • Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR). It recommends plans, programs, policies, rules, and regulations on matters related to fisheries and marine resources, and provides technical assistance in the implementation of these policies; • National Agricultural and Fishery Council (NAFC). It acts as an advisory body to the DA and serves as a forum for continuing consultative discussions within the agricultural and fishery sectors. NAFC is the DA's main agency in charge of coordinating private sector participation in the development of agricultural and fisheries sectors. It builds partnerships between the government and the private sector, as well as between the DA and LGUs.

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• Philippine Fisheries Development Authority (PFDA). It promotes growth of the and improves efficiency in the handling, preserving, marketing, and distribution of fish and fishery products through the establishment of fish ports, fish markets, and other infrastructures necessary for the progressive advancement of the fishing industry. It has joint management agreement with coastal LGUs for the management of municipal fish ports. 2. The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) promotes the well-being of Filipinos through the sustainable development of forest and marine resources, optimal utilization of land and minerals, and effective environmental management. The DENR also has several agencies under it that are directly or indirectly concerned with the management of marine habitats. 3. Agencies involved in research and scientific coordination work include the Department of Science and Technology – Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Resources Development (DOST– PCAMRD), a policy-formulating and coordinating body for aquatic and marine science and technology development; the DA – Bureau of Agricultural Research (BAR), the main coordinating body for all research conducted by the DA; and the DENR – Ecosystem Research and Development Bureau (ERDB), which is DENR’s research coordinating unit. There are likewise academic institutions that focus their scientific work on fish and aquatic organisms, including the various institutes under the College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences (CFOS); the Marine Science Institute (MSI) of the University of the Philippine System (UPS); the Marine Laboratory of Siliman University; the Marine Biology Department of San Carlos University; and various fisheries colleges and departments of other state universities. 4. Other national government agencies concerned with the enforcement of fishery and environment laws include the Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG); the Maritime Group of the Philippine National Police (PNP); the Department of Tourism (DOT)’ the Department of National Defense (DND); the Department of Transportation and Communication (DOTC); and the Philippine Coast Guard (PCG). 5. Other national government agencies mandated to coordinate national activities include the National Economic Development Authority (NEDA), which coordinates various social and economic plans, policies, programs, and projects on national and sectoral levels, and the Department of Foreign Affairs (DFA), which heads the Cabinet Committee on Marine Affairs and addresses the various concerns regarding the implementation of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). 6. The Congress of the Philippines, particularly the Committees on Agriculture, Ecology, and Natural Resources of the House of Representatives, and the Committees on Environment, Agriculture, and Food of the Senate. 7. The Local Government Units, which by virtue of the devolution of the responsibilities of the national government under the Local Government Code of 1991, had been given the exclusive authority to grant fishery privileges in municipal waters and the responsibility to manage its fish stocks and aquatic resources.

Although it appears that there are many agencies involved, directly and indirectly, in the management of fisheries resources, the immediate burden still lies with the local government or the municipality. The municipality, however, cannot conduct research and monitoring concerning the management of fish and invertebrate resources. This activity is usually performed in collaboration with BFAR, DENR, DOST, and various research and academic institutions in the form of projects usually funded by international agencies or in the form of loan. A number of similar initiatives are also being conducted in collaboration with non-governmental organisations (NGOs). For the gathering and monitoring of baseline data by these institutions or organisations, an institutional capability-building component is usually included to ensure the continuation of activities even beyond the life of the project.

In some initiatives, support for the development of a legal basis for the management of coastal and aquatic resources is also given. The products are municipal ordinances governing the proper utilisation of resources or, in most cases, a codified set of fisheries ordinances covering all aspects of utilisation and management of fish and other aquatic resources.

The municipality also carries the burden of enforcing fishery laws. In most cases, a composite team of civilian volunteers, police, and military personnel is formed to conducts sea patrols and apprehend violators of fishery laws or, at least, deter illegal fishing activities. Many of these sea patrols, locally

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called bantay dagat, were created with external help from NGOs and other institutions, as part of project interventions. Members of the composite team also receive training in enforcement procedures, such as proper boarding, collection, and evidence preservation.

Municipalities sharing a common resource system, like bays and gulfs, unite and form an Integrated FARMC. Initiatives among these municipalities are harmonised to achieve proper utilisation of the common resource system. The Municipal Fisheries Ordinances (MFO) of participating municipalities are also harmonised and coastal resources management plans are coordinated by a governing body or council. Although municipal authorities manage their respective sea patrols, attempts are also made to coordinate enforcement of fishery laws.

5.3 Overview of patterns of resource ownership and traditional utilization

Traditionally, the Philippines has had open access fisheries. Fishing of all forms used to be allowed in all waters of the archipelago, ultimately leading to the overfishing of all accessible fishing grounds and major fish stocks of the country. This prompted the government to rethink its policies, resulting in a gradual shift in recent years to a limited access regime. Initial attempts to limit access to fisheries included a ban on the operation of commercial fishing boats (more than 3 GT) in waters 7 fathoms deep or shallower, or within 7 km from the coastline. This ban was later extended to within 15 km of the coastline, which is considered as municipal waters.

Limiting access to fisheries is also integrated with the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs). MPAs take the form of fish sanctuaries, marine reserves, marine parks, or mangrove reserves as no- take zones, regulated-use zones, or both. The establishment of MPAs is embodied in the Fisheries Code, usually implemented through community-based organisations. Another innovative endeavor by NGOs to limit access to fisheries involves the use of community property rights (CPR), which is seen as a viable option for coastal resources management that will benefit the most marginalised fisherfolk. CPR makes the community a part of the decision-making process in the design and implementation of coastal resources management activities.

5.4 Human and institutional capacities

The Philippines is a recipient of various grants and loans intended for the development of the fisheries sector. A large portion of these grants and loans was allotted to human and institutional development. Major banks and donor agencies include, among others, the World Bank (WB), Asian Development Bank (ADB), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United States Agency for International Development (USAID), German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). Through these and other foreign donor institutions, the country’s human resources and institutions in fisheries research and development are strengthened.

A major recipient is the BFAR and its personnel. Many research and extension personnel of BFAR are recipient of scholarships and grants both locally and abroad in connection with the performance of their duties. This includes graduate studies, training, and exchange visits in fields including capture fisheries, aquaculture, and fish processing. Loans and grants are also used to develop the research and other scientific capabilities of educational institutions, primarily colleges, institutes, and departments of state universities and private universities that are mandated to promote fisheries and marine science through instruction, research, and extension. Institutions were also developed and strengthened through financial support for infrastructures and equipment.

The implementation of a number of projects, funded through either grants or loans, has gradually developed the capacity of human resources and institutions to manage fish stocks, aquatic habitats, and coastal resources. Although these projects were site-specific, experiences from them served a basis for replication in other areas of the country and even as model for other developing countries. Normally these projects were implemented by various government agencies in partnership with local and international NGOs, people’s organisations (POs), the academe, LGUs, and the community. Projects conducted in coastal areas of the Philippines’ side of the SCS include: • Fisheries Sector Program (FSP): 1990 to 1995. The program was implemented by DA through BFAR and had several components: fishery resource and ecological assessment (REA), coastal resources management, income diversification, research and extension, law enforcement, credit,

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and infrastructure. Manila Bay was the only SCS site included in the project. At various levels of success, the program was able to encouraged LGUs to adopt Coastal Resources Management (CRM) planning as a basic tool for resource management. Results of REA conducted on selected priority bays provided the scientific basis for the formulation of baywide management plans. FSP also claimed to have developed a high level of awareness and knowledge about the resources among stakeholders and enabled them to actively participate in resource management activities. • Coastal Environment Program (CEP): 1993 to onwards. This environment program of DENR aims to institutionalise CRM in organisational structures based on the principles of sustainable development, biodiversity, and resource sharing. It also aims to strengthen the link between upland and coastal ecosystems under a watershed-based management approach. CEP is being implemented throughout the country through DENR’s regional and provincial activities. It is relying on sharing with other stakeholders, especially communities and LGUs, the responsibility to manage natural resources. It also works through a decentralised structure at the local level. • Fisheries Resource Management Project (FRMP): 1998 to 2003. This is the continuation of the FSP, with three components: fisheries resource management, income diversification, and capacity building. The management component was designed to strengthen fisheries regulation, rationalise the utilisation of fisheries resources, and rehabilitate damaged habitats. The income diversification component promotes income diversification for municipal fisherfolk by organising self-reliant community groups, promoting micro enterprises, and supporting mariculture development. The capacity building component aims to strengthen, in the long term, the capacity of agencies for fisheries resource management at the national, regional, and local levels. • Marine Science and Resource Development: 1985 to 1995. This UNDP-funded project implemented by the UPMSI was designed to advance marine science in the Philippines, to link marine science research and development programs with the end-users of information and technology, to upgrade the capability of the UPMSI to conduct basic and applied research and instruction at the graduate level, and to develop and promote new technologies or the adaptation of existing ones for the effective utilisation, management, and conservation of the marine resources.

In addition, there are a number of fisheries and coastal resource management initiatives undertaken by local and international NGOs and the academe, together with POs, LGUs, and the community, that focus on common property rights, MPAs, participatory resource assessment and management, integrated habitat management, and livelihood diversification.

5.5 Review of stakeholders

Municipal and commercial fishers, defined in Section 1.2 above, represent stakeholders in the Philippines’ capture fisheries. Municipal fishers are equivalent to the small-scale or sustenance fishers of other countries, whose primary motivation in fishing is subsistence. The commercial fishers, on the other hand, operate larger fishing boats mostly for profits. Fishers may be temporarily employed in the commercial sector while they are usually owners and operators in the municipal sector.

Fishing and farming are the dominant sources of livelihood in most Philippine fishing communities along the SCS coast. On small islands, fishing usually dominates, although there are cases where fishing and farming activities are not well differentiated. Farming is the major occupation during the wet season, but gradually shifts to fishing leading up and during the dry season. Manufacturing and other industries also provide employment opportunities in coastal communities, especially those located in or near urban centers. Ecotourism and outdoor recreation is also becoming another source of livelihood. Other sources of livelihood are aquaculture, fish handling and processing, fish distribution and marketing, boat construction and maintenance, gear construction and repair, salt making, as well as quarrying of corals and sand.

The Local Government Code, aside from defining the basic mandates of the LGUs, also increased the financial resources available to them through Internal Revenue Allotment (IRA) shares, which are proportionate to their contribution to the national coffers. In addition, it recognises the need for civil society involvement in local governance by allocating certain seats for direct people’s participation in local policy and planning bodies, such as the local development councils and the local legislative bodies. It also emphasises the role of LGUs in sharing with the national government the responsibility of protecting the ecological balance of natural environments within their jurisdictions.

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The implementation of resource management activities follows a holistic approach. Although some services and many of responsibilities were already devolved to the local government, the management of resources takes a broader perspective. It recognises the interrelationships and interdependencies of the physical, biological, sociocultural, economic, legal, and institutional factors affecting the entire ecosystem. Coastal communities, government agencies, LGUs, NGOs, POs, FARMCs, and other civic organisations play important, intertwining roles. Although management is implemented at the lowest LGU level, policies and the underlying framework cover a larger ecosystem (bay, gulf, or sea). Some of the policies relevant to fisheries management include: • Decentralisation of the management of nearshore fisheries resources to municipalities and local fishing communities. • Strengthening of fisheries law enforcement by organising municipal-based inter-agency law enforcement teams composed of representatives from fisherfolk association, NGOs, LGUs, Philippine Maritime Police (PMP), PCG, BFAR, DENR, the private sector, and other concerned agencies or institutions. • Promotion of community-based initiatives to rehabilitate, conserve, and protect the coastal resources. • Diversification of the source of income of fisherfolk toward other income opportunities. • Expansion of extension services to form closer linkages between and among the fisherfolk, research institutes, and other beneficiaries. Embodied in the Fisheries Code is the creation of the FARMCs at the national and local levels. This recognises the need to coordinate resource management activities at various levels and to ensure the participation of LGUs, coastal communities, government agencies, NGOs, and POs in the management of coastal resources. Three levels were established: national (NFARMC), municipality/city (MFARMC/CFARMC), and integrated (IFARMC). Most municipalities bounding the South China Sea have established their MFARMCs because the law mandates it. Some were organised through the assistance of NGOs, but mostly through the regular program of BFAR in its respective regional units. Each BFAR regional unit has a FARMC coordinator whose main task during the past few years was to help each municipality or city establish their respective FARMCs. Many municipalities also formed smaller units of FARMCs at the barangay level (BFARMCs). Though not mandated by the Fisheries Code, the formation of BFARMCs is being encouraged to institute fisheries resource management initiatives at the community level. This also facilitates the replication of efforts by the MFARMC at the community level. Also, since many management initiatives, such as the establishment of MPAs, take place at the community level, the creation of BFARMCs reinforces initiatives concerning the implementation of MPA management plans and enforcement of agreed rules regarding resource utilisation. BFARMC can also be an effective partner in fishery law enforcement. Although sea patrols are based in the municipality, BFARMCs can act as community lookouts for illegal fishing activities. Many fisheries and aquatic resource management schemes in the coastal areas along the SCS coast were initiated independent of the creation of FARMCs and were started even before the institutionalisation of the various levels of FARMCs. These initiatives range in scope, from large-area coastal management interventions involving stakeholders of an entire body of water to concerted fisheries management activities of a fishers organisation. On a larger scale, Lingayen Gulf became the subject of an integrated coastal resources management initiative through the participation of the Philippines in the ASEAN-USAID Coastal Resources Management Project (1986 to 1988). The then six member-nations of the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) each piloted a Coastal Resource Management Project (CRMP) in a selected site in each country (Scura et al. 1992) and Lingayen Gulf was chosen for the Philippines. This led to the creation of the Lingayen Gulf Coastal Area Management Commission (LGCAMC), a coordinating body for the integrated management of the coastal resources of the gulf. On a smaller scale, the municipalities of Mabini and Tingloy, Batangas formed the MaTinCADC (Mabini-Tingloy Coastal Area Development Council) (White and Meneses 2003). Prior to this, a chronology of interventions by various government and non-government institutions had taken place. This included the establishment of marine sanctuaries, conservation projects, CRM activities, coral reef monitoring, and ecotourism.

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Several coral reef areas were declared as marine parks, marine reserves, marine sanctuaries, or fish sanctuaries. These include marine sanctuaries declared through a municipal ordinance in Mabini, Batangas (White and Meneses 2003); a biosphere reserve managed by the Philippine Tourism Authority in Puerto Galera, Oriental Mindoro (Rañola et al. 2003); a marine park established with the assistance of the USAID/DENR Coastal Resource Management Project in San Vicente, Palawan (Uychiaoco et al. 2003); and a fish sanctuary established with the assistance of the Haribon Foundation and US Peace Corps in San Salvador Island, Masinloc, Zambales (Arceo and Alano 2003). Some management actions were part of on-going government projects, like the Coastal Environment Program (CEP) site of DENR in Telbang, Alaminos, Pangasinan (Orallo et al. 2003a). UPMSI maintains a research station in Bolinao, Pangasinan, which became the source of information derived from various research activities. The area also became the recipient of community-based coastal resource management (CB-CRM) initiatives (Ferrer et al. 1996). Even fisher associations can initiate fisheries resources management activities, as in the case of the Nagabugan Fishermen Association of Davila, Pasuquin, Ilocos Norte. This NGO-organised association has planted 25 hectares of mangroves, initiated alternative livelihood projects, and undertaken coastal and marine resources management activities (Orallo et al. 2003b). The entire island of San Salvador, Masinloc, Zambales, a reservation area, is managed by a local people’s organisation (Samahang Pangkaunlaran ng San Salvador) with considerable support from the local government (Arceo and Alano 2003).

6. RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Recommendations for government follow-up action • Activities under the monitoring, control, and surveillance (MCS) system should be strongly implemented and executed. • Implementation of specific projects in fulfillment of commitments and in compliance with various international conventions, such as the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. • Collaborative interagency efforts and activities must address and incorporate relevant concerns, e.g. environmental impact assessments, biodiversity conservation, marine protected areas, biosafety protocols, etc.

6.2 Recommendations for regional collaborative efforts • Concerns for the international waters should also include: a. Highly migratory and transboundary aquatic species (e.g. fishes, marine mammals, marine turtles, invertebrates). b. Monitoring and evaluation of catches, including bycatch and discards, in the high seas by commercial fishing fleets. c. Bilateral fisheries cooperation in several themes, including utilisation, management, research, and development. • Stock assessment and studies delineating populations and stocks of shared fishery resources using available technologies, e.g. surveys, tagging, morphometrics, and molecular studies. • Establishment of a joint fisheries management framework between and among neighbouring countries that are sharing and utilising common resources. • Joint management and research for shared stocks of threatened or endangered marine species, e.g. marine mammals and whale shark.

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Pp. 49–64 in Proceedings of the Third Technical Seminar on Marine Fishery Resources Survey in the South China Sea, Area III: Western Philippines. SEAFDEC Special Paper No. SEC/SP/41. Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Bangkok, Thailand. Pauly, D., G. Silvestre, and I.R. Smith. 1989. On development, fisheries and dynamite: a brief review of tropical fisheries management. Natural Resource Modeling 3(3): 307–329. Paxton, J.R., D.F. Hoese, G.R. Allen, and J.E. Hanley. 1989. Pisces. Petromyzontidae to Carangidae. Zoological Catalogue of Australia, Vol. 7. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, Asutralia. 665p. PCAMRD. 1993. Status of the Philippine Tuna Fisheries. PCAMRD-DOST Primer No. 18, Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development (PCAMRD) University of the Philippines at Los Baños (UPLB) WorlFish Center―Philippine Office, Los Baños, Philippines. 19p. PCSD. 2000. Status of reef and reef fishes in Palawan. URL: http://www.pcsd.ph/Study%20and20findings/Sea%Assessment.html. Prado, V.V. 2001. Evaluation of the major tuna fisheries along the northwestern coast of Luzon, Philippines. UPV Journal of Natural Science 6: 228–238. Rañola M.C., P. Aliño, C. Nañola, H. Hernandez, V. Hilomen, and A. Saji. 2003. Chapter 8: Puerto Galera, Oriental Mindoro. Pp. 35–38 in Philippine Coral Reefs through time: Workshop Proceedings. Second of the Atlas of the Philippine Coral Reefs Series. Coral Reef Information Network of the Philippines (PhilReefs), University of the Philippines Marine Science Institute, Quezon City, Philippines and the Marine Parks Center, Tokyo, Japan. Relox, J.R., E.F. Furio, and V.M. Borja. 2000. Abundance and distribution of zooplankton in the South China Sea, Area III: Western Philippines. Pp. 164–176 in Proceedings of the Third Technical Seminar on Marine Fishery Resources Survey in the South China Sea, Area III: Western Philippines. SEAFDEC Special Paper No. SEC/SP/41. Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Bangkok, Thailand. Rimmer, M.A., R.N. Garrett and M.A. Samoilys. 1994. In vitro fertilization of eggs of coral trout, Plectropomus leopardus (Serranidae), collected from an aggregation site on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Bulletin of Marine Science 54: 356–358. Rojana-anawat, P., N. Sukramongkol and S. Pradit. 2000. Characteristics of water in the South China Sea, Area III: Western Philippines. Pp. 291–307 in Proceedings of the Third Technical Seminar on Marine Fishery Resources Survey in the South China Sea, Area III: Western Philippines. Special Paper No. SEC/SP/41. Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Bangkok. Ronquillo, I. A. (1975). A review of the roundscad fishery in the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Fisheries 2: 86–126. Ronquillo, I.A., P. Caces-Borja, and A. Mines (1960). Preliminary observations on the otter trawl fishery of Manila Bay. Philippine Journal of Fisheries 8: 42–56. Roper C.F.E., M.J. Sweeney, and C.E. Nauen. 1984. Cephalopods of the world. FAO Rome, Italy. Vol. 3, 277p. Salini, J.P., S.J. Blaber, and D.T. Brewer. 1992. Diets of sharks from estuaries and adjacent waters of the north- eastern Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 43: 87–96. San Diego-McGlone, M.L., G.S. Jacinto, V.C. Dupra, I.S. Narcise, D.O. Padayao, and I.B. Velasquez. 1999. A comparison of nutrient characteristics and primary productivity in the Sulu Sea and South China Sea. Acta Oceanographica Taiwanica 37(3): 219–229.

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Saramun, S. and G. Wattayakorn. 2000. Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contamination in Seawater along the Western Coast of the Philippines, Pp. 316–320 in Proceedings of the Third Technical Seminar on Marine Fishery Resources Survey in the South China Sea, Area III: Western Philippines. Special Paper No. SEC/SP/41. Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Bangkok, Thailand. Scura, L.F., T.-E. Chua, M.D. Pido, and J.N. Paw. 1992. Lessons for integrated zone management: the ASEAN experience. Pp. 1–70 in T.-E. Chua and L.F. Scure (eds.) Integrative framework and methods for coastal area management. ICLARM Conference Proceedings. Vol. 37. Silvestre, G., M. Soriano, and D. Pauly. 1991. Sigmoid selection and the Beverton and Holt equation. Asian 4(1): 85–98. Simpson, A.C. 1979. Report of the BFAR/SCSP workshop on the fishery resources of the north and western coasts of Luzon (SCS/GEN/79/22). South China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme, Manila, Philippines. 57p. Siriraksophon, S., Y. Nakamura, S. Pradit, and N. Sukramongkol. 2000. Ecological aspects of oceanic squid, Sthenoteuthis oualaniensis (Lesson) in the South China Sea, Area III: Western Philippines. Pp. 101-117 in Proceedings of the SEAFDEC Seminar on Fishery Resources in the South China Sea, Area III: Western Philippines. Talaue-McManus, L. 2000. Transboundary diagnostic analysis for the South China Sea. EAS/RCU Technical Report Series No. 14. UNEP, Bangkok, Thailand. 105p. Tan, E.O. 1970. Notes on the biology of chub mackerel, Rastrelliger brachysoma (Bleeker), in Manila Bay. Pp. 479–480 in J.C. Marr (ed.) The Kuroshio: A symposium on the Japan Current. Hawaii University Press, Honolulu. Thomas, F.C. 1999. The Commercial Fishery Sector of the Philippines: A Centennial Chronicle 1898-1998. LDC Printers, Quezon City. 170p. Tiews, K., A. N. Mines, and I. A. Ronquillo. 1972. On the biology of Saurida tumbil (Bloch 1801) Family Synodontidae in Philippine waters. 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Palolan, L. Estamo, and M. Aragon. 2003. Marine fisheries stock assessment in Batanes waters. Paper presented to the NSAP pre-workshop evaluation. 22–24 April 2003, Manila. 48p. Villoso, E.P. and V.L. Aprieto. 1983. On the relative abundance and distribution of Slipmouths (Pisces: Leiognathidae) in Lingayen Gulf, Philippines. Fisheries Research Journal of the Philippines 8 (1): 26–43. Werner, T.B. and G.R. Allen (eds.). 2000. A rapid marine biodiversity assessment of the Calamianes Islands, Palawan Province, Philippines. RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment 17. Washington, D.C. Conservation International. White, A. and A Meneses. 2003. Chapter 7: Mabini and Tingloy Batangas. Pp. 29–34 in Philippine coral reefs through time: workshop proceedings. Second of the Atlas of the Philippine Coral Reefs Series. 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Physical oceanography of the southeast Asian waters. NAGA Report, Vol. 2. Scientific results of marine investigation of the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand, Scripps Institution of Oceanography. La Jolla, California. 195p. Zakaria, M.Z. 2000. Age and growth studies of oceanic squid Sthenoteuthis oualaniensis using statoliths. Pp. 135–147 in Proceedings of the SEAFDEC Seminar on Fishery Resources in the South China Sea, Area III: Western Philippines.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand

United Nations UNEP/GEF South China Sea Global Environment Environment Programme Project Facility

NATIONAL REPORT

on

The Fish Stocks and Habitats of Regional, Global, and Transboundary Significance in the South China Sea

THAILAND

Mr. Pirochana Saikliang Focal Point for Fisheries Chumphon Marine Fisheries Research and Development Center 408 Moo 8, Paknum Sub-District, Muang District, Chumphon 86120, Thailand

NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

Table of Contents 1. MARINE FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT...... 2 / 1.1 OVERVIEW OF THE FISHERIES SECTOR ...... 2 1.1.1 Total catch by fishing area, port of landing or province (by species/species group).7 1.1.2 Fishing effort by gear (no. of fishing days, or no. of boats) ...... 7 1.1.2.1 Trawl ...... 10 1.1.2.2 Purse seine/ring net...... 10 1.1.2.3 Gill net...... 12 1.1.2.4 Other gears...... 12 1.1.3 Economic value of catch...... 14 1.1.4 Importance of the fisheries sector in terms of employment & dependence ...... 14 1.1.4.1 Contribution of the fisheries sector to GDP ...... 14 1.1.4.2 Contribution of the fishing industry to income and employment...... 18 1.1.4.3 Contribution of the fisheries sector to foreign exchange earning ...... 18 1.1.4.4 Contribution of the fishery sector to domestic nutrition ...... 19 2. SPECIES OF REGIONAL, GLOBAL AND/OR TRANSBOUNDARY SIGNIFICANCE...... 20

2.1 RANKING OF IMPORTANCE IN TERMS OF LANDINGS, VALUE, AND STATUS...... 22 2.1.1 Landings (by site or province) (mt) ...... 22 2.1.2 Local market value (Local currency, note year)...... 22 2.1.3 Status (endangered, threatened, rare etc. IUCN criteria)...... 22 2.1.4 Food security (locally)...... 26 2.2 BIOLOGY & ECOLOGY OF THE PRIORITY SPECIES (FROM AVAILABLE INFORMATION) ...... 26 2.2.1 Large pelagic fish (FAO)...... 26 2.2.2 Small pelagic fish species...... 35 2.2.3 Demersal fish species...... 39 2.2.4 Commercially exploited invertebrates...... 46 3. THREATS & CURRENT STATUS...... 51

3.1 STATUS OF FISHERY IN TERMS OF CPUES ...... 51 3.2 STATUS OF FISH STOCKS BASED ON HISTORICAL REVIEW OF LANDINGS AND CPUES...... 52 3.3 THREATS ...... 54 3.3.1 Current (e.g. destructive fishing practices, overfishing) ...... 54 3.3.2 Potential (project market demand, increased coastal population)...... 56 4. HABITATS & AREAS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE MAINTENANCE OF EXPLOITED FISH STOCKS ...... 56

4.1 THE PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GULF OF THAILAND .....56 4.1.1 Known spawning grounds...... 57 4.1.2 Known nursery areas...... 60 4.1.3 Known fishing grounds ...... 60 4.1.4 Seawater quality and pollutants...... 61 4.1.5 Biological parameters ...... 61 4.1.6 Bottom sediment...... 63 4.2 UNKNOWN ISSUES SUCH AS STOCKS WITH UNDEFINED SPAWNING GROUNDS ...... 64 4.3 THREATS, CURRENT AND POTENTIAL (COASTAL DEVELOPMENT, POLLUTION, OIL SPILLS) ...... 64 4.3.1 Coastal development ...... 64 4.3.2 Oil spills...... 64 4.3.3 Pollution ...... 64 4.3.4 Plankton blooms ...... 65 4.4 RANKING OF HABITATS ...... 67 4.4.1 Association with species of importance to food security ...... 67 4.4.2 Association with high value species ...... 67 4.4.3 Association with endangered, rare, threatened species...... 68

ii NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

5. CURRENT MANAGEMENT REGIME(S) ...... 68

5.1 LEGAL INSTRUMENTS ...... 68 5.2 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS (RESEARCH, MONITORING, CONTROL & SURVEILLANCE)...... 69 5.3 OVERVIEW OF PATTERNS OF RESOURCES OWNERSHIP AND TRADITIONAL UTILISATION ...... 70 5.4 HUMAN & INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY ...... 71 5.5 REVIEW OF STAKEHOLDERS (E.G. FISHERS, NATIONAL AND/OR PROVINCIAL/LOCAL MANAGEMENT BODIES, NGOS) ...... 72 6. PROBLEMS, CONSTRAINTS AND RECOMMENDED ACTIONS...... 78

6.1 PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS ...... 78 6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 79 7. REFERENCES...... 80

APPENDEX 1 Rates of Exchange of Commercial Bank in Bangkok Metropolis

APPENDEX 2 Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered, Vulnerable, and Threatened Marine Species in Thailand

APPENDEX 3 Fishes Found in Habitats of the Gulf of Thailand

APPENDEX 4 The Organisational Structure of the Department of Fisheries (DOF)

APPENDEX 5 The Organisational Structure of the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR)

iii

NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 1

Fish Stocks & Habitats of Regional, Global, and Transboundary Significance in the South China Sea

Case Study: Gulf of Thailand

INTRODUCTION

The Gulf of Thailand (Figure 1) covers an area of approximately 350,000km2. The Gulf is a shallow arm of the South China Sea, adjoining it over a distance of 200 nautical miles. It is approximately 450 nautical miles long, 300 nautical miles wide, with a maximum depth, in the central portion, of slightly more than 80m. The central depression extends for 60 nautical miles near Cape Liant at the southeast corner of the Bangkok Bight. The northeast coast is slightly shallower and flatter than the southwest coast.

The deeper central Gulf is separated from the South China Sea by 2 ridges. The first has a depth of less than 25m and extends southwest for more than 60 nautical miles from the Cape of Camau (Robinson 1974). The other has a deeper ridge, less than 50 m, which extends northeast of Kota Bharu for a distance of 90 nautical miles. Subsequent to the Naga Expedition, a further regional bathymetric survey was conducted by the DODO expedition of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. In the narrow, deeper channel between the ridges, a still depth of 67 m was observed. These general features play an important role in regional oceanography. In general, the Gulf of Thailand is divided into 2 parts:

1. The Upper or Inner Gulf starts from latitude 12o30′N and extends up to the Chao Phraya Estuary, forming a U-shape. This 100x100km2 area, with an average water depth of 15m, can contain about 131km3 of water (calculated at the MSL). The northern part is shallow, gradually sloping to a depth of 25m near the opening between Sattahip, Chonburi province, and Hua Hin, Prachuap Khiri Khan province.

2. The Lower or Outer Gulf starts from latitude 12o 30′ N and extends down to Cape Camau and the Kotabaru Estuary, with an average water depth of 45m. A large number of ridges and shallow valleys dominate the continental shelf next to the Gulf of Thailand and southern Viet Nam coast, where water depth gradually increases to about 130m (Siripong, 1985).

The Gulf of Thailand is considered one of the most productive marine areas of the world, with a high level of primary production and diverse range of flora and fauna. It is abundant in marine fishery resources, typical of Indo-Pacific fish fauna. Thailand’s marine fish fauna includes some 1,337 species from 141 families. There are 618, 350, and 379 species of economically important marine fish, aquarium fish, and low-value fish known to occur in Thai waters, respectively (Sukhavisidth, 1996). The greatest species diversity exists within the demersal fish fauna. A high degree of intermixing is also common among the demersal species, such that no single species or group of species is observed to dominate catches. The pelagic species are somewhat less diverse than the demersal species, and are less likely to be so highly intermixed.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 2 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

Figure 1 The Gulf of Thailand.

1. MARINE FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT

1.1 Overview of the fisheries sector 2/

Marine fisheries are an important contributor to Thailand’s economy. They are not only an important source of animal protein, but also a source of employment. Similarly, the export of fishery products is a major source of foreign exchange earnings for Thailand. Various types of fishing gear are used to exploit marine fish resources in the Gulf of Thailand, with at least 150 fishing gears being widely utilised by Thai fishers (Okawara et al. 1986). It is well known that there is no particular fishing gear used to catch one single species. Thai Fisheries have developed progressively, especially with regard to the adoption of fishing gears and techniques. Historically, the development of Thailand’s fisheries can be categorised into the following 3 periods:

2/ Data for the South China Sea coastline only.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 3

Pre 1960 – This was the initial development phase for Thailand’s fisheries. Most fishing gear was of the artisanal type, including or spears, and stone block traps. Stationary fishing gear, including the bamboo stake trap, set bag net, and wing set bag, were introduced in 1897. Fishing gear were small-scale and operated with non-powered boats.

The use of the Chinese purse seine by 2 row boats was introduced to Thailand in 1925. This gear was rapidly accepted due to its efficiency in catching Indo-Pacific mackerel. By 1930, fishers had begun using the Chinese purse seine with boats powered by Japanese motors, and had redesigned their boats for the efficient capture of pelagic fishes.

In 1947, there were 2,615 units of fishing gear used in Thai waters. This number had increased to 11,560 by 1959 (Table 1). Set bag nets and bamboo stake traps were the main gears used. For seine nets, the total number of units increased from 177 in 1947 to 379 in 1959, and the total annual marine fish production ranged from 150,000 to 230,000 metric tonnes, or approximately 73 percent of total fisheries production (Table 2). Most of the marine fish caught were pelagic species for domestic consumption, including Indo-Pacific mackerel, Indian mackerel, sardines, and anchovies.

1960 to 1980 - This period involved the rapid expansion of Thailand’s trawl fisheries, particularly during the early 1960s as a result of the introduction of German type otter board trawling. The total number of registered fishing gear units increased from 17,790 in 1960 to almost 20,000 in 1980, whilst the number of trawl gear units increased from 99 to 10,428 during the same period. Nylon was also introduced during this period as a material for fishing gear such as gill nets, push nets, and squid nets. The period involved a rapid decline in the total number of previously popular gears, including the bamboo stake trap and set bag net. This was largely due to the popularity and rapid uptake of trawl fishing gear and technology.

The development of fisheries in Thailand during this period focused on both demersal and pelagic species. The significant expansion of Thai fisheries during the period 1960-80 was mainly due to the: 1. Introduction of new technology and fishing gears, including the use of nylon nets in small scale fisheries, and otter board trawls in commercial fisheries; 2. Improved seaworthiness of both non-powered to engine powered fishing vessels; 3. Technical support from developed countries and international organisations; 4. Investment and/or financial support from industrial countries for the development of infrastructure, including fish processing, cold storage, and ice plant; 5. Exploration of new fishing areas, especially in the South China Sea; and 6. Government policy that supported the development of offshore fisheries.

All of these factors led to a significant increase in the total quantity of marine fish caught since 1960. According to fisheries statistics, total annual catch increased from about 150,000 metric tonnes in 1960 to more than 2 million metric tonnes in 1977, making Thailand one of the top 10 fishing nations since 1973. Furthermore, the contribution of marine fish production to Thailand’s total fisheries production increased from 66.87% to over 90%. Total production decreased slightly to 1.8 million metric tonnes in 1980, however, due to the country’s oil crisis. Pelagic fisheries also developed rapidly during this period. The uptake of luring purse seines in the 1970s, and the discovery of fishing grounds for round scads in the central part of the Gulf in 1973, were key contributing factors to this growth. The development of light luring to catch small pelagic fish has resulted in significant increases in landings of small pelagic fishes since 1978.

Panayotou and Songpol (1987, cited in Johnson 1997) identified 3 factors influencing the rapid rise of Thai fisheries since the early 1960s. These include the introduction of new technology, notably the trawl, the purse seine, and the motorised boat; a “laissez-faire attitude” of the Thai Government towards fisheries development, allowing private investors virtually a free-hand in resource exploitation; and the demand for fisheries products in global and domestic markets. Thailand has been one of the world’s most important producers and exporters of seafood since 1972.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 4 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

Table 1 Number of fishing gear units registered in Thailand from 1947 to 2000.

Year Trawlers Seine Gill Squid Bamboo Set Set net Hook & Push Other Grand Nets Nets Nets Stake Trap Bag Net Line Net Nets Total 1947 177 823 1,615 2,615 1948 222 1,177 3,682 5,081 1949 151 1,160 2,999 4,310 1950 181 1,047 3,379 4,607 1951 164 1,003 2,370 3,537 1952 253 1,263 4,247 5,763 1953 259 1,334 2,238 827 4,537 9,195 1954 346 1,460 2,318 988 5,819 10,931 1955 314 1,462 2,260 843 6,082 10,961 1956 381 1,579 2,390 764 7,218 12,332 1957 324 1,287 2,813 636 7,282 12,342 1958 182 1,344 2,505 977 6,429 11,437 1959 379 1,470 2,043 618 7,050 11,560 1960 99 345 2,064 3,429 1,234 10,799 17,790 1961 201 275 1,484 2,623 365 10,654 15,602 1962 1,103 220 1,319 2,318 747 15,694 21,401 1963 2,327 242 1,528 2,674 608 13,484 20,863 1964 2,457 215 863 2,323 730 10,742 17,330 1965 2,606 218 949 2,310 625 8,085 14,793 1966 2,870 243 869 2,034 6,377 7,079 13,732 1967 1,872 324 559 1,580 591 6,935 11,861 1968 2,926 400 516 1,684 516 6,299 12,341 1969 2,602 398 451 1,522 329 5,135 10,401 1970 3,082 976 569 632 1,296 313 354 5,065 12,287 1971 3,607 718 563 398 1,420 308 610 4,364 11,988 1972 4,487 759 582 288 1,368 291 1,327 81 9,183 1973 5,837 908 1,391 281 1,262 239 1,628 49 11,595 1974 5,271 854 1,104 189 - - 6 1,213 56 8,693 1975 4,961 812 1,050 229 - - 16 1,075 48 8,191 1976 5,204 952 2,198 44 262 - - 47 844 100 9,651 1977 6,288 1,020 2,611 0 222 - - 71 1,177 240 11,629 1978 6,576 1,112 3,281 34 242 - - 33 1,426 190 12,894 1979 8,747 1,038 4,526 12 250 - - 210 1,923 213 16,919 1980 10,428 1,058 4,926 230 258 - - 222 2,262 162 19,546 1981 7,525 1,091 3,893 470 264 - - 44 1,216 79 14,582 1982 11,475 1,078 4,522 1,274 - - - 33 1,899 111 20,392 1983 9,390 980 5,028 1,038 - - - 54 1,236 165 17,891 1984 9,131 1,206 3,767 1,064 - - - 46 960 364 16,538 1985 8,325 1,260 4,536 663 - - - 63 759 362 16,158 1986 7,407 1,199 5,654 654 - - - 51 664 287 15,916 1987 7,343 1,397 5,492 794 - - - 53 624 351 16,054 1988 6,950 1,602 4,932 1,171 - - - 142 531 222 15,550 1989 13,119 1,551 3,107 1,055 - - - 50 1,904 187 20,973 1990 12,905 1,730 3,702 1,088 - - - 48 1,879 195 21,547 1991 10,298 1,702 3,680 1,363 - - - 47 1,047 33 18,170 1992 9,465 1,524 3,307 1,591 - - - 68 818 47 16,820 1993 9,086 1,603 4,759 1,895 - - - 59 808 30 18,146 1994 8,346 1,610 4,980 2,059 - - - 36 651 74 17,657 1995 7,995 1,479 5,228 1,894 - - - 53 634 80 17,281 1996 8,972 1,456 4,966 1,747 - - - 48 722 39 17,950 1997 8,885 1,652 4,644 1,945 - - - 47 901 108 18,182 1998 9,161 1,445 5,035 1,545 - - - 41 861 351 18,439 1999 8,324 1,670 4,214 1,232 - - - 53 660 768 16,921 2000 8,008 1,585 3,686 2,096 - - - 65 638 1,217 17,295 Source : Saikliang (1995a, cited Department of Fisheries, Fisheries Statistics Sub-Division) DOF, 1995 to 2002. Note: 1947 to 1969 = Number of fishing gears registered 1970 to 2000 = Number of fishing boats registered by type of fishing gears

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 5

Table 2 The quantity and value of Thailand’s fisheries production from 1947 to 2000. Production (mt) Total % of total Value (million baht) Year Marine Freshwater (mt) Marine Marine Freshwater Total 1947 120,173 40,851 161,024 74.63 - - - 1948 151,380 44,460 195,840 77.30 - - - 1949 108,800 44,900 153,700 70.79 - - - 1950 115,600 42,200 157,800 73.26 - - - 1951 141,000 46,000 187,000 75.40 - - - 1952 138,500 53,000 191,500 72.32 428 324 752 1953 148,200 56,300 204,500 72.47 507 313 820 1954 166,400 63,400 229,800 72.41 581 347 928 1955 151,400 61,570 212,970 71.09 604 372 976 1956 152,240 65,720 217,960 69.84 684 462 1,146 1957 170,900 63,670 234,570 72.86 735 455 1,190 1958 145,000 51,300 196,300 73.87 725 428 1,153 1959 147,770 57,124 204,894 72.12 754 479 1,233 1960 146,471 72,574 219,045 66.87 832 580 1,412 1961 233,275 72,475 305,750 76.30 1,029 542 1,571 1962 269,709 70,079 339,788 79.38 1,106 537 1,643 1963 323,374 70,481 393,855 82.10 1,167 768 1,935 1964 494,196 82,790 576,986 85.65 1,835 655 2,490 1965 529,483 85,637 615,120 86.08 1,798 672 2,470 1966 635,165 85,117 720,282 88.18 1,903 675 2,578 1967 762,188 85,256 847,444 89.94 2,309 738 3,047 1968 1,004,058 85,245 1,089,303 92.17 3,251 786 4,037 1969 1,179,595 90,439 1,270,034 92.88 4,011 787 4,798 1970 1,335,690 112,714 1,448,404 92.22 4,097 906 5,003 1971 1,470,289 116,788 1,587,077 92.64 4,554 974 5,528 1972 1,548,157 131,383 1,679,540 92.18 4,936 1,371 6,307 1973 1,538,016 140,885 1,678,901 91.61 6,562 1,647 8,209 1974 1,351,590 158,876 1,510,466 89.48 4,094 1,890 5,984 1975 1,394,608 160,692 1,555,300 89.67 5,102 2,092 7,194 1976 1,551,792 147,294 1,699,086 91.33 5,969 2,152 8,121 1977 2,067,533 122,374 2,189,907 94.41 8,622 2,038 10,660 1978 1,195,785 141,496 2,099,281 93.26 11,459 2,369 13,828 1979 1,813,158 133,176 1,946,334 93.16 11,318 2,686 14,004 1980 1,647,953 144,995 1,792,948 91.91 10,508 3,560 14,068 1981 1,824,444 164,581 1,989,025 91.73 13,213 3,921 17,134 1982 1,986,571 133,562 2,120,133 93.70 14,246 4,685 18,931 1983 2,099,986 155,447 2,255,433 93.11 15,236 4,002 19,238 1984 1,947,019 161,819 2,108,838 92.33 14,541 3,796 18,337 1985 2,057,751 167,453 2,225,204 92.47 15,651 4,135 19,786 1986 2,352,204 187,763 2,539,967 92.61 18,883 4,005 22,888 1987 2,601,929 177,142 2,779,071 93.63 23,083 4,558 27,641 1988 2,446,100 183,600 2,629,700 93.02 28,039 4,383 32,422 1989 2,539,200 200,800 2,740,000 92.67 31,429 4,441 35,870 1990 2,555,400 231,000 2,786,400 91.71 35,492 5,904 41,396 1991 2,709,000 258,700 2,967,700 91.28 46,766 6,260 53,026 1992 2,965,700 274,100 3,239,800 91.54 59,068 6,477 65,545 1993 3,048,100 337,000 3,385,100 90.04 69,828 8,579 78,407 1994 3,150,200 373,000 3,523,200 89.41 77,299 9,702 87,001 1995 3,184,900 387,700 3,572,600 89.15 86,222 9,890 96,112 1996 3,112,100 437,100 3,549,200 87.68 88,845 11,781 100,626 1997 2,979,200 405,200 3,384,400 88.03 97,533 11,109 108,642 1998 3,076,700 429,200 3,505,900 87.76 109,907 14,640 124,547 1999 3,166,600 459,500 3,625,900 87.33 118,947 15,175 134,122 2000 3,240,700 472,500 3,713,200 87.28 132,004 15,457 157,462 Sources: DOF 1996; 2000a; Saikliang 1995a. Coastal aquaculture were included.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 6 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

1980 to present: during this period, the use of the otter board trawl has remained very popular among Thai fishers. Total production has increased dramatically, however, this has unfortunately taken place without efficient control strategies. As a result, it is believed that Thailand’s fisheries resources have been subjected to biological overfishing for more than 3 decades. During this time, the abundance of fish, as indicated by catch per unit effort (CPUE), has continuously declined, leading Thai fishing fleets to seek new fishing areas in the South China Sea, the Indian Ocean, and other high sea areas. With the establishment of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, many of Thailand’s neighbouring countries declared an “Exclusive Economic Zone” (EEZ), including (15 January 1977), (9 April 1977), Cambodia (15 January 1978), Philippines (11 June 1978), Indonesia (21 March 1980), Malaysia (25 April 1980), and Singapore (15 September 1980). Thailand declared its EEZ on 23 February 1981. The EEZ regime has had far-reaching impacts on Thailand’s fishing fleet, initially restricting the area of the fleets operations to Thai waters. However, some Thai fishing boats continued to operate in the EEZs of other coastal States under joint venture arrangements. This led to conflicts between commercial and small-scale fishers in neighbouring countries, including Malaysia, Indonesia, Cambodia, Viet Nam, India, and Myanmar. This development caused a decrease in total fishing area of approximately 300,000 square nautical miles (Vetchakaran 1987), resulting in a 10% decrease in production after 1977 (Phasuk 1987).

Fisheries resources in the Gulf of Thailand have been overused in relation to their natural rate of regeneration. The number of fishing boats far exceeds existing resource capacity. The critical state of these resources is illustrated by the ongoing reduction in CPUE observed during surveys conducted by the research vessel of the Department of Fisheries. CPUE has declined from 294.92kg per hour in 1963 to 25kg per hour at present. Furthermore, approximately 40% of marine catch consists of low- value and juvenile fish. When demersal fish production declined, Thai fishers began targeting pelagic fish using light luring purse seine techniques. Since 1982, coastal tuna and anchovy fisheries have expanded dramatically due to improvements in fishing gear and methods. Similarly, new large fishing boats installed with freezers have been built in order to enable boats to stay at sea for extended periods. In other words, there has been a transition from coastal fisheries to offshore fisheries in Thailand during this period. The increasing production from offshore fisheries is derived mainly from areas of the Gulf of Thailand.

Table 2 shows Thailand’s marine fisheries production in terms of quantity and value from 1952 to 2000. Both quantity and value of production has increased markedly since 1980, despite some minor fluctuations in 1983 to 1984 due to increased fuel prices. Since 1986, marine fishery production has been maintained at above 2.5 million metric tonnes per annum. Thailand has also been the largest manufacturer and exporter of tuna since 1982 and prawns since 1993. Fishery products are one of Thailand’s top 10 export products, representing 10% of Thailand’s export income. In 2000, production was 3,713,200 metrics tonnes, made up of 3,240,700 metric tonnes (87.28%) of marine fish and 472,500 metric tonnes (12.72%) of freshwater fish. In 2000, approximately 2,020,876 metric tonnes (72.86%) of the total production was derived from the Gulf of Thailand.

Of Thailand’s 76 provinces, 17 are located along the coast of the Gulf, providing good maritime access to Thai fishers. The Gulf of Thailand is divided into the Inner Gulf and the Outer Gulf as mentioned earlier. The Outer Gulf extends into the South China Sea, and the Gulf as a whole is divided into 7 areas for statistical data collection (Figure 2).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 7

E N

Figure 2 The statistical fishing areas in the Gulf of Thailand.

1.1.1 Total catch by fishing area, port of landing or province (by species/species group)

Marine fisheries production, as reported by the Department of Fisheries, has yet to be classified by species/species group and landing port. Marine fishing in the Gulf of Thailand is conducted from 37 major fishing ports and several hundred fishing villages scattered along the Gulf of Thailand coast. The catch of important species/species groups in the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000 is shown in Table 3. Catch of important pelagic and demersal fish, as well as invertebrates, in each fishing area by fishing gear type, is highlighted in Appendix 1 (Tables 1 to 3).

1.1.2 Fishing effort by gear (no. of fishing days, or no. of boats)

The rapid expansion of the Thai fishing fleet relates to the increase in the number of fishing boats, as well as their size and catching capacity. Most large registered fishing boats, especially those larger than 18 m in length, are equipped with advanced fishing and navigation technology, including sonar systems, echo sounders, radios, radar, and satellite navigation. There are at least 150 fishing gears that are widely utilised by Thai fishers in the Gulf of Thailand (Okawara et al. 1986). The fishing gears are classified into 2 main types, namely small-scale fishing gears and commercial fishing gears. Commercial fishing gears can be classified by type and by size of fishing boat. However, small-scale fishing gears, normally used by small boats in inshore waters, have not been classified by fishing boat size.

Data regarding fishing effort in terms of number of different sized fishing boats and type of fishing gear, including otter board trawl, pair trawl, luring purse seine, Thai purse seine, anchovy purse seine, gill net, push net, and other small fishing gears are presented in Tables 4 to 9.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 8 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

Table 3 Catch of important marine fishes in the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000. Unit: Metric tonnes

Species group\Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Grand total 1,923,163 1,820,687 2,081,528 1,929,672 1,996,542 2,012,013 1,903,555 1,831,129 1,802,422 1,919,564 2,020,876

Sub-total fishes 1,552,050 1,430,115 1,643,683 1,605,030 1,612,501 1,695,892 1,589,603 1,515,889 1,435,786 1,560,720 1,581,754

Sub-total pelagic fishes 582,192 559,502 700,149 612,301 643,855 690,744 629,355 590,619 606,651 639,828 642,472

Indo-Pacific mackerel 78,279 64,156 96,598 76,997 82,021 112,280 92,765 91,622 107,083 125,175 120,882

Indian mackerel 22,176 17,849 31,577 35,986 50,898 45,338 21,328 19,276 19,393 26,912 21,902

King mackerel 9,995 7,549 8,414 11,085 9,904 10,660 9,360 8,875 9,480 9,826 8,566

Longtail tuna 101,397 79,227 72,277 39,396 32,006 38,824 32,347 29,127 34,805 45,818 53,407

Eastern little tuna+Frigate tuna 54,915 58,763 84,887 67,402 67,827 48,121 47,125 42,557 44,027 56,888 46,054

Round scads 10,676 22,747 42,525 46,186 38,394 54,641 52,648 47,498 57,893 56,461 67,902

Hardtail scad 13,884 12,335 18,067 18,581 20,809 9,723 5,217 4,027 7,981 7,374 7,433

Trevallies 38,841 35,928 42,531 42,224 55,616 47,456 44,365 41,356 35,599 35,668 30,831

Big-eye scad 19,972 15,451 21,851 19,581 37,080 36,449 24,533 22,188 24,931 25,966 29,075

Sardinellas 92,281 115,641 142,634 113,860 125,179 141,180 161,771 151,708 129,045 128,492 121,738

Anchovies 123,176 115,082 123,288 123,751 102,729 123,095 122,423 117,229 121,443 103,445 117,025

Other pelagics fishes 16,600 14,774 15,500 17,252 21,392 22,977 15,473 15,156 14,971 17,803 17,657

Sub-total demersal fishes 105,740 113,769 155,886 202,875 191,348 245,483 235,700 239,833 209,806 277,645 272,521

Treadfin breams 26,282 34,125 51,655 57,903 55,850 71,637 64,749 62,944 59,683 69,949 74,544

Lizard fishes 13,169 19,750 31,840 42,486 35,593 58,482 51,004 62,397 35,289 60,534 52,601

Snappers 3,447 2,878 5,300 10,815 8,105 8,796 9,180 8,469 11,559 8,961 5,242

Big-eyes 21,219 25,269 36,221 49,710 44,680 57,723 67,411 62,675 64,873 71,127 65,168

Grouper 1,781 1,928 3,142 2,948 5,679 5,431 5,847 5,649 5,020 5,465 5,035

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 9

Table 3 cont. Catch of important marine fishes in the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Species group\Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Other demersal fishes 39,842 29,819 27,728 39,013 41,441 43,414 37,509 37,699 33,382 61,609 69,931

Other food fishes 89,244 96,481 127,439 123,128 116,218 109,437 122,017 123,923 104,078 159,838 148,433

Trash fishes 774,874 660,363 660,209 666,726 661,080 650,228 602,531 561,514 515,251 483,409 518,328

Sub-total shrimp & prawn 93,848 103,598 96,270 97,709 103,244 103,096 102,600 96,323 73,474 62,248 69,673

Banana shrimp 8,649 7,733 7,486 8,130 9,928 9,226 7,132 7,169 7,648 8,206 10,385

Jumbo tiger prawn 121 223 274 277 488 373 631 572 341 1,043 1,580

Tiger shrimp 312 315 325 323 642 711 1,042 1,068 839 609 714

King prawn 1,364 1,271 1,624 1,399 1,304 1,486 1,600 1,838 1,775 2,546 3,400

Other shrimp 82,210 92,866 85,630 86,344 89,622 89,386 89,298 82,715 59,409 47,334 50,844

Flathead Lobster 903 807 766 1,067 861 1,730 2,716 2,785 3,005 1,760 2,289

Mantis shrimp 289 383 165 169 399 184 181 176 457 750 866

Sub-total crabs 34,306 35,149 34,831 38,066 39,881 39,820 38,856 37,515 40,852 39,137 39,137

Swimming crabs 30,402 31,190 31,784 33,059 35,157 35,414 36,219 34,916 37,281 33,864 37,219

Mud crabs 2,358 3,159 2,463 3,555 2,530 2,313 1,716 1,610 1,848 3,763 3,426

Other crabs 1,546 800 584 1,452 2,194 2,093 921 989 1,723 1,510 788

Sub-total squid & cuttlefish 119,091 120,281 113,893 114,004 109,031 115,810 115,966 116,277 130,554 119,742 120,485

Squid 57,608 56,551 51,209 55,867 55,762 59,624 56,006 55,740 68,788 62,613 64,671

Cuttlefish 45,655 50,077 48,036 44,456 41,987 45,358 47,239 48,344 44,847 45,009 44,927

Octopus 15,828 13,653 14,648 13,681 11,282 10,828 12,721 12,193 16,919 12,120 10,885

Sub-total molluscs 109,873 76,137 90,672 65,006 53,577 40,727 38,574 42,700 62,591 53,163 70,974

Others 13,995 55,407 102,179 9,857 78,308 16,668 17,956 22,425 59,165 84,554 138,855

Source: DOF 1988 to 2002; 2003a.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 10 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

1.1.2.1 Trawl

As mentioned above, there are 3 types of trawl used in Thai waters. These include the otter board trawl, pair trawl, and beam trawl. Beam trawls are mostly used to catch shrimp and the total number of units of this gear type is low. Table 4 shows the number of otter board trawls and pair trawls registered in key provinces along the coast of the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000. The number of pair trawlers varied little during this period. However, the number of otter board trawls decreased from 1980 to 1988 as some trawl boats began using squid light luring cast nets to catch squid. The development of this technique gained popularity due to the high price of, and the relative fuel efficiency of the methods. From 1989 to 1990, the number of trawlers increased due to consent being given to the registration of trawlers and push netters in 1989.

Table 4 Number of trawls registered along the coast of the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000.

Otter board trawl Pair trawl Grand Year < 14 m 14-18 m 18-25 m > 25 m Total < 14 m 14-18 m 18-25 m > 25 m Total Total 1980 4,038 1,768 1,189 187 7,182 54 476 567 5 1,102 8,284 1981 2,762 1,479 866 171 5,278 53 358 489 10 910 6,188 1982 4,719 1,897 1,227 185 8,028 44 528 727 7 1,306 9,334 1983 3,636 1,773 1,274 165 6,848 38 498 636 8 1,180 8,028 1984 3,608 1,681 1,286 170 6,745 40 428 598 6 1,072 7,817 1985 3,099 1,603 1,235 171 6,108 35 469 615 3 1,122 7,230 1986 2,629 1,518 1,132 137 5,416 29 440 585 6 1,060 6,476 1987 2,514 1,542 1,155 132 5,343 30 427 617 4 1,078 6,421 1988 2,339 1,491 1,057 110 4,997 31 387 628 0 1,046 6,043 1989 3,571 2,691 2,455 117 8,834 70 563 1,312 0 1,945 10,779 1990 3,302 2,804 2,457 119 8,682 84 571 1,269 5 1,929 10,611 1991 2,613 2,134 2,063 129 6,939 77 534 1,199 12 1,822 8,761 1992 2,370 2,051 1,852 101 6,374 54 475 1,117 15 1,661 8,035 1993 2,231 2,184 1,745 82 6,242 37 439 1,054 9 1,539 7,781 1994 1,870 1,965 1,624 72 5,531 34 404 1,063 7 1,508 7,039 1995 1,890 1,972 1,529 72 5,463 31 372 983 6 1,392 6,855 1996 2,098 1,976 1,746 92 5,912 25 381 1,189 15 1,610 7,522 1997 1,970 2,165 1,761 140 6,036 29 466 1,051 15 1,561 7,597 1998 2,048 2,064 1,853 144 6,109 13 345 1,221 17 1,596 7,705 1999 1,761 1,918 1,751 138 5,568 17 320 1,159 18 1,514 7,082 2000 1,742 1,829 1,634 139 5,344 16 290 1,144 14 1,4640 6,796 Source: DOF 1982 to 2002.

1.1.2.2 Purse seine/ring net

Purse seines are the major fishing gear used to exploit pelagic fish resources. Table 5 highlights increased use of purse seines. Registered purse seines are classified as Chinese purse seines (CPS), anchovy purse seines (APS), Thai purse seines (TPS), and luring purse seines (LPS). Nowadays, CPS are not used in the Gulf of Thailand, however, APS are commonly used to catch anchovy. The purse seines used to catch mixed pelagic fish species in the Gulf of Thailand are the TPS and LPS. These 2 types of purse seine were combined after 1992. In the Gulf of Thailand, the registered number of purse seines (TPS and LPS) increased from 602 units in 1980 to 1,013 units in 1988, again peaking at 1026 units in 1991. During the 1990s, the total number of purse seine units gradually decreased. However, it is apparent that purse seine use is increasing, especially by larger boats (Table 5).

Purse seines are used to catch pelagic fishes such as the Indo-Pacific mackerel, sardines, trevallies, and scads. The Thai purse seine is used to catch free-swimming fishes that are usually small and form species-specific schools. The luring purse seine, operated in conjunction with coconut leaf fish aggregating devices (FADs) or artificial lights to attract fish, was also developed to catch small pelagic fish, and has become extremely popular amongst Thai fishers. The number of purse seines registered by the type and size of fishing boats in the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000 is shown in Table 5.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 11

Table 5 Number of purse seines registered by type and size of fishing boat in the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000. Luring purse seine Thai purse seine Grand Year <14 m 14-18 m 18-25 m >25 m Total <14 m 14-18 m 18-25 m >25 m Total Total 1980 59 150 294 3 506 40 51 5 0 96 602 1981 75 189 330 8 602 9 28 3 0 40 642 1982 59 154 362 7 582 21 19 2 0 42 624 1983 42 124 377 13 556 20 17 3 0 40 596 1984 25 34 197 6 262 26 116 218 3 363 625 1985 19 33 159 5 216 27 144 270 7 448 664 1986 27 42 183 2 254 18 108 286 13 425 679 1987 16 61 274 2 353 19 108 333 8 468 821 1988 79 45 303 0 427 28 156 392 10 586 1013 1989 45 32 369 7 453 58 88 206 5 357 810 1990 29 30 271 3 333 69 112 459 17 657 990 1991 6 18 252 6 282 88 130 512 14 744 1026 1992 6 16 228 3 253 29 91 516 21 657 910 1993* 76 118 705 26 925 0000 0 925 1994* 45 132 704 33 914 0000 0 914 1995* 35 87 636 27 785 0000 0 785 1996* 29 76 579 23 707 0000 0 707 1997* 49 106 557 26 738 0000 0 738 1998* 68 92 590 24 774 0000 0 774 1999* 79 74 624 24 801 0000 0 801 2000* 62 68 569 34 733 0000 0 733 Source : DOF 1982 to 2002. 1993*-2000* = Luring purse seine and Thai purse seine were combined.

Previously, anchovy purse seine was operated only during the daytime. However, this gear type is now also operated during the night with artificial light to attract schools of fish. Fishing effort for this gear type increased markedly following the introduction of the light fishing technique in 1985. The number of anchovy purse seines in operation has increased steadily. However, the use of this gear type at night has been illegal since 1990, when the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives issued a regulation prohibiting the use of small mesh (less than 2.5cm) purse seines during the night. The number of anchovy purse seines registered by fishing boat size in the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000 is shown in Table 6.

Table 6 Number of Anchovy purse seines registered by fishing boat size in the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000. Year Anchovy purse seine < 14 m 14-18 m 18-25 m > 25 m 1980 28 14 14 5 0 1981 13 6 4 3 0 1982 24 12 6 6 0 1983 37 21 11 5 0 1984 53 24 15 14 0 1985 118 51 22 40 0 1986 91 28 25 38 0 1987 47 21 13 13 0 1988 68 31 18 19 0 1989 76 35 25 16 0 1990 105 43 36 25 1 1991 237 93 90 51 0 1992 228 92 83 50 0 1993 255 90 84 81 0 1994 285 112 89 84 0 1995 323 193 74 54 4 1996 370 245 67 57 2 1997 419 285 91 43 0 1998 290 170 71 49 0 1999 333 177 91 64 0 2000 403 222 104 77 1 Source : DOF 1982 to 2002.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 12 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

1.1.2.3 Gill net

Table 7 shows the number of gill nets registered by size of fishing boat in the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000. Thai fishers commonly use 2 types of gill net, namely the Spanish mackerel drift gill net and the mackerel encircling gill net. The Spanish mackerel drift gill net, which is usually 5 to 10km long, is used to catch Spanish mackerel and small tuna. The number of fishing boats using this gear has been relatively constant. The mackerel encircling gill net is popular for catching Indo-Pacific mackerel, and is operated in a fashion similar to the purse seine, although without purse line. The use of this gear has declined since 1987.

1.1.2.4 Other gears

Most other fishing gears are small scale and operated in shallow coastal waters. These gears include push nets, trolled lures, hand lines, longlines, traps, and small gill nets. The number of push net units decreased from 1,644 in 1980 to 490 in 1988, although after consent was given to the registration of trawlers and push netters in 1989, total push net use increased significantly (Table 8). Table 9 contains information regarding the number of other small scale fishing gears, including crab gill nets, shrimp trammel nets, others gill nets, squid falling nets, anchovy falling nets, and longline. Interestingly, the use of shrimp trammel nets decreased, whilst that of squid and anchovy falling nets increased. Trap fisheries for squid and crab play an important role in the Gulf of Thailand’s small- scale fisheries, however, the registration of traps is not required under Thai fisheries law.

Table 7 Number of gill nets registered by size of fishing boat in the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000. Spanish mackerel drift gill net Mackerel encircling gill net Grand Year <14 m 14-18 m 18-25 m >25 m Total <14 m 14-18 m 18-25 m >25 m Total Total

1980 86 142 44 0 272 174 73 58 0 305 577 1981 53 166 82 0 301 125 76 56 0 257 558 1982 47 148 55 0 250 103 70 54 0 227 477 1983 40 134 60 0 234 36 57 48 0 141 375 1984 50 116 76 1 243 87 40 40 0 167 410 1985 45 135 75 1 256 113 48 49 0 210 466 1986 37 148 106 6 297 106 41 45 0 192 489 1987 36 152 138 1 327 97 36 86 0 219 546 1988 45 172 175 9 401 54 28 46 0 128 529 1989 29 116 71 0 216 52 33 25 0 110 326 1990 36 112 85 6 239 44 21 35 0 100 339 1991 45 119 105 10 279 41 21 26 0 88 367 1992 45 120 124 11 300 40 19 12 0 71 371 1993 32 86 77 3 198 43 25 24 0 92 290 1994 21 96 96 7 220 36 34 28 1 99 319 1995 26 88 155 18 287 29 21 27 0 77 364 1996 24 82 111 15 232 84 21 19 0 124 356 1997 51 91 81 11 234 86 28 30 0 144 378 1998 21 72 106 10 209 75 25 28 2 130 339 1999 23 62 90 6 181 41 35 37 1 114 295 2000 21 44 65 2 132 19 23 36 1 79 211 Source : DOF 1982 to 2002.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 13

Table 8 Number of push nets registered by size of fishing boat in the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000.

Year < 14 m 14-18 m 18-25 m > 25 m Total 1980 1,579 64 1 0 1,644 1981 853 30 0 0 883 1982 1,209 35 0 0 1,244 1983 890 51 0 0 941 1984 750 27 0 0 777 1985 635 28 0 0 663 1986 536 32 11 0 579 1987 524 27 3 0 554 1988 458 30 2 0 490 1989 859 190 61 0 1,110 1990 868 193 58 0 1,119 1991 594 123 51 0 768 1992 436 96 30 0 562 1993 524 98 41 0 663 1994 451 68 24 0 543 1995 413 85 36 0 534 1996 488 93 39 0 620 1997 637 95 39 0 771 1998 590 125 61 0 776 1999 504 76 44 0 624 2000 493 81 39 0 613 Source: DOF 1982 to 2002.

Table 9 Number of other small scale fishing gears registered in the Gulf of Thailand from 1980 to 2000.

Year Crab Shrimp Other Squid Anchovy Long line Total Gill Nets Trammel Nets Gill Nets Falling Nets Falling Nets

1980 868 2,175 770 115 0 222 4,150 1981 489 2,229 610 235 0 44 3,607 1982 734 2,364 423 637 0 33 4,191 1983 1,063 2,396 622 514 0 39 4,634 1984 879 1,658 445 521 0 44 3,555 1985 629 2,240 396 662 0 52 3,979 1986 1,266 2,044 823 652 0 48 4,833 1987 907 2,641 623 775 0 47 4,993 1988 995 1,903 684 1,102 0 115 4,799 1989 460 1,084 463 915 0 31 2,953 1990 911 1,141 549 1,027 0 30 3,658 1991 1,185 973 463 1,242 0 33 3,893 1992 731 937 467 1,435 0 57 3,627 1993 1,051 1,411 724 1,723 0 50 4,959 1994 1,261 1,099 688 1,881 0 27 4,956 1995 1,396 750 565 1,756 0 38 4,505 1996 1,318 755 577 1,584 0 37 4,271 1997 1,147 530 608 1,662 0 38 3,984 1998 975 624 605 1,356 358 34 3,952 1999 762 416 810 1,095 507 35 3,635 2000 816 528 1,231 1,880 778 32 5,265 Source: DOF 1982 to 2002.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 14 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

1.1.3 Economic value of catch

The value of catch from commercial and small-scale fisheries has followed an increasing trend. This was especially the case during the 1990s, when total catch value increased by 105%. Commercial fishing contributes to about 90% of marine catch, with the balance flowing from small-scale/artisanal fisheries. In 2000, the percentage contribution to total catch value by key groups of marine fish was pelagic fish (28.69%), demersal fish (13.63%), other food fish (7.75%), trash fish (4.45%), shrimps (18.97%), crabs (6.63%), cephalopods (18.75%), and molluscs (0.22%) (Table 10). The species of main economic importance are Indo-Pacific mackerel and longtail tuna.

1.1.4 Importance of the fisheries sector in terms of employment & dependence

1.1.4.1 Contribution of the fisheries sector to GDP

Thailand’s gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at 4,598 billion baht in 1996, of which the fishery sector contributed 87.8 billion baht or 1.9%, representing a decline from the 2% average observed from 1994 to 1996. The key factor driving the diminished contribution of the fisheries sector to GDP was rapid growth in the manufacturing and service sectors. These factors were partially offset by increases in real fish prices. Although the fisheries sector makes a relatively small contribution to Thailand’s GDP, it makes an important contribution to export earnings and employment. Fish is also a central part of the diet of most Thai people (Table 11).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 15

Table 10 Value of production of important marine fishes from the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000. Value: 1,000 baht

Species group\Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Grand total 16,978,200 19,667,600 25,323,400 25,450,674 25,377,702 31,019,319 29,819,652 30,304,144 30,807,616 32,615,351 34,732,645

Sub-total fishes 9,373,500 10,176,000 15,624,500 16,039,783 13,984,172 17,058,748 16,537,016 16,061,191 16,880,065 19,412,177 18,936,415

Sub-total pelagic fishes 5,631,400 6,244,200 8,038,700 7,226,628 8,203,193 9,110,821 8,354,057 8,734,353 9,901,435 10,465,862 9,964,142

Indo-Pacific mackerel 1,032,900 759,000 1,425,700 1,124,009 1,638,035 2,341,053 2,178,558 2,528,946 3,392,963 3,327,371 3,032,544

Indian mackerel 228,400 141,900 338,700 369,353 897,246 716,346 418,439 330,464 347,620 491,934 467,949

King mackerel 353,100 299,600 372,200 545,590 438,122 509,769 522,453 641,813 601,352 698,370 608,466

Longtail tuna 1,618,100 1,877,800 1,589,600 1,194,876 415,882 582,360 646,380 757,746 973,679 1,170,055 1,204,216

Eastern little tuna+Frigate tuna 685,300 940,200 1,358,200 1,011,030 952,295 580,340 733,024 638,355 792,648 911,549 784,776

Round scads 64,500 255,900 415,000 461,865 392,754 597,776 611,245 618,255 824,978 832,235 804,643

Hardtail scad 111,400 104,600 178,900 191,954 225,923 135,353 97,616 69,283 136,080 126,322 154,469

Trevallies 283,000 574,900 566,600 517,132 727,948 676,728 694,325 639,483 578,409 572,608 463,714

Big-eye scad 136,900 100,700 160,100 130,664 363,445 337,880 245,330 199,904 174,503 253,549 290,690

Sardinellas 356,600 346,900 498,400 401,610 597,445 681,897 823,417 829,242 771,474 638,854 675,249

Anchovies 363,000 402,800 478,400 481,987 487,825 718,879 541,109 441,234 543,033 546,384 606,145

Other pelagics fishes 398,200 439,900 656,900 796,558 1,066,273 1,232,440 842,161 1,039,628 764,696 896,631 871,281

Sub-total demersal fishes 1,043,400 1,495,800 2,072,500 2,918,868 3,249,117 4,318,443 4,266,125 4,094,028 4,161,258 4,987,303 4,732,770

Treadfin breams 213,600 426,500 657,100 741,749 772,307 1,230,729 1,205,649 856,062 943,757 1,075,892 1,122,468

Lizard fishes 73,100 152,100 224,500 317,848 248,534 518,740 482,506 684,501 351,921 586,302 392,126

Snappers 100,000 122,800 225,900 473,263 389,988 472,251 526,294 462,981 677,911 515,427 286,138

Big-eyes 112,200 173,100 250,700 368,889 396,249 516,626 703,093 668,733 791,212 726,711 507,446

Grouper 67,700 98,600 200,500 202,689 490,088 458,000 409,290 441,374 446,547 502,858 449,440

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 16 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

Table 10 cont. Value of production of important marine fishes from the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000. Value: 1,000 baht

Species group\Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Other demersal fishes 476,800 522,700 513,800 814,430 951,951 1,122,097 939,293 980,377 949,910 1,580,113 1,975,152

Other food fishes 632,000 771,800 4,033,500 4,094,427 1,051,659 2,003,807 2,169,473 1,800,653 1,324,253 2,499,315 2,692,976

Trash fishes 2,066,700 1,664,200 1,479,800 1,799,860 1,480,203 1,625,677 1,747,361 1,432,157 1,493,119 1,459,697 1,546,527

Sub-total shrimp & prawn 2,906,400 2,849,300 3,080,200 3,175,616 4,591,440 5,460,029 4,809,660 5,661,549 4,890,473 4,659,472 6,589,409

Banana shrimp 1,274,300 903,100 1,125,000 1,029,841 1,758,716 1,769,205 1,245,736 1,405,857 1,677,719 1,829,478 2,389,591

Jumbo tiger prawn 19,100 40,200 50,900 52,789 92,086 88,899 149,360 147,950 87,119 290,324 549,430

Tiger shrimp 57,100 47,500 50,000 49,009 141,609 155,606 232,689 267,281 232,403 181,543 254,453

King prawn 109,500 121,500 156,900 119,569 195,670 242,366 210,050 196,690 148,813 167,252 274,643

Other shrimp 1,382,300 1,637,600 1,622,400 1,817,504 2,319,616 3,035,584 2,692,477 3,371,045 2,443,166 1,969,421 2,816,882

Flathead Lobster 58,400 89,100 70,000 101,449 71,931 161,929 272,108 265,686 281,772 183,954 265,429

Mantis shrimp 5,700 10,300 5,000 5,455 11,812 6,440 7,240 7,040 19,481 37,500 38,981

Sub-total crabs 900,000 1,307,000 1,330,000 1,296,410 1,549,157 1,935,011 1,837,952 1,685,555 1,694,761 1,950,597 2,304,265

Swimming crabs 784,800 1,086,600 1,136,600 1,028,739 1,308,186 1,615,230 1,539,411 1,549,096 1,537,582 1,646,697 2,046,076

Mud crabs 94,300 208,400 184,900 240,147 202,458 277,560 275,000 107,485 100,809 253,018 237,295

Other crabs 20,900 12,000 8,500 27,524 38,513 42,221 23,541 28,974 56,370 50,882 20,894

Sub-total squid & cuttlefish 3,207,100 4,769,300 4,599,700 4,679,596 4,910,351 6,315,248 6,359,422 6,539,379 6,891,823 6,147,804 6,511,065

Squid 1,578,000 2,302,600 2,132,100 2,375,625 2,484,167 3,352,074 3,153,216 3,365,433 3,975,005 3,573,316 3,682,020

Cuttlefish 1,473,800 2,182,000 2,244,800 2,094,437 2,319,147 2,763,305 2,935,618 2,851,561 2,247,935 2,212,092 2,533,609

Octopus 155,300 284,700 222,800 209,534 107,037 199,869 270,588 322,385 668,883 362,396 295,436

Sub-total molluscs 584,700 538,900 637,500 251,134 283,193 225,908 249,123 304,805 343,252 287,909 287,909

Others 6,500 27,100 51,500 8,135 59,389 24,37526,479 51,665 107,242 157,392 77,762

Source : Source: DOF 1988 to 2002; 2003a. (rate of exchange; See Annex 1)

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Table 11 Contribution of fisheries and other sectors to the GDP of Thailand from 1989 to 1996.

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Industrail Origin % % % % % % % % M.bahts M.bahts M.bahts M.bahts M.bahts M.bahts M.bahts M.bahts

Gross Domestic Production (GDP) 1,620,882 100.0 1,895,034 100.0 2,506,635 100.0 2,830,914 100.0 3,170,258 100.0 3,630,805 100.0 4,188,929 100.0 4,598,288 100.0

Agriculture 279,094 17.2 273,973 14.5 317,085 12.6 348,127 12.3 329,878 10.4 390,233 10.7 464,171 11.1 507,339 11.0

Crops 174,809 10.8 159,992 8.4 181,918 7.3 197,058 7.0 166,564 5.3 206,264 5.7 258,432 6.2 289,570 6.3

Livestock 29,797 1.8 32,770 1.7 37,430 1.5 35,001 1.2 32,275 1.0 35,802 1.0 42,599 1.0 44,457 1.0

Fisheries 27,449 1.7 32,214 1.7 43,139 1.7 55,764 2.0 67,410 2.1 76,138 2.1 83,097 2.0 87,800 1.9

Forestry 8,181 0.5 6,665 0.4 7,110 0.3 6,705 0.2 6,443 0.2 6,145 0.2 6,098 0.1 6,291 0.1

Agricultural services 10,678 0.7 10,795 0.6 10,958 0.4 11,525 0.4 11,149 0.4 12,477 0.3 12,779 0.3 13,519 0.3 Simple agricultural and processing products 28,180 1.7 31,537 1.7 36,530 1.5 42,074 1.5 46,037 1.5 53,407 1.5 61,166 1.5 65,702 1.4

Source : NESDB.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 18 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

1.1.4.2 Contribution of the fishing industry to income and employment

Thailand’s labour force was estimated at 35.6 million in 1998, of which some 15.4 million (43%) were employed in the agricultural sector (including fisheries). Results from the 1995 Marine Fishery Census indicated that the total number of fishers and employees involved in Thailand’s marine capture fisheries was 111,479. There were 45,898 persons engaged in coastal aquaculture (Table 12).

Table 12 Thailand’s fisheries sector employment in 1995. Type of employment No. of Fishers, Fish farmers and Employees Marine capture 1/ 111,479 Coastal aquaculture 2/ 45,898 Inland aquaculture 3/ 404,334 Related fisheries industry 4/ 220,370 Total 782,091 Sources: 1/, 2/ The 1995 Marine Fishery census 3/ No. of farmer = (no. of fishfarm x 2 persons) 4/ Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare On the other hand, no fishery census has been conducted for Thailand’s inland fishery, thus no data has been compiled for reference. It is difficult to estimate employment in Thailand’s inland fisheries. However, most rice-growing farmers catch fish, and could potentially be categorised as part-time inland fishers. Millions of farmers catch freshwater fish for household consumption. A survey regarding freshwater fish farm production has been conducted since 1974. However, the number of aquaculturists and employees were not included in the survey, and information was not collected for many farms. The survey did indicate that the number of freshwater fish farms increased continuously from 61,980 farms in 1990 to 202,167 farms in 1995. On the basis that each farm provides employment for 2 people, approximately 404,334 persons were involved in freshwater aquaculture in 1995. Additionally, the fisheries sector supports substantial levels of employment in related industries, including fish processing, cold storage, fishmeal, ice making, and boat construction. Total employment in these industries was estimated at 211,682 in 1995. 1.1.4.3 Contribution of the fisheries sector to foreign exchange earning The contribution of Thailand’s fishing and fish-processing industries to export earnings has increased steadily in recent years (Table 13). The positive trade balance in fish and fish products increased from 6,874 million baht in 1980 to 151,755 million baht in 2000. Although the industry relies on imported inputs such as diesel fuel and netting material, earnings remain substantial, particularly in relation to the level of employment in the industry. Fishery product exports in 2000 totalled 185,750 million baht, equivalent to 69% of total agriculture exports (200,795 million including fish), and 7.3% of total exports (1,898,276 million baht). Table 13 The trade balance of Thailand's fisheries sectors from 1980 to 2000. Import Export Trade balance Year Q (tonnes) (million baht) Q (tonnes) (million baht) Q (tonnes) (million baht) 1980 43,777 551.7 274,753 7,425.7 230,976 6,874 1981 47,174 550.0 320,325 9,102.3 273,151 8,552 1982 46,215 725.5 316,679 11,230.7 270,464 10,505 1983 58,942 1,093.2 344,899 12,677.2 285,957 11,584 1984 119,064 2,119.3 411,722 15,080.9 292,658 12,962 1985 152,707 3,857.5 466,219 18,527.7 313,512 14,670 1986 268,089 7,590.0 602,486 26,829.4 334,397 19,239 1987 227,327 7,016.9 663,650 32,654.3 436,323 25,637 1988 347,666 14,713.1 798,572 44,437.3 450,906 29,724 1989 455,755 19,066.7 875,293 53,704.9 419,538 34,638 1990 507,737 20,652.7 904,973 61,070.5 397,236 40,418 1991 724,668 27,352.9 1,087,395 78,463.2 362,727 51,110 1992 714,012 24,568.7 1,106,141 82,469.3 392,129 57,901 1993 760,919 21,629.4 1,115,078 910,18.3 354,159 69,389 1994 893,588 21,328.9 1,214,946 110,285.2 321,358 88,956 1995 872,818 21,924.7 1,192,560 116,577.8 319,742 94,654 1996 797,389 22,425.0 1,146,949 110,781.3 349,560 88,356 1997 710,115 27,438.9 1,181,255 138,624.0 471,140 111,185 1998 728,960 36,497.2 1,312,250 176,311.0 583,290 139,814 1999 930,885 33,289.3 1,394,104 165,718.1 463,219 132,429 2000 842,676 33,995.4 1,356,734 185,750.4 514,058 151,755 Sources: DOF, 1996; 2003a.

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1.1.4.4 Contribution of the fishery sector to domestic nutrition

The contribution of fish and other foods to the Thai diet in 1995 is shown in Table 14a. Fish is the primary source of animal protein for most Thai people, particularly in coastal provinces. From 1980 to 1997, the apparent annual per capita consumption of fish in Thailand averaged 24 kg, fluctuating between highs of 32.8 to 33.8kg in 1994 and 1995, and lows of 18.8 to18.9kg in 1987 and1988 (Table 14b).

Table 14a Thailand’s per capita food intake in1995. Items Whole country Urban area Rural area grams/day % grams/day % grams/day % Cereals, roots and tubers 305.7 41.4 281.4 37.4 312.3 42.4 Sugar and honey 13.7 1.9 14.6 1.9 13.4 1.8 Pulses, nuts and oil seeds 17.1 2.3 19.7 2.6 16.3 2.2 Vegetables 113.2 15.3 101.4 13.5 116.7 15.9 Fruits 76.8 10.4 93.9 12.5 72.0 9.8 Oils and fats 14.0 1.9 12.3 1.6 14.4 2.0 71.4 9.7 83.4 11.1 68.1 9.3 Fish 46.6 6.3 47.3 6.3 46.5 6.3 Eggs 21.4 2.9 17.2 2.3 22.5 3.1 Milk 29.3 4.0 44.6 5.9 25.1 3.4 Others 29.9 4.0 35.8 4.8 28.4 3.9

Total 739.1 100.0 751.6 100.0 735.7 100.0 Source: Department of Health, 1997.

Table 14b Apparent consumption of fish in Thailand from 1980 to 1997.

Year Total Fish used Trade Apparent consumption production for Import Export Total Population Consumption (1,000 tonnes) fishmeal (1,000 tonnes) (1,000 tonnes) consumption (million) per capita (1) (1,000 tonnes) (3) (4) (1,000 tonnes) (6) (kg) (2) (5)=(1)-(2)+(3)-(4) (7)=(5)/(6)

1980 1,792 773 140 227 932.3 47.0 19.8 1981 1,989 797 152 269 1,076.1 47.6 22.6 1982 2,121 813 128 338 1,098.4 48.4 22.7 1983 2,255 803 116 405 1,162.4 49.5 23.5 1984 2,135 758 166 547 996.4 50.5 19.7 1985 2,225 776 207 639 1,015.8 51.5 19.7 1986 2,536 976 362 847 1,074.2 52.5 20.4 1987 2,779 1,106 220 881 1,012.7 53.5 18.9 1988 2,630 956 343 993 1,023.8 54.6 18.8 1989 2,740 980 436 1,095 1,100.7 55.2 19.9 1990 2,786 978 475 1,174 1,108.7 56.1 19.8 1991 2,958 982 664 1,359 1,281.0 56.9 22.5 1992 3,240 1,001 637 1,393 1,482.6 57.6 25.7 1993 3,385 1,027 788 1,438 1,708.5 58.5 29.2 1994 3,523 930 883 1,535 1,940.5 59.1 32.8 1995 3,573 916 864 1,510 2,010.7 59.5 33.7 1996 3,500 900 737 1,438 1,899.5 60.1 31.6 1997* 3,460 900 728 1,645 1,642.7 60.8 27.0 Avg. 2,684 903 426 911 1,295.4 53.5 24.0 Source: Department of Fisheries, 1982 to 1999. Note: * Preliminary data.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 20 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

2. SPECIES OF REGIONAL, GLOBAL AND/OR TRANSBOUNDARY SIGNIFICANCE

According to the National Fisheries Statistics collected by the Fisheries Economics Division of the Department of Fisheries, catches are sorted by species and species group. The quantities and values of 11 pelagic fish groups, 5 groups of demersal fish, 7 groups of shrimps and lobsters, 3 groups of crabs, and 3 groups of cephalopods are shown in Tables 3 and 10. The important landing ports of the Organization (FMO) are shown in Figure 3. However, there are many private landing ports scattered along the Gulf of Thailand coast.

In terms of transboundary significance, a joint Thai-Malaysian-German trawl survey was conducted off the eastern coast of the Malaysian Peninsular in 1967. The survey area extended from the Thai- Malaysian border to the southernmost tip of the Malaysian Peninsular. The results of the survey indicated that catches declined as the survey moved northward to the Thai border. Throughout the survey, a total of 380 species were collected, of which 42 species (including Chiloscyllium griseum, Carcharinus spallanzani, and Rhinobatus ligonifer) were caught only in Thai waters, whilst another 42 species (including Dasyatis brocki, Sardinella melanura, Batrachphalus mino, and Lutianus rangus) were caught only in Malaysian waters. The rest of the species were caught in both regions (Wongratana 1968). However, in both Thai and Malaysian waters the most prevalent group of fish included species of Leiognathidae, inhabiting depths from 10 to 50m. Next to this, in terms of abundance, were fish of Trygonidae, which were found mainly in Malaysian waters in depths ranging from 10 to 40m. In Thai waters, Nemipterus spp. was the next most prevalent group. During the survey, tagging of some important demersal fish was also conducted. 23 Nemipterus hexodon, 2 N. furcosus, 85 Priacanthus spp., 342 Scolopsis cancellatus, and Lutianus malabaricus were tagged and released in Malaysian waters (Marine Fisheries Laboratory and Fisheries Research Institute 1967). However, there are no reports of these fish being recaptured. The results of acoustic surveys conducted by the Exploratory Fishing Division of Thailand’s Department of Fisheries in the southern part of the Gulf in 1979, very clearly showed that the pelagic traces consisted of a mixture of Rastrelliger kanagurta, Caranx crumenophthalmus, Decapterus resselli, and Sardinella sp. (SEAFDEC 1981a). Rastrelliger spp., Scomberomorus spp., Decapterus spp., Sardinella spp., Stolephorus spp., Megalaspis cordyla, Selar spp. and Selaroides spp. are economically important in both Thailand and Malaysia. It is also well known that mackerels (Rastrelliger spp.) and round scads (Decapterus spp.) are widely distributed in areas of the South China Sea.

In 1993, a joint survey was carried out in the Joint Development Area (JDA) between Thailand and Malaysia by research trawlers of both countries at depths from 40 to 70m. More than 8 species of Nemipterus were found, including Nemipterus mesoprion, N. hexodon, N. marginatus, N. nematophorus, N. nemuerus, N. peronii, N. tolu and Nemipterus spp. The most common species was N. mesoprion, followed by N. nematophorus and N. marginatus (Uraiwan and Boonvanich 1993).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 21

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

14°N BANGKOK Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

13° Phetchaburi Rayong Chanthaburi

Hua Hin Trat

Pran Buri 12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

Langsuan 10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

7° Songkhla

Pattani Narathiwat Landing Port 6°

Figure 3 The important fish landing ports (FMO) along the coast of the Gulf of Thailand.

A joint fishery resources survey in the former overlapping jurisdictional area between Thailand and Viet Nam was conducted in 1997 and 1998 using bottom trawl and bottom vertical longline. The survey showed clear evidence of transboundary significance for many dominant species/species group that are distributed throughout Thai and Vietnamese waters. The dominant economically important species in waters of both countries included Selar ctuminophthalmus, Rastrelliger kanagurta, Saurida elongata, S. undosquamis, Priancanthus macracanthus, P. tayenus, Nemipterus nematophorus, Upeneus sulphurus, Siganus oramin, Seriolina nigrofasciata, Lutjanus sanguineus, Pristipomoides multidens, Ophisurus crocodilinus, Loligo chinensis, L. duvauceli, and Sepia spp.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 22 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

2.1 Ranking of importance in terms of landings, value, and status

2.1.1 Landings (by site or province) (mt)

Data regarding economically important species/groups of species landed by site or province, as well as by major fishing port for the year 2000 are provided in Table 15. The ranking of importance is based on the magnitude of catch. In terms of quantity, threadfin bream, Indo-Pacific mackerel, coastal tuna, bigeye snapper, squids, sardines, round scad, and anchovies are important. In terms of both quantity and value of landings, Songkhla, Pattani, Samutprakan, Nakorn Si Thammarat, Trat, and Samut Sakhon are the most important landing ports. It is usually clear that Thai fishing boats landing their catch in these ports have been fishing in transboundary areas.

2.1.2 Local market value (Local currency, note year)

The identification of species or species groups of economic importance involves consideration of wholesale value and export potential. Some resources have not yet been exploited commercially, however, may have potential for future development; they are also included in the list of commercially important species or species groups in Thailand. According to the 2000 National Fisheries Statistics, squid, cuttlefish, Indo-Pacific mackerel, shrimps, coastal tunas, and threadfin bream were important in terms of local market value (Table 16).

In 2000, marine capture fishery production accounted for 85.6% of the total marine fishery production, which amounted to 3.24 million metric tonnes with a value of 142,004 million baht. The utilisation of marine fishery products included fresh consumption (18.8%), fresh, chilled and frozen (23.8%), canned (19.7%), steamed or smoked (0.4%), fish sauce (3.2%), shrimp paste (0.1%), salted (5.7%), dried (2.0%), fish meal (25.8%), and other (0.5%). The important marine fish species with relatively high prices at major landing ports in 2000 are shown in Table 17.

2.1.3 Status (endangered, threatened, rare etc. IUCN criteria)

Several species of marine resources in the Gulf of Thailand are becoming rare, endangered, and perhaps threatened with extinction, due to increased human use, the resultant changes in the environment, and ineffective conservation and/or enforcement measures.

Assessment of the potential yields of fish stocks in the Gulf of Thailand has clearly shown that demersal fishery resources, particularly those in coastal areas, have been overexploited since 1973. Populations of dominant demersal species in the area, namely Nemipterus hexodon, Priacanthus tayenus, Saurida undosquamis and S. elongate, all show signs of overexploitation. Among the pelagic fish species, Indo-Pacific mackerel, sardines, anchovies, round scad, and coastal tuna stocks have been fully exploited since the early 1980s. However, from a survey conducted in 1995, it is unclear whether the reduction in catches of a number of species collected during the survey indicates that those species are becoming endangered or vulnerable.

Regarding threatened species of marine fauna, even though only higher groups of animals such as reptiles and mammals have been listed as rare or threatened species, it is believed that several species of marine fish and invertebrates are becoming rare, particularly those inhabiting coral reefs that are being destroyed by intense or destructive fishing practices.

The marine fauna officially listed as being threatened is highlighted in Appendix 2. This list is based on IUCN criteria. There is a paucity of information regarding the life history and population dynamics of threatened species, which hinders the formation, and implementation of effective conservation programmes.

Marine mammals: including whale, dolphin, and dugong. 3 species are critically endangered. 18 species are endangered.

Dugong: due to their gentle nature and slow movement, they may be accidentally caught by fishing nets. This species is considered very rare. One of these is a critically endangered species.

Reptiles: among them, marine turtle are considered important. The 5 species of reptile are critically endangered species.

In the Gulf of Thailand, the abundance of many fish species has declined. 3 species are endangered, 36 species are vulnerable, and 3 species are threatened.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 23

Table 15 Landings in metric tonnes for main species/group of species in each province in 2000. Unit: Metric tonnes

Province-port Total Indo- Indian King Coastal Round Hardtail Trevallies Sardinellas Anchovies Threadfin Lizard Snapper Big-eye Banana School Other Crabs Squid Cuttlefish Octopus Others Species (mt) Pacific mackerel mackerel tuna scads scads bream fish shrimp prawn shrimps mackerel Trat 95,228 603 225 174 126 8 224 309 41 45,636 4,552 58 0 2,033 80 332 1,651 503 1,095 1,408 1,076 35,094 (5) (9) (8) (9) (9) (9) (10) (8) (10) (1) (5) (9) (7) (8) (7) (6) (6) (8) (7) (4) (6) Chanthaburi 2,931 45 19 11 00027 06684 60 12 400 53 84 75 19 113 105 39 1,107 (14) (13) (9) (11) (11) (5) (9) (8) (8) (9) (10) (11) (16) (13) (12) (13) (12) (15) Rayong 78,501 4,603 6,880 456 11,981 2,701 716 13 2,309 6,051 3,487 1,770 267 2,659 16 11 81 102 2,701 375 215 31,107 (7) (7) (2) (7) (2) (2) (5) (12) (6) (2) (6) (5) (6) (6) (12) (15) (15) (11) (6) (10) (10) (7) Chonburi 25,657 159 0 0 481 0 256 3,730 733 1,496 60 0 0 100 307 525 5,798 492 1,886 1,608 585 7,441 (10) (10) (7) (9) (3) (7) (3) (14) (10) (4) (4) (1) (7) (7) (6) (7) (11) Chachoengsa 2,247 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 97 199 327 019 17 0 1,588 o (15) (7) (8) (12) (15) (16) (14) Samut 213,944 1,323 1,076 2,215 2,554 1,382 987 3,236 0 0 17,032 11,924 2,807 13,626 12 662 611 1,084 10,657 8,881 1,104 132,771 prakan (3) (8) (7) (1) (4) (3) (4) (4) (2) (2) (1) (2) (13) (3) (9) (2) (3) (3) (5) (2) Samut 87,489 8,214 1,163 911 0171,519 2,664 605 1,215 1,327 759 4,465 12 65 1,038 544 11,969 9,746 5,126 36,130 sakhon (6) (3) (5) (5) (8) (2) (5) (8) (7) (6) (5) (4) (13) (12) (7) (5) (2) (2) (1) (5) Samut 5,357 121 0 1 00096246 4 73 0627 58 106 403 118 429 179 132 3,358 songkram (12) (12) (12) (10) (9) (6) (12) (9) (12) (9) (10) (11) (10) (10) (11) (11) (12) Phetchaburi 1,543 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 59 000039205 19 14 125 14 1,068 (16) (13) (14) (13) (13) (16) (12) (14) (16) Prachuap 43,936 9,859 1,102 387 944 148 385 2,544 8,129 0 174 00970 0 2,315 11 59 44 0 17,738 Khiri (9) (2) (6) (8) (6) (7) (7) (6) (4) (11) (11) (4) (15) (14) (14) (9) Khan Chumphon 61,328 7,917 1,480 623 274 816 363 2,017 10,949 0 1,001 347 31 1,619 433 449 2,290 278 851 569 295 28,726 (8) (4) (4) (6) (8) (5) (8) (7) (2) (8) (7) (7) (8) (3) (5) (5) (9) (9) (9) (9) (8) Surat Thani 18,616 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 218 00031971 4,827 661 348 658 410 10,492 (11) (10) (11) (2) (2) (4) (11) (8) (8) (10) Nakhon Si 170,695 6,306 0 1,841 2,464 0 448 0 21,487 0 5,767 9,358 1,156 8,568 1,398 1,441 3,784 1,590 6,326 5,036 4,186 89,539 Thammarat (4) (5) (4) (5) (6) (1) (3) (3) (3) (3) (1) (1) (3) (1) (4) (4) (2) (4) Songkhla 296,733 5,225 2,585 1,873 10,667 955 3,090 9,783 8,254 102 36,226 18,324 767 26,918 870 50 962 1,081 18,691 10,159 3,784 136,367 (1) (6) (3) (3) (3) (4) (1) (1) (3) (4) (1) (1) (4) (1) (2) (13) (8) (3) (1) (1) (3) (1) Pattani 280,108 22,765 10,720 2,212 35,733 47,427 1,411 5,153 4,567 0 5,289 1,897 1,912 2,678 274 360 610 458 4,099 3,734 872 127,937 (2) (1) (1) (2) (1) (1) (3) (2) (5) (4) (4) (2) (5) (5) (6) (10) (8) (5) (5) (6) (3) Narathiwat 3,764 144 0 110 61 185 114 101 1 0 33 2 0 0 112 109 135 44 70 26 17 2,500 (13) (11) (10) (10) (6) (11) (9) (11) (15) (10) (6) (9) (14) (12) (13) (15) (13) (13)

TOTAL 1,388,077 67,284 25,250 10,814 65,285 53,639 9,513 29,673 57,321 53,295 75,870 45,067 7,717 63,190 3,753 5,403 25,112 7,004 59,327 42,670 17,855 663,035 Source: DOF 2003b.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 24 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

Table 16 Ranking of local species market value by species/group of species for each province in 2000. Unit: 1,000 baht

Province-port Total Indo- Indian King Coastal Round Hardtail Trevallies Sardinellas Anchovies Threadfin Lizard Snapper Big-eye Banana School Other Crabs Squid Cuttlefish Octopus Others Species mackerel mackerel tuna scads scads bream fish shrimp prawn shrimps (mt) Pacific mackerel Trat 863,870 6,415 2,369 6,823 1,911 71 2,335 3,230 205 232,155 56,597 290 0 20,701 19,124 57,380 36,360 9,688 46,736 53,132 24,607 285,652 (8) (11) (8) (10) (9) (9) (10) (9) (10) (1) (5) (9) (8) (8) (5) (7) (9) (8) (6) (6) (6) Chanthaburi 64,062 680 450 500 0 0 0 480 03611,143 878 777 5,504 11,955 13,111 3,484 364 3,621 3,219 821 5,200 (15) (13) (9) (11) (11) (5) (9) (8) (8) (9) (10) (11) (14) (15) (12) (13) (13) (16) Rayong 1,000,791 81,207 102,325 22,886 198,514 27,529 4,870 203 9,985 36,293 38,734 13,233 11,548 23,893 3,421 1,086 1,839 4,288 120,858 13,125 5,172 279,782 (6) (6) (2) (6) (3) (2) (7) (12) (6) (2) (6) (5) (6) (6) (12) (15) (16) (11) (6) (10) (10) (7) Chonburi 569,390 6,452 0 0 8,658 0 2,830 42,148 4,347 6,735 624 0 0 384 78,214 89,815 157,562 16,826 75,744 45,630 11,017 12,404 (10) (9) (7) (8) (4) (7) (3) (13) (11) (5) (3) (2) (6) (7) (7) (7) (12) Chachoengsao 65,994 00 0 0000000 00021,95020,598 13,740 0 380 510 0 8,816 (14) (7) (8) (11) (16) (16) (15) Samut prakan 4,978,271 34,927 21,305 67,454 50,569 16,377 11,611 52,457 0 0 199,276 185,708 126,315 109,008 2,605 219,044 182,430 65,944 597,317 499,450 43,135 2,393,339 (3) (8) (5) (2) (4) (3) (3) (3) (2) (1) (1) (2) (14) (1) (1) (1) (2) (1) (4) (3) Samut sakhon 2,252,016 167,732 18,307 59,215 0 238 10,633 39,960 4,143 16,258 11,282 44,022 44,650 3,060 9,550 58,858 21,508 533,065 419,505 179,979 610,051 (5) (3) (7) (4) (8) (4) (5) (7) (7) (6) (5) (4) (13) (12) (6) (5) (3) (2) (1) (5) Samut 99,869 4,414 0 21 0 0 0 920 1,500 21 891 0 540 355 14,875 14,303 8,727 4,663 20,635 8,531 3,790 15,683 songkram (13) (12) (12) (10) (9) (6) (13) (9) (12) (9) (10) (12) (10) (10) (11) (11) (14) Phetchaburi 34,208 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 590 0 0 0 0 3,967 2,761 1,024 472 4,977 380 20,037 (16) (14) (14) (15) (13) (15) (12) (14) (13) Prachuap Khiri 632,200 288,998 19,779 15,394 22,528 2,582 4,904 30,644 56,595 0 2,088 0 0 970 0 0 32,467 495 2,456 1,254 0 151,046 Khan (9) (2) (6) (8) (6) (7) (6) (6) (4) (11) (10) (8) (14) (14) (14) (9) Chumphon 916,385 164,492 23,653 22,361 5,484 12,188 5,151 30,634 59,915 0 13,462 4,659 1,854 22,397 90,831 39,802 151,727 12,303 35,155 23,226 8,909 188,182 (7) (4) (4) (7) (8) (4) (5) (7) (2) (8) (7) (7) (7) (3) (7) (3) (7) (9) (8) (9) (8) Surat Thani 265,217 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4,880 0 0 0 6,402 99,751 81,496 11,867 7,586 13,797 9,347 30,091 (11) (10) (11) (2) (4) (8) (11) (9) (8) (11) Nakhon Si 2,421,618 51,981 0 66,208 23,050 0 1,792 0 82,663 0 62,950 80,233 76,677 75,988 304,285 86,460 77,787 30,521 333,325 238,636 104,921 724,141 Thammarat (4) (7) (3) (5) (11) (1) (4) (3) (3) (3) (1) (4) (5) (3) (4) (4) (3) (4) Songkhla 5,811,274 111,828 57,890 39,333 396,879 5,700 67,735 219,376 57,778 513 315,767 145,745 46,908 235,180 198,096 5,800 24,018 57,597 809,064 387,317 108,657 2,517,093 (2) (5) (3) (5) (2) (5) (1) (1) (3) (4) (1) (2) (4) (1) (2) (13) (9) (2) (1) (3) (2) (2) Pattani 6,126,522 641,687 263,864 200,773 802,662 408,948 29,966 110,845 45,256 0 150,213 14,253 148,144 44,145 90,675 50,396 22,011 27,407 226,014 187,084 28,830 2,633,349 (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (2) (2) (5) (3) (4) (1) (5) (4) (6) (10) (4) (5) (5) (5) (1) Narathiwat 140,308 6,425 0 11,692 1,620 3,178 2,587 3,617 7 0 1,348 20 0 0 34,087 19,158 7,676 1,497 3,334 1,085 1,053 41,924 (12) (10) (9) (10) (6) (9) (8) (11) (12) (10) (6) (9) (13) (12) (13) (15) (12) (10)

TOTAL 26,241,995 1,567,238 509,942 612,660 1,511,875 479,811 144,414 534,442 322,394 275,753 874,821 456,301 456,785 583,175 879,580 730,221 862,943 265,992 2,815,762 1,900,478 530,618 9,926,790 Source: DOF 200b.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 25

Table 17 Average price of important marine fishes landed at major landing ports along the coast of the Gulf of Thailand by species/species group in 2000. Unit: baht/kg

Province-port/ Indo-Pacific Indian King Coastal Round Hardtail Trevallies Sardinellas Anchovies Threadfin Lizard Snapper Big-eye Banana School Other Crabs Squid Cuttlefish Octopus Others Species mackerel mackerel mackerel tuna scad scads bream fish shrimp prawn shrimps Trat 10.64 10.53 39.21 15.17 8.88 10.42 10.45 5.00 5.09 12.43 5.00 … 10.18 239.05 172.83 22.02 19.26 42.68 37.74 22.87 8.14

Chanthaburi 15.11 23.68 45.45 … … … 15.11 … 6.00 16.29 14.63 64.75 13.76 225.57 156.08 46.45 19.16 32.04 30.66 21.05 4.41

Rayong 17.64 14.87 50.19 16.57 10.19 6.80 15.62 4.32 6.00 11.11 7.48 43.25 8.99 213.81 98.73 22.70 42.04 44.75 35.00 24.06 8.99

Chonburi 40.58 … … 18.00 … 11.05 11.30 5.93 4.50 10.40 … … 3.84 254.77 171.08 27.18 34.20 40.16 28.38 18.83 3.01

Chachoengsao … … ………… … … … … ………226.29 103.51 42.02 … 20.00 30.00 0.00 5.55

Samut prakan 26.40 19.80 75.60 19.80 11.85 11.76 16.21 … … 11.70 15.57 45.00 8.00 217.08 330.88 298.58 60.83 56.05 56.24 39.07 18.03

Samut sakhon 20.42 15.74 65.00 … 14.00 7.00 15.00 6.85 … 13.38 8.50 58.00 10.00 255.00 146.92 56.70 39.54 44.54 43.04 35.11 16.88

Samut songkram 36.48 … 21.00 … … … 9.58 6.10 5.25 12.21 … 90.00 13.15 256.47 134.93 21.66 39.52 48.10 47.66 28.71 4.67

Phetchaburi … … ………… … … …10.00 …………101.72 13.47 53.89 33.71 39.82 27.14 18.76 Prachuap Khiri 29.31 17.95 39.78 23.86 17.45 12.74 12.05 6.96 … 12.00 … … 10.00 … … 14.02 45.00 41.63 28.50 … 8.52 Khan Chumphon 20.78 15.98 35.89 20.01 14.94 14.19 15.19 5.47 … 13.45 13.43 59.81 13.83 209.77 88.65 66.26 44.26 41.31 40.82 30.20 6.55 Surat Thani … … ………… … … …22.39 ………206.52 102.73 16.88 17.95 21.80 20.97 22.80 2.87 Nakhon Si 8.24 … 35.96 9.35 … 4.00 … 3.85 … 10.92 8.57 66.33 8.87 217.66 60.00 20.56 19.20 52.69 47.39 25.06 8.09 Thammarat Songkhla 21.40 22.39 21.00 37.21 9.11 21.92 22.42 7.00 5.03 8.72 7.95 61.16 8.74 227.70 116.00 24.97 53.28 43.29 38.13 28.71 18.46 Pattani 28.19 24.61 90.77 22.46 8.62 21.24 21.51 9.91 … 28.40 7.51 77.48 16.48 330.93 139.99 36.08 59.84 55.14 50.10 33.06 20.58 Narathiwat 44.62 … 106.2926.56 17.18 22.69 35.81 7.00 … 40.85 10.00 … … 304.35 175.76 56.86 34.02 47.63 41.73 61.94 16.77

Average 19.99 10.35 39.13 13.06 7.01 8.99 12.52 4.27 1.99 14.64 6.17 35.36 7.87 211.56 131.24 49.15 36.37 41.59 38.51 26.16 10.64

Source: DOF 2003b.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 26 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

2.1.4 Food security (locally) The fisheries sector provides an important supply of animal protein to Thai people. From 1980 to 2000, the average yearly increase in per capita fish consumption was about 2 percent. In 2000, per capita fish consumption was 32.7kg, which is relatively high compared to consumption of other main animal protein commodities, including pork, beef, and chicken. Price is a decisive factor influencing Thai consumer choice, and prices of fish are generally lower than other sources of animal protein. However, the level of per capita fish consumption varies among Thai people. This could be due to variations in household income, species preference, and geographic location, not failing to mention that fish is not a homogenous commodity (Day 2000; Smith et al. 1998; Westlund 1995). Piumsombun (2003) reported that demand for fish amongst Thailand’s highest income earners has almost no variation relative to their incomes. However, the lowest income group has high income elasticity, especially for shrimp and high value fish. Therefore, increased purchasing power of low-income groups may lead to increased demand for fish. In order to increase fish consumption amongst higher income groups, it is necessary to improve fish quality, develop more innovative products (such as those that are easy to prepare, serve, and consume), and to promote the health benefits of seafood.

2.2 Biology & ecology of the priority species (from available information) Marine fisheries resources in the Gulf of Thailand can be divided into 2 categories, i.e., pelagic and demersal resources. Pelagic fish are those that dwell and feed at the surface or in the water column. They are usually fast swimming with a fusiform body and fork or lunate tail. The species typically form species-specific schools in the upper part of the water column, which usually has, a temperature range from 26 to 30oC. It is well known that coastal pelagic species frequently inhabit nutrient-rich inshore and shelf waters, whilst oceanic species are usually observed in deep, clear, offshore waters.

Small pelagic fish are exploited frequently with shallow-water purse seines (i.e., Thai, Chinese, and luring purse seines), surface and mid-water gillnets, lift nets, and other surrounding nets. Shallow-water fishing grounds are generally highly productive and account for much of the Gulf’s total pelagic catch.

The commercially important pelagic fish species classified by the Department of Fisheries’ taxonomist include 48 species of the Carangidae family, 30 species of Engraulidae, 28 species of Clupeidae, 19 species of Scombridae, and 14 species of Mugilidae (Sukhavisidth 1996). There are 17 economically important species/groups of species of pelagic fish in Thai fisheries statistics. However, the most common groups of small pelagic fish species with substantial catch volume and value are Indo-Pacific mackerel, Indian mackerel, sardines, anchovies, round scads, bigeye scad, and trevallies.

Information regarding the geographical distribution, fishing grounds, abundance, spawning grounds, egg/larvae surveys, and migratory patterns of known small pelagic fish are shown in Figures 4 to 13. Migratory pattern information is only available for Rastrelliger brachysoma/neglectus in the Gulf of Thailand. Figure 4 indicates that the 2 main spawning grounds for this species are offshore from Surat Thani province and Prachuap Khiri Khan province. Young fishes migrate from these spawning grounds to the inner Gulf of Thailand for feeding, moving back inshore early in the year. The results of intensive tagging experiments carried out by the Department of Fisheries from 1960 to 1965 (26,864 fish released vs. 4,191 recaptured), highlighted that there were 3 types of movement, i.e., feeding, spawning and seasonal migration (Somjaiwong and Chullasorn 1974). The results are presented in Figure 5. 2.2.1 Large pelagic fish (FAO) Mackerels There are 5 main species of mackerels in the Gulf of Thailand (Sukhavisidth 1996). These include the Indo-Pacific mackerel (Rastrelliger neglectus), Indian mackerel (R. kanagurta), Faughn’s mackerel (R. faughni), shortbody mackerel (R. brachysoma), and slender mackerel (Rastrelliger sp.1). The first and fourth species are abundant in coastal waters, whilst the second, third, and fifth species are ubiquitous in the Gulf’s offshore waters. They are mainly caught by purse seine, encircling gillnet, and occasionally pair trawl. These 5 species are combined in Thai fisheries statistics as coastal mackerel (R. neglectus/brachysoma) and offshore mackerel (R. kanagurta/faughni/sp.1). Fishing grounds extend from inshore waters to the central part of the Gulf (Figures 4, 5a, b, and 6a, b).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 27

RAYO

Figure 4 Life cycle of Indo-Pacific mackerel (Rastrelliger neglectus) in the Gulf of Thailand (courtesy of the Marine Fisheries Division)

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 28 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12°

Prachuap hiri khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7° Position of release Pattani Narathiwat Position of recapture Route of migration 6°

Figure 5a The migratory route of tagged Indo-Pacific mackerel (Rastrelliger neglectus) in the Gulf of Thailand (Somjaiwong and Chullasorn 1974).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 29

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

14°N BANGKOK Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

13° Phetchaburi Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11°

Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

7° Songkhla Position of release Pattani Narathiwat Position of recapture Route of migration 6°

Figure 5b The migratory route of tagged Indo-Pacific mackerel (Rastrelliger neglectus) in the Gulf of Thailand (Somjaiwong and Chullasorn 1974).

Neritic tunas

Neritic tunas in the Gulf Thailand include longtail tuna (Thunnus tonggol), kawakawa (Euthynnus affinis), and frigate tuna (Auxis thazard). They are widely distributed throughout the Gulf. When demersal fish production declined, Thai fishers turned to pelagic fish species with the use of seine nets and artificial light to attract schools of fish. Stimulated by strong demand for canned tuna, fishing for neritic tunas has become an important commercial activity in Thailand (Figure 6c).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 30 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

Figure 6a Fishing grounds for Indo-Pacific mackerel (Rastrelliger neglectus) in the Gulf of Thailand (Tantisawetrat et al. 1994).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 31

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7°

Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 6b Fishing grounds for Indian mackerel (R. kanagurta) in the Gulf of Thailand (SEAFDEC 1981b).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 32 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat 12°

Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

7° Songkhla Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 6c Fishing grounds for neritic tuna in the Gulf of Thailand (Klinmuang 1981).

Bigeye scad

Bigeye scad (Selar crumenophthalmus) is a species of the family Carangidae. It is abundant and widely distributed in offshore waters (Figure 7a). It is often caught with round scads in purse seines, and substantial quantities have been caught by trawl nets. Due to the rapid increase in the catch of bigeye scad associated with the development of luring purse seine fisheries, collection of information on this species has been carried out by the Department of Fisheries species since 1980.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 33

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12 Prachuap Khiri Khan

11 Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7°

Pattani

Narathiwat

6°

Figure 7a. Fishing grounds for bigeye scad (Selar crumenopthalmus) in the Gulf of Thailand (SEAFDEC 1981b).

Carangids

The carangids are fish of the family Carangidae, excluding Decapterus spp., Megalaspis cordyla and Selar crumenophthalmus, which have already been dealt with separately. The 39 species in Thai waters represent a number of genera such as Atule, Carangoides, Scomberoides, Selar, and Selaroides. This group of fish is considered important in terms of volume of landings, and information regarding this species is usually collected on a combined-species basis due to the difficulties associated with identifying individual species in the field. Therefore, research conducted thus far has been limited by this situation. However, some biological research activities regarding important species such as Atule mate (yellowtail scad), Selaroides leptolepis (yellow stripe scad), and Megalaspis cordyla (hardtail scad) have been carried out to some extent. The fishing grounds for Atule mate are shown in Figure 7b.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 34 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7° Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 7b Fishing grounds for yellowtail scad (Atule mate) in the Gulf of Thailand (SEAFDEC 1981b).

Round scads

Round scads found in the Gulf of Thailand are represented by 8 species of the genus Decapterus. The most common species was formerly identified as Decapterus maruadsi (white tip round scad), however, Thai taxonomists confirm that D. maruadsi is found only in Japanese waters. The most common round scads found in the Gulf of Thailand are Decapterus dayi and D. killiche. Another species of round scad commonly caught in the Gulf is the shortfin or slender round scad (D. macrosoma).

Round scads are widely distributed in offshore waters and they are very abundant in the central part of the Gulf (Figure 7c). They are mainly caught by purse seine, especially the luring purse seine type. Catch statistics for round scad are complied on a species-combined basis as Decapterus spp.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 35

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

14°N BANGKOK Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi Trat

12°

Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

7° Songkhla Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 7c Fishing grounds for round scads (Decapterus spp.) in the Gulf of Thailand (Chullasorn and Yusuksawad 1978) (Lined areas are the main fishing grounds)

2.2.2 Small pelagic fish species

Sardines

Sardines are composed of various genera of clupeoids. There are 4 main sardine genera found in the Gulf of Thailand, including Sardinella spp., Amblygaster spp., Dussumieria spp., and Herklotsichthys spp. Among these, goldstriped sardine (Sardinella gibbosa), fringescale sardine (S. fimbriata), and spotted sardinella (Amblygaster sirm) are most common. However, they are grouped together in Thai fisheries statistics as sardines (Sardinella spp.). Sardines are widely distributed throughout the Gulf, with high concentrations in coastal areas (Figure 8). They are mainly caught by purse seines and encircling and drift gillnets.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 36 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi Trat

12°

Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

7° Songkhla Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 8 Fishing grounds for sardines (Sardinella spp.) in the Gulf of Thailand (SEAFDEC 1981b).

Anchovies

The fish of family Engraulidae are represented by several genera, including Coilea, Setipinna, Thryssa, Thrissina and Stolephorus. Among them, 12 species of Stolephorus spp. are most abundant. In the Gulf of Thailand, the shorthead anchovy (Stolephorus heterolobus) and Indian anchovy (S. indicus) are considered important and are very abundant in inshore waters (Figure 9). Recently, Stolephorus heterolobus has been reidentified and named Encrasicholina heteroloba (Whitehead et al. 1988). Therefore, Encrasicholina heteroloba is a of Stolephorus heterolobus.

As anchovies are very small-sized pelagic fish and commonly distributed in inshore waters, small-meshed purse seines (so-called anchovy purse seine), lift nets, falling nets, set bag nets, push nets, trawl nets, and bamboo stake traps are commonly used to catch them.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 37

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat 12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7°

Pattani Narathiwat Heavy exploited fishing ground 6°

Figure 9 Fishing grounds for anchovy in the Gulf of Thailand (Saikliang 1995b; Supongpan et al. 2000).

Biological features and parameters of important pelagic fishes collected from previous and ongoing studies is summarised in Table 18.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 38 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

Table 18 Key biological features and parameters for small pelagic fish species in the Gulf of Thailand. (Body size refers to total length unless specified as FL: fork length or SL: standard length; sexes are combined unless specified as M: male or F: female) Vertical Body size Size at Area Spawning Recruitment Sex Growth Life distribu- captured first Mortality Food Length-weight Species (country) tion Fecundity ratio (rate or span Mean Maximum Season Size Season maturity (coefficient) organisms relationship surveyed range Area (M:F) coefficient) (year) (cm) (cm) (month) (cm) (month) (cm) (m) FAMILY SCOMBRIDAE Rastrelliger Gulf of 20-40 15.0 20.95 10-40 mi 2-4, egg = 9x10-8 10.25 1-3, 17.5 1:1 0.33 z=1.06 2-3 Phyto-, W =0.006138L3.215 4.8356 brachysoma Thailand 21.5 off 6-8 L 7-9 zoo-planktons M : W = Prachuap 20,000-30,000/ 0.000005732L3.1235 Surattani batch F : W = 0.000006578L3.1235 R. kanagurta Gulf of 30-60 16.0 22.9 - 2-4 200,000 7.5 5-6 18.6 1:1 k=2.76 M=3.75 2-3 Phyto-, M : W = Thailand 7-8 F=4.973 zoo-planktons, 0.0000001958L3.7653 Z=8.733 diatoms, F : W = copepods 0.000009454L3.0375 Auxis thazard Gulf of 20 35.0 - - 4-6 - 19.0 8-11 34.1 1:1 - - 3-4 Fish W = 0.00002L2.99 Thailand 8-9 27.0 2, 4-5 crustacean Euthynnus Gulf of 20 37.0 - - 1-3, 1,730,000 21.0 2-4, 37.5 1:1 - - - Fish W = 0.000015L2.979 affinis Thailand 6-7 26.0 6.12 crustacean Thunnus Gulf of 20 38.5 - - 3-5 1,400,000 22.0- 1-2, 39.6 1:1 1.5 cm/ - 4 Fish W = 0.000021L2.979 tonggol Thailand 7-12 26.0 4-6 month crustacean Scomberomorus Gulf of 20-60 50.0 92.0 - 2-3, 6-9 500,000-3,800,000 11.0-21.0 3-5, 58.6 1:1.6 0.12 - 4-5 Fish, molluses, W=0.01302L2.8843 commerson Thailand 7-10 3.4 cm/month crustaceans FAMILY ENGRAULIDAE Stolephorus Gulf of 5-50 4.5 8.89 30 mi 3-4, 2,000-4,000 2.8-4.0 All 5.5 - 6.0 1:1 k=0.198 Z=13.50 1-1.5 Phyto- M:W = heterolobus Thailand off 7-9 around k=1.8/ year M=3.54 planktons 2.064x10-6L3.2494 Prachuab 4-12 F:W =7.089x10-6L2.932 FAMILY CLUPEIDAE Sardinella Gulf of 15-40 10.0 18.4 entire coastal All around - 12.9 - - - 0.33 - 1-2 Phyto-plankton W=9.28*10-6 * L3.0047 gibbosa Thailand zone 3-4, 7-8 FAMILY CARANGIDAE Decapterus Gulf of 30-40 13.2 23.1 Central Gulf. 2-3, 7-8 38,000-515,000 5.5-6.5 1-2, 6-8 16.1 1:1.2 0.11 - 2-3 crustaceans, W=0.00005L2.811 maruadsi Thailand 1-2 cm/month copepods D. Gulf of 30-60 - - - 12-5 - - - 16.5 1:0.9 - - - - - macrosoma Thailand Atule mate Gulf of 15-45 16.0 25.8 30 mi off 3-4 - 5.5-6.5 1-3, - - 0.8 cm/ - 2-3 - - Thailand Chumporn 6-9 k=0.107 Nakorn Si Thammarat Selar Gulf of 30-60 20-25 28.4 - - - 10.0 - 19.4 1:1.3 k=2.4 Z=9.7 - - - crumenophthal Thailand M=3.3 mus F=6.5 Selaroides Gulf of 20-50 12 19.2- - All - 4.0-5.5 6, 11 F:15.4 1: k=0.128 - - Zooplanktons, M: Log W = 3.257Log leptolepis Thailand 21.0 around 3, 1.02 phytoplanktons, L-5.567 7-8 molluscs F: Log W = 3.629Log L-6.369 Megalaspis Gulf of 20-50 22.0 28.8 - 12-5, - 10.5-11.5 5, 9 - 1:0.8 1.2cm/month - - Fish, crustacean W=0.144L2.9785 cordyla Thailand 8-11 0.2 Source: Chullasorn and Martosubroto, 1986.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 39

2.2.3 Demersal fish species

Demersal fish species live at or near the bottom of the sea, although some groups may also inhabit the middle or upper layers of the water column. They may by divided into 2 groups: (1) demersal fish; and (2) invertebrates, including crustaceans and molluscs. They are caught by bottom trawl nets, bottom gill nets, push nets, longlines, and traps.

Fishing grounds for demersal fish are generally located in coastal waters of the Gulf of Thailand. Otter board trawls are highly effective in catching demersal fish. Otter board trawls, pair and beam trawls, and push nets are most commonly used to catch demersal fish. However, otter board trawls are the most important gear type in demersal fisheries. The areas fished using otter board and pair trawls by various sizes of fishing boats are depicted in Figures 10a to d and 11.

There are a large number of demersal fish species in Thai waters. More than 500 species have been caught and commercially utilised, however, demersal fish catches usually contain more than 50% low- value fish. These low-value fish include 3 groups: (1) non-edible species; (2) edible species of low commercial value or low quality; and (3) juveniles of commercially important species.

Based on trawl surveys conducted in the Gulf of Thailand, there are 7 species of lizardfish. The two most commonly found species are brushtooth lizardfish (Saurida undosquamis) and S. elongata. Sirapakavanich (1990) reported that brushtooth lizardfish was found along the coast of the Gulf, and that the length frequency distribution of catches vary according to depth. Generally, small fish are caught in shallow water, whereas the capture of larger fish occurs further offshore. S. elongata has been shown to be very abundant at depths from 10 to 20m.

Threadfin bream are demersal fish distributed throughout coastal waters to depths of 60 m. The most common species are Nemipterus hexodon, N. mesoprion, N. japonicus, N. nematophorus, and N. peronii. N. hexodon is most common at depths from 10 to 40m, N. mesoprion and N. japonicus are abundant from 15 to 50m, and N. mesoprion and N. peronii are commonly found in deeper areas from 30 to 60m.

Bigeye (Priancanthus tayenus) is a ubiquitous demersal species in the Gulf of Thailand (Prachuab Khiri Khan and Chumphon provinces) at depths greater than 40m. It is carnivorous, feeding mostly on fish, shrimps, and squids (Jiraphanpiphat 1987).

Information regarding important demersal fishes collected from previous and ongoing studies is summarised in Table 19.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 40 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi Trat

12°

Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

7° Songkhla Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 10a The fishing grounds of otter board trawl (boat length <14 m) (FAO 1996).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 41

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi Trat

12°

Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

7° Songkhla Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 10b The fishing grounds of otter board trawl (boat length 14 to 18 m) (FAO 1996).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 42 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7° Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 10c The fishing grounds of otter board trawl (boat length >18 m) (FAO 1996).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 43

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7°

Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 10d The fishing grounds of pair trawls (boat length >18 m) (FAO 1996).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 44 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat 12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat Fishing ground of otterboard 8° Trawler Heavy fishing ground of OBT

Songkhla 7° Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 11 The fishing grounds of commercial trawls (otter board and pair trawl) in the Gulf of Thailand (FAO 1996).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 45

Table 19 Key biological features and parameters of demersal fish in the Gulf of Thailand. (Body size refers to total length unless specified as FL: fork length or SL: standard length; sexes are combined unless specified as M: male or F: female) Vertical Body size Size at Area Spawning Recruitment Sex Growth Life distribu- captured first Mortality Food Length-weight Species (country) tion Fecundity ratio (rate or span Mean Maximum Season Size Season maturity (coefficient) organisms relationship surveyed range Area (M:F) coefficient) (year) (cm) (cm) (month) (cm) (month) (cm) (m) FAMILY LUTJANIDAE Lutjanus Gulf of 20-50 13.9 M:18.0 - 10-6 - 8.0 1-4 - 1:1 1-2 cm - - Fish,Shrimps, M:W=0.0263L2.754 lineolatus Thailand F:19.0 /month squids F:W=0.0668L2.412 FAMILY NEMIPTERIDAE Nemipterus Gulf of 10-40 M:16.46 M:27.3 - All around - 11.0, 5, 9, 11 - 1:0.97 (1-2) - - Fish M:W=0.1161L3.04 hexodon Thailand F:15.12 F:24.4 1-4, 6-8 12.0 Crustaceans F:W=0.0176L2.924 Nemipterus Gulf of 25-50 - M:25.6 - - - 10.0 - - - M:k=0.1599 M:Z=5.482 - - - japonicus Thailand F:23.3 F:k=0.1207 F:Z=4.814 Nemipterus Gulf of 15-50 - M:13.34 - 1-4, 8, 11 - - - 11.7 1:0.85 M:k=0.1436 - - - - nematophorus Thailand >40 F:17.8 F:k=0.2275 Nemipterus Gulf of 30-60 M:13.0 M:19.51 - 2-4 - 6.5-7.0 3, 5, 6 - 1:1.1 M:k=0.179 - - Fish, M:W=0.18*10-5L2.93 mesoprion Thailand F:11.1 F:15.52 (1.08) molluscs, F:W=7.8*10-5L3.10 F:k=0.224 crustaceans (0.85) Nemipterus Gulf of M:22.9 M:27.5 - 2-4 - 15.2, 15.5, 3, 7, 9, - 1:0.84 - - - Worms, M:W=0.0122L2.988 peronii Thailand 30-40 F:21.6 F:27.0 15.7 12 fish, squid F:W=0.0199L3.004 crustaceans Scolopsis Gulf of 10-40 M:21.7 M:27.0 - All around - - 6-7, 11- - 1:0.8 - - - Crustaceans, M:W=1.08*10-4L2.6201 taeniopterus Thailand F:14.6 F:25.0 12-1, 4-8 12 fish F:W=6.17*10-5L2.718 FAMILY PRIACANTHIDAE Priacanthus Gulf of 40-50 M:27.0 - - All around 56,000- 11.0, 3, 5, 10, 14.0 1:1 2.0 cm/month - - Crustaceans M:W=3.16*10-6L2.919 tayenus Thailand F:25.0 1-3 152,00 12.0, 10.5 12 Fish, squid F:W=2.606*10-6L2.891 0 FAMILY Fish, SERRANIDAE Crustaceans - Epinephelus Gulf of 20-70 ------Molluscs, sexfasciatus Thailand polychaetae FAMILY M: k=0.103 SYNODONTODAE 1.4 cm/ month Saurida Gulf of 10-20 M:26.3 M:37.7 -< 30 1-3, 8-9 - - 5-7, 11 - - F:k=0.099 M:Z=5.622 - - M:W=5.644*10-6L3.054 elongata Thailand F:30.6 F:41.6 mi 1.5 cm/ month F:Z=5.278 F:W=6.565*10-6L3.024 Saurida Gulf of - M:26.31 M:34.0 - 1-3 - - 5-7, 12 - 1:1 - - - - - tumbil Thailand F:30.56 F:40.0 Saurida Gulf of 41-50 M:17.8 M:36.5 - 12-1, 5-9 - 12.0-14.0 6, 12, 2 - 1:0.57 2.0cm/ month - - - W=0.00000292L3.163 undosquamis Thailand F:18.31 F:26.5 Source: Chullasorn and Martosubroto, 1986.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 46 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

2.2.4 Commercially exploited invertebrates

Thailand’s marine invertebrate resources are highly valuable. They include shrimps (economically important penaeid shrimps and miscellaneous penaeid shrimps), cephalopods (squid, cuttlefish, and octopus), swimming crab, sergestid shrimp, jellyfish, and others.

Shrimps

More than 50 species of shrimp are found in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea (Chaitiamvong and Supongpan 1993). The economically important species are those of the penaeid group, with 9 important species (Penaeus merguiensis, P. monodon, P. semisulcatus, P. japonicus, P. latisulcatus, P. longistylus, Metapenaeus affinis, M. intermedius, and M. ensis) and more than 10 miscellaneous species (including Metapenaeopsis spp., Trachypenaeus spp., Parapenaeopsis spp., M. lysianassa, and M. brevicornis).

Vibhasiri (1984) reported that Ban Don Bay off Surat Thani province is considered one of the most productive shrimp fishing areas. M. affinis is the most abundant species of large-sized shrimp in this area. Thubthimsang (1981) noted that this species is found in this area all year round.

The economically important penaeid shrimps are sold in a wide variety of forms in domestic and export markets. Wild caught penaeid shrimp are mostly consumed domestically in the fresh or dried form, although some are frozen, or processed and canned as cocktail shrimp, for important export markets.

Shrimps are mainly caught by trawl nets of various types. Subsistence fishers use gill nets and push nets in inshore waters. Small trawls and beam trawls are used to catch shrimp in coastal waters of the Gulf of Thailand. The main species caught are white shrimp (Penaeus merguiensis), green tiger shrimp (P. semisulcatus), and Metapenaeus spp. Penaeid shrimp catch from the Gulf of Thailand fluctuated between 16,000 to 19,000 metric tonnes from 1985 to 1991. The major fishing gears are otter board trawls and shrimp gill nets, which are used to catch about 78% and 10% of the total shrimp production, respectively (Vibhasiri 1993).

Cephalopods

The 3 major groups of cephalopod caught for commercial utilisation are squid (Loligo chinensis, L. duvauceli, L. sumatrensis, and Sepioteuthis lessoniana), cuttlefish (Sepia pharaonis, S. aculeata, S. recurvirostra, S. lycidas, S. brevimand, and Sepiella inermis) and octopus (Octopus membranaceous, O. doffusi, and Octopus spp.). These species are distributed in coastal waters of both the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea, except for S. lycidas, which is only distributed in the Andaman Sea and the lower part of the Gulf of Thailand.

Cuttlefish are economically important in the Gulf of Thailand. There are 7 species of the Family Sepiidae found in the Gulf of Thailand, including Sepia aculata, S. kopiensis, S. recurvirostra, S. pharaonis, S. brevimana, S. lycidas, and Sepiella inermis (Chotiyaputta et al. 1992). Cuttlefish are generally distributed in inshore areas, spending much of their lives on or near the seabed (Voss 1973, cited in Bakhayokho 1983). Therefore, cuttlefish are mostly caught by traps, push nets, and trawls operated in inshore areas. All species are widely distributed in the Gulf of Thailand, except for S. lycidas, which is only found in the southern part of the Gulf up to Chumphon province (Supongpan 1988). Results of a resource survey conducted in the Upper Gulf of Thailand with an otter board trawl from 1999 to 2000 indicate that the distributions of S. lycidas and S. kopiensis may not extend to these waters (Anugul 2002).

Supongpan (1988) reported that the distribution and abundance of cuttlefish varies by water depth. Sepiella inermis and S. lycidas were abundant in depths ranging from 10 to 20m. S. aculata was most abundant at a depth of 10 to 30 meters, whereas S. pharaonis and S. recurvirostra were most abundant from 20 to 30m. Nabthitabhata (1997) reported that Sepiella inermis is abundant in shallow estuarine areas at a depth of approximately 20m.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 47

Jindalikit and Sereeruk (2004) report that the habitats of cuttlefish species are related to distance from shore and bottom depth. High abundances of S. aculata were observed between 3 and 7 nautical miles offshore at a depth from 20 to 25m. S. recurvirostra was highly abundant more than 7 nautical miles offshore at a depth between 21 and 40m, whilst Sepiella inermis was found 3 to 5 nautical miles offshore at a depth of 10 to 15m. S. aculata was abundant at 3 nautical miles from shore at a depth of 10 to 20m, S. recurvirostra at more than 7 nautical miles offshore and a bottom depth from 31 to 40 m, and Sepiella inermis at 3 nautical offshore and a bottom depth of 10 to 15m.

The total production of cephalopods during 1991 was 154,402 metric tonnes, comprised of squid, cuttlefish, and octopus at 69,367, 65,029, and 20,006 metric tonnes, respectively. Squids are mainly caught by trawls, light luring cast nets, and squid traps. The fishing grounds where these gears are used are presented in Figures 12a and b.

Shortnecked clam

The fisheries for shortnecked clam differ from other fisheries, especially in relation to species and gear selection. Fishers group together to harvest this resource on an intensive basis until either catch rates decline or the resource is depleted. The fishers then move onto other areas. Previously harvested fishing grounds usually require 4 to 5 years to recover. Shortnecked clam fishing grounds are distributed throughout the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea. The productive areas are concentrated on the eastern, upper, and western coasts of the Gulf. A problem that usually occurs is the inundation of shortnecked clam fishers to new inshore areas, often leading to conflicts with local fishers due to the use of small meshed dredges in the inshore waters assigned for the use of small- scale fishers only. Production of shortnecked clam from the Gulf ranged from 18,300 to 130,000 metric tonnes between 1985 and 2000. Peak production was observed in 1987, after which catches followed a decreasing trend until reaching the lowest recorded production in 1996. Harvests have since recovered, and a total production of 25,964 metric tonnes was recorded in 2000. The clams are mostly exported in a range of forms, including fresh and frozen whole clams, fresh and frozen meat, and boiled and canned product.

Sergestid shrimp

Sergestid shrimp include 5 species of Acetes (A. erythreus, A. japonicus, A. indicus, A. vulgaris, A. sibogae) and 2 species of shrimp-like (Mesopodophsis orientalis, Rhopalopthalmus phyllodus), and Lucifer hanseni. Acetes sibogae is found only in the Andaman Sea. Total production in 1991 was 21,753 metric tonnes, with a value of 108.7 million baht. Sergestid shrimp and shrimp-liked are mostly utilised for domestic consumption in the form of shrimp paste and small dried shrimp. Production derived from the Gulf of Thailand represents approximately 87% of Thailand’s total production of this group. From 1985 to 2000, Gulf of Thailand production ranged between 6,400 and 21,400 metric tonnes.

Jellyfish

There are 2 economically important species of jellyfish in Thai waters, Rhopilema hishidum and Lobonema smithi. Rhopilema is treated with local wood and dried for export, whereas Lobonema is treated with salt and dried for local consumption. Production from both the Gulf and Andaman Sea fluctuated between 6,500 and 138,600 metric tonnes between 1985 and 2000.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 48 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12°

Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Number of fishing boats 7° Songkhla 20 of small size Pattani 20 of medium size Narathiwat 20 of large size

Fishing ground 6°

Figure 12a Area of light luring fishing for squid in the Gulf of Thailand (Supongpan 1996).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 49

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12°

Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

7° Songkhla Fishing ground Pattani 50 of fishermen

Narathiwat 25 of fishermen 12.5 of fishermen 6° Figure 12b Area of squid trap fishing in the Gulf of Thailand (Supongpan 1996).

Swimming crab

The swimming crab (Portunus pelagicus) is distributed throughout the Gulf and Andaman Sea. The areas in which this species is abundant include the eastern, upper, and western coasts of the Gulf. From 1985 to 2000, total production of this species from the Gulf ranged between 19,000 and 37,300 metric tonnes. The species is thought to have been overexploited. It is mostly consumed locally, in the fresh and boiled form. The major fishing gears used to catch swimming crabs are trawls, push nets, and gill nets. Conflicts usually arise between gill net and trawl fishers targeting this species in the same areas. Another problem involves the catch of immature crabs by push nets and small mesh trawl fishing gear operated in inshore waters.

The key biological features and parameters of important invertebrates collected during previous and existing studies are summarised in Table 20.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 50 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 50

Table 20 Key biological features and parameters of small invertebrates in the Gulf of Thailand. (Body size refers to total length unless specified as FL: fork length or SL: standard length; sexes are combined unless specified as M: male or F: female) Species Area (country) Vertical Body size Spawning Recruitment Size at Growth Mortality surveyed distribu- captured Fecundity first Sex (rate or (coefficient) Life Food Length-weight tion Mean Maximum Area maturity ratio coefficient) span organisms relationship range (cm) (cm) Season Size Season (cm) (M:F) (year) (m) (month) (cm) (month) FAMILY Polychaetae M:W= 2.963 PENAEIDAE - - - 1-3, 9-12 129 650-960 950 - - 13.0-14.2 - - - - Fish larvae, 0.000010L Penaeus Gulf of 15-30 Copepods F:W= Thailand1 euphausis 0.0000049L3.113 merguiensis Penaeus Gulf of 10-19 12.9 20.9 All 257 889- 1 009 459 7.0 Shrimps M:W= 1 2.5703 japonicus Thailand - around - 14.0 1:1 - - - larvae, 0.0000712L 1-3, 7-8 crabs F:W= larvae, 0.0000149L2.9018 cephalopod s larvae, molluscs larvae Loligo duvauceli Gulf of Shallow 6-30 30 Prachuap All 1,500-10,000 0.5-5.0 1,3-6,9 6.5-7.0 F>M M:0.0083 1 Fish, M:W= Thailand2 to depth Khiri Khan- around day-1 molluse and 0.9594L1.73509 :East over 50 m Chumphon 1, 3-4, 6- or 2.52 year shrimp F:W= coast 7, 12 0.1829L2.16290 F:0.0069 day-1 L. chinensis Gulf of >30 6-42 42 South of All 3,000-11,000 0.5-6.5 1, 3-6, 10 8.5 - M:0.0072 1 Fish, M:W= Thailand2 Ko Chang, around day-1 mollusce 0.2134L2.11948 :East off shore of 3-4, 6-7, Or 2.62 yr-1 and shrimo F:W= coast Chumphon 11-12 0.051L2.42078 and F:2.704 Pracuap day-1 Khiri Khan or 2.70 yr-1 Sepia aculata Gulf of 1-7 nmi 5-16.9 - - 3-4,7-8 4,547 - - 8.1 - Crustacean, M:W= Thailand or fish 0.00099L2.5032 Upper3 20-25 m F:W= 0.000722L2.5919 S. recurvirostra Gulf of >7 nmi ------Crustacean, M:W= Thailand or fish 0.00191L2.3579 Upper4 21-40 m F:W= 0.001984L2.3579 S. pharaonis Gulf of 10- - - 1-2,7-8 1,400 - - M:13.7 - - - - Crustacean, W= Thailand 24.5 (900-2,700) F:14.2 fish 0.4118ML2.4233 Upper5

1 Chullasorn and Martosubroto, 1986. 2 Chotiyaputta. 1995b.

3 Chotiyapunta, 1977; 1978. 4 Chotiyapunta, 1977. 5 Chotiyapunta, 1980; 1982; Nabthitabhata, 1997. Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 51

3. THREATS & CURRENT STATUS 3.1 Status of fishery in terms of CPUEs A commonly used indicator of changes in abundance of fisheries resources is catch rate, or the quantity of catch per unit of fishing effort (CPUE). From 1966 to 1996, the Marine Fisheries Division, using Research Vessels Pramong 2 and 9, conducted monthly surveys of demersal fisheries resources in the Gulf of Thailand. Prior to 1966, a catch rate of 297.80kg/hr was reported in 1961. In 1966, the sampling protocol survey of demersal resources was initiated. The fixed stations in the Gulf of Thailand were designed by separating the area into grids, leading to the establishment of more than 700 grid stations. From survey data collected in 1966, catch rate was 177.42kg/hr. Primarily, a codend mesh size of 4cm was used for the surveys, although in 1971 the codend was covered with an additional net of 2.5cm mesh, which is a mesh size commonly used by fishers. This modified method has been followed to the present day, however, the number of stations have been reduced due to budget limitations. The surveys were conducted on a bi-monthly basis. The results show that catch rate declined from 177.42 kg/hr in 1966 to 77.51kg/hr in 1976. It is noteworthy that the oil crises of 1973 and 1975 resulted in some trawl fishers suspending their fishing activities. During this period, catch rates fluctuated from 60 to 80kg/hr (Figure 13).

Catch rate of RV 2&9 (kg/hr)

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 Year

Figure 13 The catch rate (CPUE) for demersal resources caught in the Gulf of Thailand from 1966 to 1991 during surveys conducted from Research Vessels Pramong 2 and 9 (National Seminar 1999).

As mentioned above, catch rates have continuously declined since the introduction of trawl fishing in Thai waters. The catch rate of 177.42kg/hr observed in 1966 fell to 17.9kg/hr in 1998 (National Seminar 1999). It is likely that catch rate may fall to near zero if there is no proper management. In recognition of this situation, DOF has introduced many management measures aimed at regulating and controlling the exploitation of fish resources. However, significant difficulties have been experienced in taking action to enforce regulations due to concerns regarding potential socioeconomic impacts and political intervention.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 52 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

3.2 Status of fish stocks based on historical review of landings and CPUEs

Marine catches in recent years have been dominated by pelagic species, including mackerel, round scads, anchovies, sardines, and neritic tunas, as well as some demersal fish species such as threadfin bream, lizard fish, and big-eye, and invertebrates, including shrimp, squid, and swimming crabs (DOF 1996).

The present level of exploitation of demersal fisheries resources in the shallow (less than 50m) coastal waters of the Gulf of Thailand is higher than the estimated Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) for this area. It is clear that this overfishing is a result of intensive trawl fishing in the area. The current situation is clearly reflected in the index of abundance or CPUE, which has declined significantly during the past 3 decades. At the same time, the amount of low value fish in demersal catches has increased significantly. On the other hand, catches of a number of other species, particularly demersal resources, have declined. Catches of both pelagic and demersal stocks have long surpassed their estimated MSYs. In 2000, catches were nearly twice the estimated MSY levels (Table 21). Actual catch may be, for many reasons, higher than that reported.

Table 21 Maximum Sustainable Yields and actual catches in Thai waters during 2000.

Fish Category Maximum Sustainable Yields1/ Actual Catches (2000)2/ Pelagic fishes 624,318 metric tonnes 642,472 metric tonnes Demersal fishes 970,905 metric tonnes 939,282 metric tonnes Total Gulf. 1,595,223 metric tonnes 1,581,754 metric tonnes Source: 1/Kongprom et al in press and 2/DOF 2003a.

A review of the status of small pelagic fisheries resources in the Gulf of Thailand highlights that the development of pelagic fisheries has occurred since 1973. It shows a marked (almost 4 fold) increase in pelagic fish production from 141,608 metric tonnes in 1973 to 614,814 metric tonnes in 1994. However, almost all species of pelagic fish are fully exploited, whilst some species, including the round scads, have been depleted. This situation has mainly arisen due to the efficacy of new fishing methods, involving the use of artificial light and FADs to attract fish during both the night and day. Large scale purse seine operations have been modernised and most boats are equipped with colour echo-sounder or sonar for fish school detection; power saving devices (e.g. purse line winch, power block) that enable vessels to reduce man power; radar; wireless communication equipment; satellite navigation; and refrigeration. Purse seine boats may now travel further and stay at sea longer. These may lead to the rapid depletion of resources. Nevertheless, the Gulf of Thailand’s pelagic fish resource is comprised of a multitude of species. This enables fishers to redirect fishing effort from heavily to less fished species. Therefore, the problem of resource depletion for pelagic resources is not as serious as it should be.

Of the 17 species/groups of species of pelagic fish that appear in national fisheries statistics, 6 species/groups of species of small pelagic fish are considered important, and various aspects of their populations have been studied. The results of these studies will now be briefly summarised.

Indo-Pacific mackerel (Rastrelliger brachysoma/neglectus)

The Indo-Pacific mackerel is one of the most economically important pelagic fish in the Gulf of Thailand. The main fishing grounds for this species are located in coastal waters, especially between Chonburi to Surattani provinces. This area provides approximately 80% of the total catch taken from the Gulf.

The annual catch of Indo-Pacific mackerel in the Gulf of Thailand ranged from 26,129 metric tonnes in 1971 to 99,638 metric tonnes in 1994. A stock assessment conducted for this species indicated that its MSY in the Gulf is about 104,000 metric tonnes, equivalent to approximately 146,600 days of Thai purse seine fishing effort (Tantisawetrat 1994). It indicated that Indo-Pacific mackerel has been fully exploited in the Gulf of Thailand since 1984. An increase in fishing effort beyond the maximum level of 146,600 fishing days is inadvisable, especially in light of the potential for effort creep.

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Indian mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta) The fisheries for Indian mackerel have been significant since 1973, mostly due to the development and expansion of luring purse seine fisheries in offshore areas. Since then, substantial quantities of Indian mackerel have been caught, with catches increasing from 12,690 metric tonnes in 1973 to a peak of 50,574 metric tonnes in 1983. After that, catch has followed a fluctuating and slightly decreasing trend. Tantisawetrat (1996) estimated MSY for the Indian mackerel using data relating to catches made from 1984 to 1993 in waters adjacent to the western coast of the Gulf of Thailand (areas II, III and VI). MSYs estimated from the use of virtual population analysis and the surplus production model, were 32,866 and 32,533 metric tonnes, respectively. The analysis indicated an optimum fishing effort level of 112,500 days of luring purse seine fishing. No definite sign of overfishing has been observed for this species yet. However, it is suggested that an increase in luring purse seine mesh size from 2.5 cm to 3 cm would increase yield per recruit by approximately 20%. Sardines (Sardinella spp.) Sardines are mainly caught by purse seines, particularly luring purse seine in both coastal and offshore areas. The development of large-scale fishing for sardines has followed a trend similar to that for Indian mackerel. Fishing effort levels increased significantly after 1973, resulting in a peak landing of 203,364 metric tonnes in 1977. After that, catches declined gradually to 68,447 metric tonnes in 1985, which then slowly recovered to a range from 110,000 to 140,000 metric tonnes per annum. From 1983, the number of purse seines increased, although the production of sardines did not increase accordingly. The estimated MSY for sardines in the Gulf of Thailand is 104,000 metric tonnes, with an optimum fishing effort level of approximately 190,000 days of luring purse seine fishing. It is clear that fishing effort levels for sardine have exceeded the optimum since 1988. Hence, sardine stocks have shown signs of overfishing. It is recommended that fishing effort levels be reduced by 14% in order to prevent further stock depletion. Round scads (Decapterus spp.) It is well known that the development of purse seine fisheries in Thailand depended significantly on the discovery of new fishing grounds for round scads in the middle of the Gulf of Thailand in 1973. This resulted in the abrupt increase in the catch of these species from 660 metric tonnes in 1972 to 12,690 metric tonnes in 1973, which then increased steadily to reach a maximum catch of 129,800 metric tonnes in 1977. Catches then declined gradually and have fluctuated between 20,000 and 40,000 metric tonnes for the past 15 years. Although the number of luring purse seines increased from 505 units in 1977 to 730 units in 1981 and 1982, catches were extremely low during this latter period when compared to the high catches observed in 1977 and 1978. Anchovies (Stolephorus spp.) Anchovies are very small pelagic fish that are widely distributed in inshore waters. In the Gulf of Thailand, 12 species are observed in catches, although the most dominant is Stolephorus heterolobus (or Encrasicholina heteroloba). This species constitutes about 87% of the total anchovy catch. The main fishing gears used in anchovy fisheries include the small-meshed purse seine (or anchovy purse seine), push net, bamboo stake trap, and luring lift net or luring falling net. However, the most important fishing gear is the anchovy purse seine, which is utilised both during the day and night time. The catch of anchovies increased markedly after 1981, mostly in response to the use of artificial light to attract schools of fish at night and a redirection of fishing effort to offshore waters. These factors contributed to increases in catch levels from approximately 15,000 metric tonnes to 103,101 metric tonnes in 1985. Catches of anchovies have been maintained at a level from 110,000 to 120,000 metric tonnes for the past 5 years. The estimated MSY for anchovies in the Gulf is 104,000 metric tonnes. This means that anchovy resources have been heavily exploited since 1985 and that any increases in fishing effort should be carefully considered. Bigeye scad (Selar crumenophthalmus) Bigeye scad is a member of the Carangidae family. Previously, fishery statistics for bigeye scad were compiled at the species combined level due to mixed catches and the difficulties associated with species identification at-sea. After the development of luring purse seine fisheries and the redirection of fishing effort to offshore waters, bigeye scad have been caught in large quantities. Since 1980, statistics for bigeye scad have been compiled at the species level and some research into the species has been conducted. The catch of bigeye scad from 1980 to 1993 ranged between 15,000 and 26,000 metric tonnes. However, catches increased significantly in 1994, peaking at 37,080 metric tonnes. Assessment of the status of this species indicates that it is fully exploited in the Gulf, with an

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 54 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

estimated MSY of 18,500 metric tonnes and optimal fishing effort level of 125,000 days of luring purse seine fishing (Isara 1993).

Neritic tunas (Thunnus tonggol, Euthynnus affinis and Auxis thazard) Prior to the 1980’s, neritic tuna catches in the Gulf of Thailand were relatively low, ranging from 3,298 to 19,929 metric tonnes. However, fisheries for these species developed rapidly after 1982, mostly in response to strong demand for tuna for canning. Expansion has also been driven by improvement in fishing gear and methods, including purse seine technology, new larger fishing boats, and use of refrigeration. Accordingly, catches increased from 39,368 metric tonnes in 1982 to 157,163 metric tonnes in 1992, which also depended on promoting fisheries outside Thai waters through joint ventures or fisheries agreements with neighbouring countries, and the exploration of new fishing grounds. The MSY for neritic tuna has been estimated at 86,000 metric tonnes (Chuenpun 1996).

Demersal fish Attempts have been made to assess the state of demersal fish and trawl fisheries in the Gulf of Thailand. Gulland (1972) estimated the total potential of the waters along the coast of Thailand as 500,000 metric tonnes. Boonyubol and Pramokchutima (1982) estimated the potential yield at 750,000 metric tonnes per year at 8.6 million hours of fishing effort. Boonwanich (1993) estimated a maximum sustainable yield of demersal resources at 893,000 metric tonnes, with optimal fishing effort levels of 22 million hours. However, total catch and effort in 1989 was 843,300 metric tonnes and 34 million hours, respectively. The results of these studies indicate that demersal fisheries resources have been overexploited.

Shrimps The potential yields and optimal fishing effort levels (otter board trawl boat <18 m) for economically important and miscellaneous penaeid shrimp from 1971 to 1990 were estimated to be 22,000 metric tonnes at 25 X 106 hrs and 110,000 metric tonnes at 44 X 106 hrs, respectively. The overexploitation of shrimps has taken place since 1981 (Vibhasiri 1993).

Cephalopods In the Gulf of Thailand, squid production increased from 21,000 metric tonnes in 1971 to 72,000 metric tonnes in 1983. This increased production relied on the use of artificial light to attract squid for capture, as well as a highly developed fishing practice known as “light luring squid fishing”. At present, 4 types of net are used to catch squid, including cast nets, stick-held dip nets, stick-held cast nets, and stick-held box nets, among which the stick-held is the most popular (Supongpan et al. 1992). From 1984 to 1991, production ranged between 57,000 and 68,000 metric tonnes (Supongpan 1993). It was estimated that Loligo duvauceli has been fully exploited since 1984 (Supongpan 1988; FAO 1993) and Loligo chinensis was overexploited around 20% of the present catch of the year 1984 (Supongpan 1988). The production of cuttlefish from the Gulf of Thailand from 1971 to 1991, ranged from 12,000 to 50,000 metric tonnes. The highest recorded production was 50,077 metric tonnes in 1991. Cuttlefish are thought to be overexploited (Supongpan 1995). According to statistics, cuttlefish production increased annually from 1985 to 1991. This was mainly a result of the development and expansion of squid traps, which catch bigfin reef squid and cuttlefish. The statistical records for cuttlefish include bigfin reef squid due to the similarity in appearance between it and cuttlefish. Octopus production from the Gulf of Thailand ranged between 500 and 16,000 metric tonnes from 1971 to 1991. The highest recorded production was 15,828 metric tonnes in 1991. Octopus is thought to be overexploited (Supongpan 1993). The statistical records show increases in production from 1985 to 1990. This was mostly due to improved utilisation and processing of octopus, which resulted in fishers sorting octopus from catches of trash fish. 3.3 Threats 3.3.1 Current (e.g. destructive fishing practices, overfishing) The rapid development of both pelagic and demersal fisheries has resulted in reduced abundances of fisheries resources. Many of the coastal and inshore fisheries resources are fully utilised, and some groups, especially demersal species, have been depleted due to intense exploitation and the use of destructive fishing gears and methods, including trawls, push nets, shortnecked clam dredges,

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 55

dynamite blasting, and chemical poisoning. These fishing methods have direct and indirect implications for living resources and their habitats.

The use of destructive fishing gears and illegal fishing methods are problems that require law enforcement. As the use of various types of fishing gear has increased, conflicts have arisen between commercial and small-scale fishers, and even among small-scale fishers themselves. These conflicts have revolved around competition for scarce resources in inshore and coastal waters. Trawls and mechanised push nets often damage small-scale fishing gears, such as gill nets and traps. Such occurrences exacerbate conflict situations.

Thailand’s marine capture fisheries face many problems associated with law enforcement in the EEZs of neighboring countries. Many of these areas were fishing grounds for Thai fishers prior to the adoption of the EEZ regime, which has resulted in a reorientation/realignment of their traditional fishing grounds and decreases in available fishing areas and resources.

The impacts of human and economic activities on the coastal zone are visible in the form of resource degradation or depletion either by direct exploitation or indirectly through pollution. Mangroves, which serve as nurseries for marine juveniles and protect shorelines, have been reduced to less than half of their area in 1961. This has mainly been due to their use for charcoal making, and destruction for road and port construction, human settlements, agriculture, fishing gear, and aquaculture. Coral reefs and seagrass beds have also been extensively damaged in many areas by fishing activities, however, inadequate data makes estimation of exact losses difficult. Beaches have also been degraded by development activities, notably tourism. The expansion of industrial, urban, tourism, agriculture, and aquaculture activities in coastal areas have all contributed to intensified resource use and pollution.

The agents of coastal resource degradation are not confined to coastal areas themselves. The rapid industrial, urban, and agricultural growth experienced during the economic boom of the last decade, has resulted in increased pollution loads entering the sea via river runoff. Deforestation in upper watersheds has increased sediment loads in river discharge, causing sedimentation and the clogging of harbours and estuaries, requiring frequent dredging. Some 70% of pollution in the Gulf of Thailand is attributed to land-based activities (OEPP 1995). Pollution was implicated as one of the main factors responsible for the shrimp production crash in the upper Gulf of Thailand area during 1989 and 1990 (Briggs 1994). Nutrient-rich agricultural and domestic waste may also play a major role in the frequent algal blooms (red tide) and fish mortalities observed along the eastern and southern Gulf coasts.

As most shrimp farms are located on mangrove sites, the highest rates of mangrove destruction occurred from 1979 to 1986. During this period, many mangrove areas were converted to shrimp farms, with mangrove losses averaging almost 13,000 ha/year (Tongchai and Jirawan 1997 cited Aksornkoae 1998), or 4.5% annually (Isvilanondas and Tokrisna 1994). As much as 93% of the mangrove destruction observed during this period has been attributed to conversion to shrimp farms (Aksornkoae 1989).

Time series trends for a number of industry indicators have raised increasing concerns about the sustainability of the sector. These include: • Rapidly declining catch rates (CPUE), which are now only 7% of the levels in the early 1960s; • Fish catches from the Gulf of Thailand are well above the estimated MSYs, and catch rates (CPUE, kg/hr) have declined significantly; • Nearly 40% of the catch from Thai waters consists of low value fish; the demand from a heavily protected local fishmeal industry is at least partly responsible for the continued exploitation of an otherwise uneconomical fishery. A significant portion of the trash fish catch consists of juveniles of important species, indicating non-compliance with mesh size regulations; • The actual numbers of boats fishing is much higher than that registered, since many boat owners tend to avoid registration and fish illegally. Annual fluctuations in the number of registered boats are due to many factors, including termination of licences for old boats, new licences issued to ageing vessels, licences being revoked for violators, and reluctance of some boat owners to renew licences; • An unknown quantity of fish caught illegally by commercial operators in coastal waters reserved for small-scale fisheries, generating conflict within coastal fishing communities; and

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 56 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

• The degradation of coastal and marine environments associated with the development of infrastructure, urbanisation, industry, land-based agriculture, and aquaculture.

Declines in marine fisheries resources can be attributed to a number of factors. These include: excessively high fishing effort levels; use of destructive fishing gear (e.g. trawl, push nets) and methods (e.g. large scale trawling in near shore areas, use of push nets near coral reefs); violation of regulations (e.g. fishing in fish spawning grounds during periods of temporary fishing bans); destruction of fish habitats, such as mangroves, seagrass meadows, and coral reefs; and inappropriate or uncoordinated policies (e.g. the protection of the fishmeal industry has a direct impact on fisheries, since it has encouraged capture of small trash fish, often leading to high catches of juveniles of other important species).

3.3.2 Potential (project market demand, increased coastal population)

Fish and fish products are particularly important to Thai people as a primary source of animal protein. With a wide range of species and products available to choose from, and rising purchasing power of consumers, demand for fish products has grown in recent years.

The domestic demand for fish is predicted to increase at an average of 1 to 2% per annum. International demand for fish products is expected to increase with a wide range of products available. However, growth in international demand substantially relies on product quality and safety.

Recently, market demand for live marine resources has increased significantly, especially in coastal areas frequented by tourists. Consumer preferences are also shifting to smaller sizes of specially prepared fish, shrimps, crabs, and squids. Accordingly, fishers have begun to supply these smaller fish to markets as much as possible, with little attention paid to the potential impacts of such actions on fish populations and their environments.

4. HABITATS & AREAS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE MAINTENANCE OF EXPLOITED FISH STOCKS

4.1 The physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the Gulf of Thailand

The Gulf of Thailand may be characterised as a classical two-layered, shallow water estuary. Low salinity water, diluted by heavy precipitation and fresh water runoff, flows out of the Gulf at the surface. There is inflow of high salinity, relatively cool water from the South China Sea into the Gulf. This high salinity water fills the deep, central depression below a depth of approximately 50 m. Superimposed on this 2-layered system is a complex circulation system, which is established by wind- driven currents related to monsoon winds and tidal currents. Neither the northeast nor the southwest monsoon winds are observed to have a constant direction or velocity over the Gulf as a whole. The interplay of variable winds, tidal currents, fresh water runoff, and excessive precipitation gives rise to localised areas of divergence where low temperature, high salinity water, usually of low oxygen content, is upwelled. These forces also establish areas of convergence where high temperature, low salinity, and highly oxygenated water sinks. All of these characteristics make the Gulf of Thailand one of the most productive areas in Southeast Asia.

Takahashi et al. (1985) observed that regions of relatively steep horizontal gradients in surface water properties, such as salinity, nutrient salts, and phytoplankton, were located in the vicinity of Samui Island, where oceanic fronts form due to the convergence of water masses from coastal areas and the central Gulf that originate from the South China Sea. This indicates that water areas adjacent to Samui Island are potentially good for fishing.

The combined effects of topographical features, tidal regimes, monsoonal water circulation, freshwater runoff, coastal upwelling, and offshore water intrusions govern the oceanography of the Gulf of Thailand. The annual surface water temperature varies very little. Gulf waters are well mixed before the NE monsoon, after which a thermocline becomes more distinct.

From fish egg and larval surveys, it is apparent that pelagic and demersal fish spawn during both the NE and SW monsoon, with a peak in spawning after the NE monsoon. More species probably spawn in the area during the SW monsoon season (SEAFDEC 1999).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 57

There are 12 species or groups of species with known spawning and fishing grounds. Marine environmental conditions are also known. These include: bathymetry and coastal geomorphology; water circulation and tide; meteorological parameters, i.e., wind, monsoon season, air temperature, humidity, and air pressure; seawater parameters, i.e., salinity, temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), nutrients, total suspended solids, and turbidity; phytoplankton and zooplankton; primary production, benthos, and bottom sediment characteristics. 4.1.1 Known spawning grounds Describing the spawning and fishing grounds of 12 species/species groups is complicated. Here, the characteristics reviewed are similar to the environmental characteristics of the spawning grounds. The spawning grounds of some marine fauna in the Gulf of Thailand have been surveyed intensively. The results of the surveys, conducted since 1963, indicate that the larvae of Rastrelliger spp. concentrate in an area 10 to 40 nautical miles off the western coast of the Gulf of Thailand (Figure 14) (Boonprakob 1965; Matsui 1970). Phytoplankton and zoophankton were abundant in this area during the spawning season (Suvapepun and suwanrampha 1970).

99° 100° 101102 103 104 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi Trat 12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7° 1-100 / 1000 m3 Pattani 101-500 / 1000 m3 Narathiwat >500 / 1000 m3

6°

Figure 14 The abundances of Indo-Pacific mackerel larvae (R. neglectus) observed at various surveys stations in the Gulf of Thailand (Boonprakob 1965).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 58 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

The spawning grounds and season for Decapterus maruadsi and D. macrosoma in the Gulf of Thailand was determined from observations of seasonal changes in the stage of gonad development. Spawning was believed to occur from February to August, with peaks from February to March and from July to August in the deeper area of the Gulf (Figure 15) (Chullasorn and Yusukswad 1978). Spawning grounds of neritic tuna are located along the Gulf’s western coast, with concentrations in the middle of the Gulf (Figure 16). The spawning grounds for anchovy are depicted in Figure 17.

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat 12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

Jan-Mar Jul-Aug 11° Chumphon

Jan-Mar Jul-Aug

10°

9° Surat Thani Feb-Mar Feb-Mar Jul-Aug Jul-Aug

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7° Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 15 The spawning grounds of round scads (Decapterus spp.) in the Gulf of Thailand (Chullasorn and Yusuksawad 1978).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND 59

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10° Stations were found neritic larvae in 1987

Stations were found neritic larvae in 1975, 1983

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7°

Pattani Narathiwat

6°

Figure 16 The stations where the eggs and larvae of neritic tunas have been observed to be abundant during surveys conducted in the Gulf of Thailand (Chamchang and Chayakul 1990).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 60 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND

99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat

12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11°

Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7°

Pattani

Narathiwat

6°

Figure 17 The spawning grounds for anchovy in the Gulf of Thailand (Vatanachai 1978; Chansakul 1988; Chayakul 1990 cited in Saikliang 1995b).

4.1.2 Known nursery areas Many studies have shown that the distribution and abundance of pelagic and demersal fish larval are related to plankton densities. Plankton production rates are higher in near shore areas and decrease vertically with depth. The nursery areas of important marine fauna in the Gulf of Thailand are mostly located in inshore areas, including mangrove areas, seagrass meadows, and coral reefs. The feeding grounds of most fished species are generally the same as the areas in which they are fished.

4.1.3 Known fishing grounds The fishing grounds for important marine fish species in the Gulf of Thailand were depicted in Figures 6 to 12 of this report.

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4.1.4 Seawater quality and pollutants Seawater Quality Seawater quality has been studied since 1956. The data vary widely in response to spatial and seasonal fluctuations. Low DO, high biological oxygen demand (BOD), and elevated nutrient concentrations characterise coastal water areas adjacent to river mouths and human settlements (Sitthichokpan 1977; Tharnbubpa 1977; Tharnbubpa and Jusiripongkul 1984; Sanguansin et al. 1999). These characteristics may be influenced by waste disposal from human, agricultural, and industrial activities into the Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, Mae Klong, and Bang Pakong Rivers. These rivers also receive organic wastes from human activities and carry them toward the sea, often resulting in poor estuarine water quality (Table 22). The Pollution Control Department (PCD) (1999) studied water quality at 218 sampling stations located 100 m and 500 m offshore during dry and rainy seasons in 1998. The study identified DO lower than 4 mg/l in some inner Gulf stations adjacent to the estuaries of the Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, and Bang Pakong Rivers, as well as the Taboon canal at Petchaburi. The nutrient enrichment of coastal waters has also caused low water quality, eutrophication, and phytoplankton blooms (Suvapepun 1984).

Table 22 Water quality parameters recorded in lower parts of the Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, Mae Klong, and Bang Pakong Rivers.

DO BOD NH – N Coliform Area 3 Reference (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (MPN/100 ml)

- Lower Chao Phraya 0.5 3.0 1.3 46,000 PCD (1998) - Lower Tha Chin 1.0 2.1 0.7 24,000 PCD (1998) - Lower Mae Klong 6.0 1.3 - 3,200 PCD (1998) - Lower Bang Pakong 4.3 0.9 - 500 PCD (1998) - Chao Phraya and 1.1-3.5 - 0.005-0.099 32-54,000 PCD (1999) Tha Chin River mouth - Mae Klong and 2.4-8.3 - 0.006-0.25 8-2,300 PCD (1999) Bang Pakong River mouth Source: PCD, 1998; 1999.

4.1.5 Biological parameters

Phytoplankton Piromnim (1985) studied phytoplankton in the central Gulf of Thailand from Chumphon to Songkhla Province during the southwest monsoon in 1984. The area surveyed covered a wide range of depths (13 to 77m), grouped into the depth ranges of 17 to 48, 50 to 61, and 65 to 77m. The results indicated that the average density of phytoplankton was 96,674, 17,689, and 8,729 cells/m3 at each of the 3 depth ranges, respectively. Of the 36 genera identified, there were 28 genera of diatoms, 7 genera of , and 1 genus of green algae. Trichodesmium thiebauti dominated all stations and depths. The species confined to the deepest waters were Planktonella sol, Gosslerriella tropica, and Biddulphia sinensis. The density of some species varied significantly by water depth. These include Thalassiothrix frauenfeldii, Cossinodiscus spp., Rhizosolenia calcaravis, dens, C. trichoceros, and Thalassiosira subtilis. Moreover, Cerataulina compacta, C. bergonii, and Guinardia flaccida were mostly coastal species. Asterolampra marylandica, Asteromphalus sp., Dactyliosolen antarcticus, and Planktonella sol were observed offshore.

Boonyapiwat (1999) studied phytoplankton in the Gulf of Thailand from the upper part of the Gulf to the eastern coast of Malaysian Peninsular. Seawater samples were collected from 81 stations during the pre-northeast monsoon season (4 Sept. to 4 Oct. 1995) and the post-northeast monsoon season (23 Apr. to 23 May 1996). The study observed 260 taxa, composed of 2 species of blue green algae, 133 species of diatoms, and 107 species of dinoflagellates. A blue green algal species and 17 species of diatoms were dominant. The species most frequently observed were Ocillatoria erythraea, Thalassionema flauenfeldii, Chaetoceros lorenzianus, and C. compressus. Cell densities in the study area ranged from 178 to 113,336 cells/l, and were generally higher in coastal waters than those offshore.

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Phytoplankton observations were carried out during joint surveys of fisheries resources and oceanography by Thai and Vietmanese researchers in the area from latitude 07°40′ to 09°30′N and longitude 101°50′ to 103°10′E in the middle of the Gulf of Thailand. 2 sampling cruises were conducted from 16 Nov. to 18 Dec. 1997 and 11 Aug. to 2 Sep. 1998. 320 taxa, composed of 2 species of blue green algae, 154 species of diatom, and 144 species of dinoflagellates were identified. 8 species of phytoplankton were dominant during the southwest monsoon. Chaetoceros diversus and C. lorenzianus dominated the surface flora, whilst C. messanensis and Proboscia alata dominated mid depths. Coscinodiscus jonisianus was the dominant species at the bottom. The species with highest cell densities at all sampling depths were Oscillatoria erythraea, Thalassionema frauenfeldii, and T. nitzschioides. The relative abundance of these species during the southwest monsoon was low. During the northeast monsoon, O. erythraea and T. frauenfeldii dominated. The first species occurred with highest relative abundance from surface to mid-depths, whilst the second dominated the bottom layer of all stations. The densities observed during this period were relatively high (Department of Fisheries 1999).

Musikasung et al. (1998) studied primary production in the Gulf of Thailand and the eastern coast of the Malaysian Peninsular. The rates of primary production observed, ranged from 0.20 to 0.61 and 0.29 to 0.47gC/m2/day for the Gulf of Thailand and the eastern Malaysian Peninsular waters, respectively. In nearshore areas, highest rates of primary production were observed near the surface, which declined gradually with depth. However, in offshore areas, the production rate increased in the layers where subpycnocline chlorophyll was found. Moreover, variability in daily primary production was observed to be closely related to changes in phytoplankton biomass.

Zooplankton Jivaluk (1999) studied the distribution, abundance, and composition of zooplankton in the Gulf of Thailand from the upper Gulf to the eastern coast of the Malaysian Peninsular. Samples were collected at 81 stations from 4 Sept. to 4 Oct.1995 for the pre-northeast monsoon and from 23 Apr. to 23 May 1996 for the post-northeast monsoon. This study observed 34 groups of zooplankton. Copepods were most abundant during both periods, followed by Chaetognatha in during the pre- monsoon period and Ostracod in the post-monsoon period. Biomass and density varied from 0.069 to 20.172ml/m3 and 36 to 3,413no/m3 during the pre-monsoon period, and 0.18 to 2,589ml/m3 and 91 to 1,514no/m3 during the post-monsoon period, respectively. There was significant difference in abundance between pre and post monsoon periods, although there was no significant difference between biomass for both periods. Generally, abundance was higher at nearshore stations, especially near Pattani Bay, Samui Island, and Sattahip, than offshore stations. Moreover, fish larvae and eggs occurred near Samui Island, Pattani Bay, and nearshore stations adjacent to the lower part of the Malaysian Peninsular during pre-monsoon periods. During the post-monsoon period, fish larvae were abundant near Samui Island, whilst fish eggs were observed near Prachuab Khiri Khan Bay.

The Department of Fisheries (1999) studied zooplankton in the central Gulf of Thailand between latitude 07°40’ to 09°30’N and longitude 101°50’ to 103°10’E from 16 Nov. to 18 Dec. 1997 and 11 Aug. to 2 Sept. 1998. 8 phyla of zooplankton, composed of Coelenterata, Chaetognatha, Annelida, Branchiopoda, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata, and Chordata, were collected. The most abundant phylum was Arthropoda. The average biomass and density were 0.79ml/m3 and 4,300.39no/m3 during the first cruise, and 0.45ml/m3 and 751no/m3 during the second cruise, respectively.

Fish larvae Termvichakorn (1999) reported that 73 families and 97 species of fish larvae were found from the upper part of the Gulf to the eastern coast of the Malaysian Peninsular during the pre-northeast (4 Sept. to 4 Oct. 1995) and post-northeast (23 Apr to 23 May 1996) monsoon seasons. The most abundant fish larvae retained in horizontal surface hauls were Stolephorus spp., Sardinella spp., Gobiidae, and Upeneus spp. Those from the oblique hauls included Gobiidae, Stolephorus spp., Bregmaceros rasisguamosus, and Nemipterus spp. Moreover, larvae were more abundant in coastal waters and adjacent to islands, than deeper or offshore waters. The observed abundances of Sardinella spp. and Stolephorus spp. larvae indicate that spawning peaks in the post monsoon.

Fish larvae in the central Gulf of Thailand were surveyed by the Department of Fisheries (1999) from 16 Nov. to 18 Dec. 1997 and 11 Aug. to 2 Sept. 1998. 50 families of fish larvae were found during this study. The Gobiidae were most abundant, followed by Monacanthidae, Carangidae, Scombridae, Bothidae, and Bregmacerotidae, respectively.

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Surveys conducted in the western Gulf of Thailand from Surat Thani to Narathiwat during February to August 1984 yielded 47 families of pelagic fish larvae (Chamchang 1986). Family Gobiidae was observed to dominate in terms of distribution and abundance. Family Engraulidae was the most dominant group of economically important pelagic fish larvae. Total density of fish larvae was highest during the inter-monsoon period (April). Densities declined in the month of June and August during the southwest monsoon period. Lowest densities were recorded in February during the northwest monsoon period. Most fish larvae were widely distributed throughout the study area, although were concentrated in the area from Samui Island to Songkhla province. Larvae were most concentrated along the coast of Pattani province in April. Similarly, the highest and lowest densities of fish eggs were recorded in February and June, respectively.

Pornpatimakorn and Chayakul (1986) found 24 families of fish larvae in the central Gulf of Thailand. Englaulidae were dominant and represented by several Stolephorus species, followed by Hemirhamphidae, Theraponidae, Clupeidae, Eisterlaridae, Mullidae, Bothidae, and Carangidae.

Benthos Sanguansin (1986) studied the benthic macrofauna of the central Gulf of Thailand from 16 May to 9 June 1984. 102 species were found with an average biomass of 9.67g/m2 and average density of 68no/m2. Callianassa sp. was the dominant crustacean species, whilst the polychaete fauna was dominated by Terebellides sp. Both were very abundant. Echinoderm biomass was the highest. Fishes, molluscs, nemerteans, echiurans, sipunculids, oligochaetes, , and anthozoans were also recorded. The benthic macrofauna was concentrated in shallow areas, especially near Samui and Pha-ngan Island.

The ecology of macrobenthic fauna in the Gulf of Thailand, from the upper part of the Gulf to the eastern coast of the Malaysian Peninsular, was studied during pre-northeast monsoon (4 Sept. to 4 Oct. 1995) and post-northeast monsoon (23 Apr. to 23 May 1996) periods. This study identified 6 groups of macrobenthic fauna in the study area, including , crustaceans, molluscs, echinoderms, fishes, anthozoans, nemerteans, sipunculids, and amphioxus. The polychaetes dominated the benthic fauna. The average density of the benthic macrofauna was 88no/m2 in the pre- northeast monsoon period, and 97no/m2 in the post NE monsoon period. Moreover, species abundance and diversity was higher in inshore rather than offshore areas. Polychaetes, crustaceans, and echinoderms displayed marked changes in abundance by monsoon period, and the diversity index varied during the pre and post-northeast monsoon periods (Piamthipmanus 1999).

Benthic macrofauna in the central Gulf of Thailand from latitude 07o40’ to 09o30’ N and longitude 101o 50’ to 103o 10’ E was surveyed by the Department of Fisheries (1999). The survey identified 7 groups of benthic animals from 16 Nov. to 18 Dec. 1997 and 11 Aug. to 2 Sep. 1998. Polychaetes and crustaceans dominated the first and second cruises, respectively. Echinoderms, oligochaetes, nemerteans, fishes, and sipunculids were also observed. Average density and biomass was 22.5no/m2 and 3.79g wet weight/m2 for the first cruise, and 37.86no/m2 and 3.47g wet weight/m2 for the second cruise, respectively.

4.1.6 Bottom sediment

Reports of bottom sediment studies conducted by Charoenruay (1984) in the Gulf of Thailand indicate that Gulf sediments are mostly mud or silt. There are only two locations characterised by sand, namely the Sattahip coast and the Pattani Province coast. The thickness of sediments range from 5 to 75cm, with mud sediments being thicker than sandy sediments. Hard clay is usually found beneath the soft substrates.

The mud sediments of the central Gulf of Thailand can be subdivided into 3 types, according to mud content. The finest particle sediments (mud content >90%) are located adjacent to Samui Island. Medium sized particle sediments (mud content 70 to 90%) characterise the inner central Gulf, whereas the coarsest sediments (mud content <70%) are distributed on Gulf’s outer sides (Takahashi et al. 1985).

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4.2 Unknown issues such as stocks with undefined spawning grounds There are many unknown issues regarding fishery resources in Thai waters. Geographical distributions and spawning grounds of many economically important species/species groups are not clearly known. Similarly, it is a known fact that marine resources in tropical areas are multi-species in nature and may be composed of several different stocks for each species. Information regarding the migratory routes of pelagic and semi-pelagic resources is also lacking, except for Indo-Pacific mackerel that has formed part of an extensive tagging program for many years. Therefore, basic information relating to significant transboundary stocks is usually not available. Strengthened cooperation amongst scientists and research institutes should be pursued. The 1985 FAO/SEAFDEC Workshop on Shared Stocks in Southeast Asia (FAO/SEAFDEC 1985) aimed to provide some guidance for improved regional utilisation and management of stocks. There are now at least 40 stocks being shared by 2 or more regional countries. A key action in identifying shared stocks is to determine the location and timing of spawning. Genetic studies are now an effective method to identify stocks, with the implementation of such activities requiring the close cooperation of the coastal States concerned. 4.3 Threats, current and potential (coastal development, pollution, oil spills) 4.3.1 Coastal development A number of changes have occurred in Thailand’s coastal areas during the past 40 years. These include the establishment of human settlements and urban expansion, infrastructure development, tourism and industry development, agriculture and tree plantations, and coastal aquaculture. Perhaps the most widely recognised impacts of these changes in land usage include the large (approximately 50%) loss of mangrove forest cover since the early 1960s, and the dereliction of land following shrimp pond failures in a number of coastal provinces. Land rights are one of the most complicated and politically sensitive issues in Thailand. Like their inland counterparts, coastal communities often do not have adequate land rights. However, land ownership is frequently transferred through informal and illegal deals. Increased agricultural and industrial activities, as well as urbanisation further inland, have created a number of externalities in the form of hydrological changes, and the land-based pollution of coastal waters. 4.3.2 Oil spills Numerous oil spills have occurred in both Thai river mouths and the Gulf. Oil can be discharged into the Gulf not only from routine transportation activities, but also from accidents. Although large oil spill accidents are infrequent (Table 23), they usually release a large quantity of oil each time they occur. Consequently, oil spills contribute to 12% of the total volume of oil pollution in Thai waters (Yindepit 1993). Along the coast of Rayong Province, oil spills have occurred frequently since 1986. In fact, there are 3 to 5 oil spills annually. Most spills involve crude oil, which pollutes beaches and inshore waters. Typically, the length of beach affected ranges from 5 to 15km, and the spills are thought to have had negative impacts on capture fisheries and aquaculture in this area. 4.3.3 Pollution Chareonpanich and Seurungreong (1999) reported that coarse material, including sand and gravel, usually settles in the nearshore zone of Peninsular Malaysia, whilst fine-grained particles, including silt and clay, are usually deposited in areas with restricted current in the central Gulf of Thailand and near Samui Island. The coastal and marine environment of the Gulf of Thailand has been degraded by a combination of land and marine-based pollutants. Land-based pollutants are transported via major rivers to the Gulf of Thailand. They are derived from municipal, agricultural, and industrial activities in river catchments. Several land-based activities near coastal areas, including deforestation, urban development, tourism, and the human aggravation of erosion and siltation, have a high potential to pollute the Gulf either directly or indirectly. Increased marine-based activities in the Gulf of Thailand threaten to exacerbate pollution problems. These activities include dredging, shipping, and hydrocarbon exploration and production.

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Major sources of land-based pollution are domestic sewage, solid waste, agricultural waste, industrial waste, and toxic and hazardous waste. Land-based sources contribute approximately 70% of marine pollution, whilst marine-based sources account for the remaining 30%. The pollutants threatening the marine environment include organic matter, nutrients, sediments, litter and plastics, metals, radionuclides, and hydrocarbons. They are prioritised differently from country to county. Many of them are of particular concern, as they may be biomagnified in aquatic food chains (Jala and Aziz 1986).

Table 23 Large oil spill accidents in the Gulf of Thailand during the last 25 years.

Date Oil type Volume Location Cause (tonnes) 1973 J.P. 4 Unknown Sriracha Fire tanker Chonburi Province 1979 Crude oil 300 Srichung Island Fire tanker Chonburi Province 6 Mar.1994 Diesel 400 Srichang Island Collision of tanker And container 30 Oct.1996 Crude oil 160 Oil loading station, Leaking during Rayong Province Loading

4.3.4 Plankton blooms

The most conspicuous and widespread effect of pollution on the marine environment of the Gulf is perhaps eutrophication associated with nutrient enrichment, especially compounds of N and P, leading to accelerated growth of plankton, algae, and higher forms of plant life (Brodie 1996). Nutrient enrichment is a key contributor to large phytoplankton blooms, which can harm and even kill other marine organisms and humans.

Algal blooms have been studied in Thailand since the 1950s (Charoenpol 1957). This early work included the development of a map illustrating the distribution of phytoplankton blooms and their causes. Noctiluca sp. and Trichodesmium sp. were identified as species that often bloomed in the Gulf of Thailand. In the past, such blooms were considered a natural phenomena and harmless to the marine environment. However, the frequency of blooms has increased significantly. During the last 3 decades, algal blooms have occurred between January and August. During the rainy season, algal blooms have often occurred at the river mouth areas of the Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, Mae Klong, and Bang Pakong Rivers (Tamiyavanich 1984). The most common blooming species are the blue green algae Trichodesmium erythraem and Noctiluca scintillans (Suvapepun 1989). Furthermore, Coscinodiscus sp., Rhizosolenia sp., Hemidiscus sp., Chaetoceros sp., Bacteriastrum sp., Ceratium sp., and Nitzschia sp. bloom occasionally. The major cause of algal blooms may be excessive nutrient and organic pollution from major rivers.

From 1981 to 1987, there were 43 large phytoplankton blooms, mostly involving Trichodesmium erythraeum (21 blooms), Noctiluca scintillens (17 blooms), and Diatom (5 blooms). A bloom caused by Trichodesmium erythraeum was observed in eastern and central parts of the Gulf of Thailand from May to June 1983. It covered an area of 7,000km2, causing anoxic conditions that subsequently led to massive mortalities of demersal fishes, shellfish, crabs, and benthos, and crippled many aquaculture activities. The estimated economic losses associated this bloom are in excess of US$1.16 million (Suvapepun 1984). From 1991 to 1998, the 2 species of phytoplankton highlighted above caused 13 blooms along the eastern coast of the Gulf (Chonburi, Rayong, and Chantaburi provinces). Noctiluca sp. has bloomed in coastal waters from Ang Sila to Sri Racha, Chonburi province, every year during July and August, causing mass mortalities of fish and damage to aquaculture operations. Normally, algal blooms caused by common species, i.e., Trichodesnium sp. and Noctiluca sp., have no direct effects on fish. Bloom-related fish mortalities are mostly driven by sudden reductions in dissolved oxygen and high ammonia concentrations. A bloom of Ceratium furca was observed at the Chao Phraya River mouth during early January 2000. Figure 18 highlights areas in which phytoplankton blooms occurred in the Gulf of Thailand from 1982 to 2000.

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99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi

Trat 12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani

Nakhon Si Thammarat 8°

Songkhla 7° Pattani Narathiwat

6° Figure 18 Areas in which phytoplankton blooms occurred in the Gulf of Thailand from 1982 to 2000 (after Suvapepun 1997).

Studies conducted since 1981 indicate that no phytoplankton bloom has involved a toxic species. In May 1983, paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) was recorded in green mussels at Pranburi Estuary, Prachaub Kiri Khan. Despite the problem occurring at the same time as a phytoplankton bloom, its cause was unclear. At the time, phytoplankton was dense and comprised of various species. In particular, the water was rich in blue green algae, and the diatom community was dominated by Chaetoceros spp., Skeletonema costatum, Thalassiosira spp., and Cyclotella sp. Densities of dinoflagellates were also above normal. The most abundant species was Protoperilinium qinguecorne, and Prorocentrum micans, spp., and Dinophysis spp. were abundant. Alexandrium sp. was present, albeit in very low densities (Suvapepun et al. 1984). Following the bloom, human consumption of toxic green mussels (PSP) led to the loss of 1 human life and another 62 seriously ill patients. This event led to many studies on phytotoxicology. Subsequently, the toxic phytoplankton, Alexandrium cohoticula, was found in the Gulf of Thailand. These algae are rare and in very low concentrations, and have most likely never caused a bloom. In conclusion, the effects of phytoplankton blooms in the Gulf of Thailand have related to visual amenity, and the health of aquatic organisms and perhaps humans.

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4.4 Ranking of habitats

Among coastal ecosystems, mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs are the most important habitats. Physically, they play an important role in land protection by trapping sediments and reducing erosion from various physical forces. Ecologically, they are characterised by high primary productivity, which may enhance coastal production and fishery yields. Their environmental characteristics are suitable for extensive assemblages of a vast variety of aquatic organisms, ranging from autotrophs to heterotrophs, from tiny invertebrates to mammals, from juveniles to adults, from sedentary inhabitants to highly migratory ones, or from dependent residents to transitory ones. More specifically, these habitats have frequently been referred to as important nursery areas. In a socioeconomic sense, these habitats provide significant economic benefits to local fishers and fish product traders. However, seagrass beds are damaged directly by intense fishing with destructive fishing gears, i.e., beach seines, mechanised push nets, and trawlers, and indirectly from sediment loads derived from tin mining and land development. The marine fauna that are officially listed as being found in any of these habitats are shown in Appendix 3.

Coral reefs are economically important because they provide sanctuary and feeding grounds for higher order fish, which form the basis of small-scale fisheries. Similarly, they play a vital role in supporting ecological balance. Furthermore, they are important in attracting tourists to the country. In the Gulf of Thailand, Mu Koh Chang in Trat province, Ang Thong Archipelago, and Koh Tao in Chumphon province have been declared as National Marine Parks.

4.4.1 Association with species of importance to food security

Fish is an important component of the diet of Thai people. Thailand is one of the top fish-producing nations in the world. Geographical advantage is a factor attributed to the relatively high annual fish production. Thailand has a total land area of about 540,000km2 and a coastline of 2,614km. Marine fishing grounds that fall within Thailand’s EEZ are located partly in the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea, with a total area of about 350,000km2. The area of inland waters is approximately 3,750km2. Furthermore, over 1 million hectares of the Kingdom’s coastal areas have coastal aquaculture potential.

In 2000, the gross domestic production (GDP) of the fisheries sector was 123.2 billion baht, which accounted for about 2.5% and 27.6% of national GDP and agricultural GDP, respectively. The fishing industry has contributed to the development of other related industries, including fish processing, cold storage, ice production, and shipbuilding. The number of people engaged in this sector was estimated at approximately 826,980, of which 161,670 were engaged in marine capture fisheries, 77,870 in coastal aquaculture, 404,340 in freshwater fish culture, and 183,100 in other related activities.

The fish produced are consumed domestically and exported for foreign exchange earnings. It is one of the most important sources of protein. This is reflected in the per capita fish consumption rates of 25 to 32 kg per annum observed during the past decade. The export value of fish and fishery products has increased significantly.

More than 200 fishing villages are in or near the area of coastal habitats along the Gulf of Thailand. More than 80% of fishers engage in traditional or small-scale fisheries. The production from their fishing activities has played an important role as a source of food and income for their families and communities.

The Thai Government has recently introduced a project named the “Seafood Bank”, which aims to guide the allocation of approximately 284,000 rai (1,817.60km2) of inshore waters to small-scale fishers and their communities for the development of aquaculture and sea farming. This project will be of importance to food security and export promotion.

4.4.2 Association with high value species

Thailand’s fisheries demonstrated marked growth over the last 3 decades. The total production of 2.77 million tonnes of fisheries products from Thailand’s marine capture fisheries in 2000 was comprised of food fish (52.0%), shrimps (3.2%), crabs (2.1%), squids (6.4), and cuttlefish and shellfish (3.4%). These high value species/groups of species have mostly been derived from capture fisheries conducted in coastal waters.

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Coastal habitats of the Gulf of Thailand play critical roles in the life cycles of many important species, especially in terms of spawning, nursery, and feeding areas. The most recent figures from 2000 show a marine catch of 2.77 million tonnes, valued at THB 49,401.7 million. Fishing grounds that fall within Thailand’s EEZ are in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea. It is estimated that, of the total average marine catch, 70% is caught in Thai waters (60% from the Gulf and 10% from the Andaman Sea), whilst the remainder is derived from international waters or foreign EEZs. 4.4.3 Association with endangered, rare, threatened species Several species of marine resources in the Gulf of Thailand are becoming rare, endangered, and perhaps threatened with extinction, due to increased human use, the resultant changes in the environment, and ineffective conservation and/or enforcement measures. Dense and increasing human populations in coastal areas, use of destructive fishing practices, intensive industrial activities, and waste disposal are all exacerbating this problem. It is believed that several species of marine fish and invertebrates are becoming rare, particularly those inhabiting coral reefs, which are being destroyed by intense fishing or other unwise practices. Furthermore, many groups of endangered species, including marine turtles, dugong, and dolphins, spend part of their life cycle in coastal habitats, especially for feeding and nursing areas. 5. CURRENT MANAGEMENT REGIME(S) Regarding current management regimes relating to fish stocks and their habitats, the following subtopics will now be discussed. 5.1 Legal instruments Thailand is currently implementing several key legal instruments in order to conserve, preserve, protect, and manage fish stocks and their habitats. These legal instruments include the: (a) Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand relating to natural resources management; (b) Fisheries Act 1947 (B.E. 2490) and related regulations and notifications, especially concerning transboundary stocks - Articles 19 and 20 of the Fisheries Act 1947 relate to environmental aspects of fishing grounds, including aquatic animal habitats; (c) National Environmental Quality Act 1992 (B.E. 2535); (d) Act Determining Plan and Process of Decentralisation of Power to Local Government Organisation 1999 (B.E. 2542); (e) Navigation in Thai Waters Act 1913 (B.E. 2456) - Dumping of ballasts in a river, port area or anchoring location, Section 119: No person is allowed to dump, discard or ballast articles or any waste except for oil and chemical in a river, canal, marsh, reservoir or lake used for public traffic or common use or a sea with Thai waters which will cause shoal, sediment or filth therein unless permitted by the harbour master. Any person violating this provision must be subject to an imprisonment not exceeding six months or a fine not exceeding ten thousand bath or both and must also reimburse the costs paid for disposal thereof. And Section 119 bis: No person shall be allowed to dump, discard or otherwise act so as to allow oil and chemical or any thing in a river, canal, marsh, reservoir or lake used for public traffic or common uses or a area within Thai water which may be toxical to living organisms or environment or harmful to navigation in said river, canal, marsh, reservoir or lakes. Any person violating these provisions must be subject to an imprisonment not exceeding three years or a fine not exceeding sixty thousand bath or both and must also reimburse the costs paid for rehabilitation of such toxic or pay damages therefore; (f) The Act Governing the Right to Fish in Thai Fisheries Waters B.E.2484 (1939); (g) Wildlife Reservation and Protection Act 1992 - This Act empowers the Department of Fisheries to protect all animals and their products listed as for reservation and protection, which include all endangered species such as marine mammals, turtles, coral, and . The recent fisheries regulations that have been issued and implemented in Thai waters are summarised in Table 24.

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Table 24 Marine fisheries management measures in Thailand.

Period of prohibition Management measures Type of gear Whole year 1. The distance of 3,000 m from shoreline and 400 m Motorised fishing gears, i.e., trawls, out off the stationary gear push net, shortnecked clam dredge 2. Songkhla lake 3. Phang-nga Bay (Phang-nga to Krabi province) Whole year 1. The distance of 3,000 m in some area of Prachuab Trawls, push net, purse seine, Khiri Khan and Chumphon province influenced by shortnecked clam dredge, fishing gear typhoons used with light Whole year Some areas in Trat province (within 15 km from shore) Purse seine with light luring Whole year All areas both in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea Purse seine mesh less than 2.5 cm (in night time operation) Whole year 1. The distance of 3,000 m from shoreline. The dredge Shortnecked clam dredge used should be: a. The mouth width not less than 3.5 m b. The sieve size not less than 1.2 cm c. The boat length not more than 18 m d. The number of dredge not more than 3 per one boat 2. The distance of 8,000 m from shoreline in Samut Sakhon province Whole year All areas both in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea Squid light luring with mesh not less than 3.2 cm Whole year All areas both in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea Set bag net Whole year All areas both in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea Drive in net and in the coral and areas Whole year All areas both in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea Mine equipment for shell collection Whole year 1. Sea turtle and turtle eggs All gears 2. Sea Dugong 3. Sea Corals 4. Dolphin 5. No fishing in the preservation areas 5.1 A certain area in Phuket province 5.2 A certain area in Chumphon province 5.3 A certain area in Trat province 5.4 A certain area in Phang-nga province Whole year The distance of 3,000 m from shoreline in certain areas Trawl, push net, purse seine, clam in Prachuab Khiri Khan to Chumphon province for pilot dredge and light luring nets CBFM project 6 months A certain areas in Chonburi province Motorised fishing gears (1 Sep – 28 Feb) (Historical Bay) 3 months Protection of fish spawners and larvae in certain areas Pair trawl, otter board trawl, purse seine, (15 Feb-15 May) in Prachuab Khiri Khan, Chumphon and Surat Thani mackerel encircling gill net, except the provinces otter-boom and beam trawl fishing at night time during 15 Feb-31 Mar and fishing at both night and day time 1 Apr- 15 May 3 months No fishing of female eggs-barriers of mud crab, All gears (Oct-Dec) swimming crab and Charybdis feriatus 3 months Protection of Horse Shoe crab in Phang-nga Bay All gears (1 Dec-28 Feb) including in the rivers around Phang-nga Bay 2 months Protection of fish spawners and larvae in the Phang-nga All trawlers, Purse seine, Gill net with (15 Apr-15 Jun) Bay, from Krabi to Phuket provinces mesh size not less than 4.7 cm

5.2 Institutional arrangements (research, monitoring, control & surveillance)

At present, the lead government organisation with direct responsibility for fisheries, marine resource, and habitat management is the Department of Fisheries, as part of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. Other governmental organisations, including the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources and the Office of Environment Policy and Planning, as part of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, also play very important roles in conserving Thailand’s marine resources and environments.

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The Marine Fisheries Research and Development Bureau conduct research regarding marine fisheries and resource management. The Bureau’s Marine Fisheries Research and Development Centre has locations in 4 regions of the Gulf of Thailand, namely Rayong, Samut Prakan, Chumphon, and Songkhla. Marine and coastal research is also conducted by a newer organisation, the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources, through its regional research centres.

A number of other government organisations contributed to various aspects of marine resource and environmental management. They can be considered as supporting research agencies for the Department of Fisheries. They include many organisations under the Department of Pollution Control, Department of National Park Conservation and Management, Department of Marine Transportation and Commerce, Burapha University, Kasetsart University, Chulalongkorn University, Songkhla University, and Walailuk University.

Monitoring, control and surveillance (MCS), is a very important mechanism for fisheries and resource management in the Gulf of Thailand. The Fisheries Administration and Resource Management Bureau of the Department of Fisheries is the leading organisation responsible for MCS, and is supported by various Provincial Fisheries Offices and other organisations empowered by the Fisheries Act and Ministerial Notifications of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.

When the government agencies reform program took place in October 2002, the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR) was established under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. The DMCR was given the mandate to develop relevant regulations in order to achieve effective managerial action relevant to vulnerable resources, including resource preservation and conservation for sustainable use. The MCS activities for the conservation of marine and coastal resources and habitats are under the mandate of the office of Marine and Coastal Conservation and Enforcement. The transfer of some authority for enforcement of the Fisheries Act has taken place in order to empower the DMCR to act in an enforcement capacity.

The organisational structure of the Department of Fisheries (DOF) and the Department of Marine Coastal Resources (DMCR) is highlighted in Appendices 4 and 5.

5.3 Overview of patterns of resources ownership and traditional utilisation

- Section 290 of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand states that “For the purpose of promoting and maintaining the quality of the environment, a local government organisation has powers and duties as provided by law. The law under paragraph 1 shall at least contain the following matters as its substances:- (1) The management, preservation and exploitation of the natural resources and environment in the area of the locality; (2) The participation in preservation of natural resources and environment outside the area of the locality only in the case where the living of the inhabitants in the area may be affected; and (3) The participation in considering the initiation of any project or activity outside the area of the locality which may affect the quality of the environment, health or sanitary conditions of the inhabitant in the area.”

It is very clear that fisheries resources in the coastal areas of the Gulf of Thailand have been degraded and some groups are depleted. This has led to escalating conflict among resources users competing for the same scarce resources. Conflicts between small-scale and commercial fishers are increasing in occurrence on a daily basis. This conflict situation is perhaps not only due to overfishing, but also due to a lack of clear policies pertaining to the conduct of fisheries and their management.

It is well known that Thailand’s marine capture fisheries are open access in nature. Prior to the introduction of fisheries management, Thai fishers operated when, where, and how they pleased. However, this situation resulted in unsustainable fisheries. The only areas of non-open access include permitted areas for coastal aquaculture and the prohibition of active fishing gear use within 400m of the permitted areas for bamboo stake traps.

In response to the problems of open access, the Thai Department of Fisheries has attempted to revise the Fisheries Act in order to limit access in Thailand’s marine capture fisheries. A proposal has been submitted to parliament for their consideration and approval. Some Articles of the present

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Fisheries Act provide a pathway for the limitation of access to fisheries resources. For example, Article 32 indicates that Provincial Governors, with the permission of the Minister, have the authority to fix the type, size, and number of fishing gears to be operated at the provincial level. Nevertheless, this does not provide for the prevention of fishers from other provinces applying for a fishing licence.

Recently, the Department of Fisheries has implemented a pilot project on community based fisheries management across a range of areas, including Bangsapan District, Prachuab Khiri Khan Province, Phang-nga Bay, Phang-nga Province, Pathew District, and Chumphon Province. These pilot projects aim at developing the concept of community level ownership and participation in management of fisheries resources. The participation of the local community in natural resources and environmental management is supported by the present constitution, and the future may see fishing communities being provided with ownership of resources in an attempt to curb the tendency for overexploitation in Thai fisheries.

5.4 Human & Institutional Capacity

The Marine Fisheries Research and Development Bureau of the Department of Fisheries is responsible for marine fisheries resource surveys/research, restoration of fisheries resources and the environment, professional development of fishers, fishing gears/methods research and development, and other duties as required. There are 4 Marine Fisheries Research and Development Centres under the Marine Fisheries Research and Technology Development Institute, and 4 MCS centers under the Marine Fisheries Administration and Conservation Bureau of the Department of Fisheries along the coast of the Gulf of Thailand. However, there are many institutions, including universities and colleges that conduct research into fisheries of the Gulf of Thailand. The locations of these institutions are highlighted in Figure 19.

In order to conduct research and development, and effectively implement management strategies, the provision of additional education and training for officers of the Department of Fisheries in areas such as resource assessment, conservation of fishery resources, and fisheries management is very necessary. This type of education and training has been made available to fishers and other fishing industry representatives in response to government policy aimed at promoting the participation of all stakeholders in the planning and implementation of various fisheries management measures. In doing so, the Fisheries Technology Development and Transfer Bureau of the Department of Fisheries have collaborated with relevant research institutes and universities involved in fisheries training.

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99° 100° 101° 102° 103° 104° 105°E

BANGKOK 14°N Samut Prakan Samut Sakhon λ Chachoengsao Samut Songkhram Chon Buri

Phetchaburi 13° Rayong Chanthaburi λ Trat 12° Prachuap Khiri Khan

z 11° Chumphon

10°

9° Surat Thani Marine Fisheries Research and Development Center

Patrol Office Center

Fishery Radio Station Nakhon Si Thammarat Marine and Coastal Resources 8° λ Research and Development Center

λ Songkhla 7° Pattani Narathiwat

6° Figure 19 Marine Research Centres and Monitoring, Control, and Enforcement Sites along the coast of the Gulf of Thailand.

5.5 Review of stakeholders (e.g. Fishers, National and/or provincial/local management bodies, NGOs) The importance of community participation in natural resource and environmental management has become increasingly recognised, particularly since the Eight National Economics and Social Development Plan (1997 to 2001). Creating opportunities and an enabling environment to support the participation of all sectors in the development process is one of the main strategies for the national plan. In providing more opportunity for local communities and people to participate actively in natural resource and environmental management, the following guidelines at the national policy level include: • Providing opportunities for people and communities to participate in decision-making, monitoring and evaluation of public development projects likely to have an impact on natural resources and the environment. The government should facilitate continual public discussion at every stage of those projects such as initiation, preparation and implementation.

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• Providing legal quarantines of the rights of local communities and small-scale fishers to participate in coastal resource management, as well as the conservation, rehabilitation and maintenance of mangrove forests, seagrass and coral reefs, to ensure sustainable use of coastal resources, especially those related to the fishing industry.

As such, in order to achieve the sustainable utilisation of coastal resources, upgrading the capacities of rural communities for economic and social development and for conservation of natural resources and environment has become the key element.

Existing Fisheries and Coastal Community-Based Management Programs

The private sector working for public interests in the area of natural resources and environmental protection and conservation can be found in the form of foundations, associations, projects, clubs, or other formal groups. In general, they can be categorised as follows: • Non-government organisations (NGOs) registered with the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment (MOSTE); • Non-government organisations not registered with the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment (MOSTE); • Business firms; and • People’s organisations (PO).

At present, there are more than 60 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) working for natural resources and environmental protection and conservation registered with the MOSTE (Office of Environmental Policy and Planning 1996). Under the Enhancement and Conservation of the National Environmental Quality Act of 1992 (Section 8), registered NGOs can obtain support from government agencies, including loans from the environmental fund. In this respect, they will have to submit the proposals, by stating the objectives, plans, project duration, and proposed budget, and then apply for them from the environmental fund. The committee under the Department of Environmental Promotion, MOSTE will review the proposals accordingly.

Fisheries and coastal community-based management in Thailand are mainly carried out with the support of NGOs, particularly in southern Thailand (Table 25). Informal people’s organisations may exist before they work in association with NGOs, but with encouragement of NGOs and university lecturers working as activists, the organisations become more recognised and they may establish a formal people’s organisation, sometimes registered with MOSTE. The Southern Small-Scale Fishermen Association is a good example following its establishment in September 1993, which resulted from a seminar of NGOs, local fishers, and university activists who realised the problems of coastal resource degradation that adversely affects societal well-being.

Although fishery and coastal management programs in Thailand are carried out by governmental, non-governmental, and people’s organisations, they normally share the following goals or objectives: 1. Create awareness of local communities in the sustainable management of coastal resources; 2. Build up and strengthen local capacities in the conservation and rehabilitation of coastal resources; and 3. Encourage the coordination among local communities, local government agencies, and NGOs.

Concerning fishery and coastal resource protection and conservation, the main NGOs working in these areas are the Volunteer for Society Fund, Lae Tai Project, Southern Small-Scale Fisheries Association, Yad Fon Association, and Wildlife Fund Thailand. Acting as the supporting and facilitating organisations in various mechanisms, financially and/or academically, there are various NGOs and POs working in association with them. The programs can be implemented as sub-projects in which the above key NGOs are the executing agencies. Examples of this case are illustrated in Table 25.

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Table 25 Non-government organisations (NGOs) involved in coastal resource management in southern Thailand.

Name of the Organisation Address Type of Activities Working Area/Site Coordinating Committee for Non- 65 Srisuda Road Acting as coordinating Provinces in southern government Organizations, Amphur Muang Center for NGOs in the Thailand Southern Thailand Songkhla 90000 south of Thailand Tel: 074 311821 Small-scale Fisheries 57/216 Kehasathan Solving problems facing Songkhla Lake area Community Development Khrutai Village Tambol small-scale fisheries, (Amphur Hat Yai), Pawong pressure group, resource Amphur Muang, Amphur Muang and environmental Amphur Jana, Amphur Songkhla 90000 management Ranode, Songkhla Tel: 074 333 114 Lae Tai Project to Rehabilitate 68 Mu 4 Tambol Ku Management of natural Songkhla Lake Songkhla Lake Khud, Amphur resource and the (Songkhla and Pattalung Satingpra, Songkhla environment areas) 90190 or 56/9 Soi Pian Phiboon Apai Boriruk Road Tambol Kuha Sawan Amphur Muang Pattalung 93000 Wildlife Fund Thailand 57/6 Paknam Road, Management of natural Pattani Bay and Nongjik (Under the Royal Patronage of Tambol Sabarang, resource and environment area of Pattani H.M. the Queen, Wetland and Amphur Muang, concerning small-scale Coastal Conservation Pattani 94000 fisheries’ problems Project Tel: 333 227 The Ruk Kukhud Committee 61/1 Mu 3 Tambol Management of local Tambol Kukhud Jatigpra, Amphur Natural resource and Amphur Satingpra of Satingpra, Songkhla Environment (15 local Songkhla and area 90190 volunteers fully Surrounding Songkhla Lake participating in resource protection Small-scale Fishery n.a. Nine groups supported by Villages as they settle Development Group the Department of Fisheries and Provincial Authority in facilities and budget for improving livelihoods Study Center and Development of Prince of Songkhla Providing knowledge on Pattani Bay Pattani Bay University, Pattani legal aspects and fishery Campus, Amphur management Muang, Pattani 94000 Tel: 334 871 Small-scale Fishery Network 57/6 Paknam Road, Working on fishery Pattani Project under Earth Island Tambol Sabarang, resources and Association Amphur Muang, environment problems in Pattani 94000 cooperation with the Tel: 333 227 Wildlife Fund Thailand Strengthening Capacity of Non- 693 Department of Working on fishery Amphur Ta Chana of government Organizations under Medical Science, resource and environment Surat Thani, Amphur the Bamrung Muang problems Sichol and Pak Phanang of Local Community Development Road, Pomparb, Nakon Sri Institute Bangkok 10100 Thammarat Tel: 2236713, 2257293 Small-scale Fisheries 57/6 Pak Nam Road, Working as coordinating Southern provinces Association of Southern center for groups of small- Thailand scale fishing communities Tambol Sabarang, in the southern provinces Amphur Muang, Pattani 94000 Tel: 333 227 Source: Department of Fishery and Lae Tai magazine (various issues) Note: District = Amphur, Sub-district = Tambol

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There are also various businesses and private organisations working directly with collective activities, and indirectly through provision of financial support. Private organisations dealing with coral reefs include the Siam Diving Association, the Thai Diver Company, and other local business groups. Their activities are conducted along Thailand’s coasts, often in collaboration with the Tourism Authority of Thailand, National Park officers from the Royal Forestry Department, and local academic institutions (Table 26).

Table 26 Natural resources and environmental protection and conservation programs under the Wildlife Fund Thailand and corresponding activities.

Name of the Project/Program Activities Thailand Coastal Wetland Resources Project, program Short-necked clam conservation at Tambol Pana Reh, Pattani for conservation of wetland and coastal zone (Pattani Community mangrove reforestation at and Phuket) Nongjik, Pattani and Thlang, Phuket Coastal zoning for seagrass conservation at Nonjik, Pattani and surrounding areas Program for village conservation of sea turtle Promotion of sea turtle conservation program (Mai Khao Beach at Phuket) Through media, exhibition, and youth camp, in collaboration with education institutes Study visit of youth group from Mai Khao, Phuket to observe a sea turtle conservation program at Thlang, Phuket Program for conservation of wetland areas (Samut Survey of base map on land use developing, flora and fauna at Songkram) the site where the site where the center is located Program for rehabilitation of coastal resources and Community training on seaweed conservation small-scale organization (Tamblo Pha Klog, project, Tambol Pah Klog Amphur Talang, Phuket) Community training on mangrove conservation project, Tambol Pah Klog Placement of signs for conservation zoning of coastal resources Meeting of small-scale fishing community leaders (Pattani, Songkhla, Trang, and Pattalung) Program for strengthening capacity of local communities Data gathering on socioeconomic, ecological system, and in wetland and coastal resource management natural resources of the community, NGOs in collaboration with local scholars and lectures at Prince of Songkhla University, Pattani Campus Formulation of local groups to further formulate network of small-scale fishermen in other provinces including Pattani, Trang, Songkhla, Surat Thani, Phang Nga, Krabi, Phuket, Pattalung, Nakorn Si Thammarat, Chumphon, and others. Source: Wildlife Fund Thailand1996 (unpublished documents) and Lae Tai magazine (various issues).

Case Study

The following cases are reviewed from published and unpublished documents, mostly obtained from NGOs. Additional information is obtained from personal communication with NGO staff. The cases include Pattani Bay and Amphur Pana Reh of Pattani.

Case study: Pattani Bay and Amphur Pana Reh, Pattani

Pattani Bay covers a total area of 74km2 facing the Gulf of Thailand to the west. With its estuarine area for the Yaring and Pattani Rivers, the bay is rich with natural resources, abundant mangrove forests and nursery areas for fishery resources. The community at Pattani Bay is mostly living at Tambol Lam Pho of the Bay in 4 villages, including Bang Dato, Ban Talo Samilae, Ban Kampong Budee, and Ban Pata Budee. The community is mainly Moslem and their main livelihood is small- scale fishing.

The coastal area of 15km2, about 2,000 m from the coastline of Amphur Phanare, Pattani is abundant with short-necked clams. The Department of Fisheries (DOF) estimated that the available resources could be valued up to 500 million baht (Lae Tai 12). In March 1992, concessions for short-necked clam fisheries in Amphur Pana Reh were given by the DOF to 30 fishing boats. However, the concessionaire boats entered into the 3-km zone reserved for small-scale fisheries. As such, in April 1992 local people, religious leaders, and village leaders protested and requested the governor not to allow the concession of short-necked clam fisheries in Amphur Pana Reh. As a result, the concession was successfully stopped.

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On 28 July 1992, the Pana Reh Coastal Fisheries Association was established as a people’s organisation with the objective of conserving and rehabilitating coastal resources in Amphur Pana Reh. Its ultimate goal is to improve the living conditions of the small-scale fishers in Pana Reh in a sustainable manner.

Problem: Declining fishery resources in the Bay caused by large-scale fishing, including trawlers and push nets operated within the 3-km zone.

Involvement of local organisations: The Association of Small-scale Fishermen was established in March 1993 through the exchange of information and discussion among villagers in solving problems regarding the degradation of fishery resources. The sub-district leader of Tambol Lam Pho chairs the association with members from 4 villages of Lam Pho. The Pattani Bay Rehabilitation Organisation was later established in September 1993.

Programmes and activities: • The “Pattani Bay Conservation” Day was established on 11 May 1993. The activities for this day, in collaboration with government agencies, included the placement of conservation zones for fishery resources and seaweed, and for the release of shrimp and fish juveniles into the Bay. • A study visit of 850 member representatives was organised from 14 to 16 June 1993. The trip to Pattalung, Trang, Phang Nga, and Phuket was aimed at representatives observing, discussing, and exchanging information with local people who were actively working on coastal conservation programmess. • Survey of coastal resources at Lam Tachi bay was conducted from 21 to 25 June 1993 by fishers and divers from the Wildlife Fund of Thailand. The data collected were prepared to support government agencies in planning for future coastal resource development and management of the bay. • Mangrove planting was arranged by the association with close collaboration of the regional forestry office of Pattani in August 1993. The objective was to rehabilitate the existing mangrove area to become the community forest area for the villagers of Ban Dato and Ban Talo Samilae. • A seminar on “Past, Present, and Future of Pattani Bay” was convened from 5 to 6 September 1993 in order for the concerned parties, government, non-government, and local communities to discuss future plans for sustainable coastal resource management in Pattani Bay. On 6 September, the Pattani Bay Rehabilitation Organisation was established as the result of the seminar.

Fisher Associations and Non-Government Organisations

There are 47 registered fisher associations in the Gulf of Thailand region. 44 associations are members of the National Fisheries Association of Thailand, which acts as a central organisation for stakeholders concerned with marine fisheries, including fisheries officials, private sector representatives, fisher organisations, and fishers themselves. The aims of these organisations are to guide the development of the fishing industry. Fishers associations have been categorised as follow:

- National organisations: 7 - Provincial organisations: 12 - Local organisations: 25

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At present small-scale fisher groups have been established to monitor coastal resources and promote responsible fishing. The FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries has been introduced to fishers. Hence, in 2002, the National Fisheries Association of Thailand encouraged fishers to become members of the association. This association can be used to build the capacity of fishers to become stewards of their resources.

National Fisheries Association of Thailand

Objective: 1. Promote fishing and standard of living of fishers 2. Promote unity among fisher associations in Thailand 3. Promote fishing extension and technologies 4. Train fishers 5. Promote public activities 6. Non-political activities

Activities of the National Fisheries Association of Thailand 1. Fishing extension • Conduct joint projects with neighboring countries for fishing group extension • Conduct co-operative projects with the government sector to provide discounted fuel to fishers • Conduct co-operative projects with the government sector to ban destructive fishing gears, including pushnet, and control the number of some fishing gears such as trawls, anchovies lift net/falling net 2. Comment on fisheries • Comment to the government sector regarding fishing regulations relating to fishing zones and fishing seasons 3. Focal point for fisheries association • Disseminate fisheries information to fisheries associations • Arrange committee meetings • Promote knowledge and fishing technology • On-site meetings for solving fisheries problems

National Organisations 1. Oceanic Fisheries Association of Thailand 2. Fishmeal Producer Association of Thailand 3. Nakorn Si Thammarat Trawler Association 4. Fisheries Export and Aquaculture Extension Association of Thailand 5. Central Gillnet Association 6. Southern Gillnet Association 7. Frozen Food Association of Thailand

Provincial Organisations 1. Cholburi Fisheries Association 2. Nakorn Si Thammarat Fisheries Association 3. Paknam Chumphon Fishermen Association 4. Pattani Fisheries Association 5. Petchaburi Fishermen Association 6. Rayong Fisheries Association 7. Samut Prakan Fisheries Association 8. Samut Sakorn Fisheries Association 9. Samut Songkram Fisheries Association 10. Surat Thani Fishermen Association 11. Songkhla Fishermen Association 12. Trat Fisheries Association

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Local Organisations

1. Kanom District Fisheries Association Nakorn Si Thammarat Province 2. Klongyai Fisheries Association Trat Province 3. Klongwan Fisheries Association PrachupKiri Khan Province 4. Chaiya District Fishermen Association Surathani Province 5. Dansawi Fishermen Association Chumporn Province 6. Thamai District Fishermen Association Chantaburi Province 7. Banleam District Fishermen Association Petchaburi Province 8. Banphe Fisheries Association Rayong Province 9. Paktago Fishermen Association Chumporn Province 11. Paknam Prasae Fishermen Association Rayong Province 12. Pakpanang Fishermen Association Nakorn Si Thammarat Province 13. Pranburi Fisheries Association PrachupKiri Khan Province 14. Sunthornpu Fisheries Association Rayong Province 15. Sichon District Fishermen Association Nakorn Si Thammarat Province 16. Hua Hin Fishermen Association Prachup Khiri Khan Province 17. Leamsing Fisheries Association Chantaburi Province 18. Angsila Fisheries Association Chonburi Province 19. Paknampangrad Fishermen Association Rayong Province 20. Bangjakreng Fisheries Cooperative Samutsongkram Province 21. Banleam Fisheries Cooperative Petchaburi Provin ce 22. Pattani Fisheries Cooperative Pattani Province 23. Maeklong Fisheries Cooperative Samut songkram Province 24. Samutsakorn Fisheries Cooperative Samut sakorn Province 25. Bangsalae Fishing Group Chonburi Province

6. PROBLEMS, CONSTRAINTS AND RECOMMENDED ACTIONS

6.1 Problems and Constraints

The rapid development of marine fisheries in Thailand has mainly been a result of intensive exploitation of marine fisheries resources, without systematic management and rehabilitation of the resources, often leading to conflicts between resource users. Marine fisheries resources, which had once served as key contributing factors to national economic prosperity, have now become constraints for future development that must be carefully taken into consideration. In particular, demersal and many groups of pelagic resources are rapidly being degraded, resulting in decreases in their distribution and abundance. Similarly, coastal habitats, particularly mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs have also been damaged by natural phenomena, human activities, and economic factors, particularly fisheries and tourism.

It is clear from this review that marine fisheries resources have been overexploited for more than 3 decades. Therefore, appropriate management actions at various levels need to be taken. Fisheries management has been contained as one of the most important strategies since the Fourth (1977 to 1981) to the Ninth (2002 to 2006) National Economic and Social Development Plans. The main policy is to reduce excessive fishing effort levels to that appropriate toward achieving optimal sustainable yields from resources, and to protect and rehabilitate important habitats and environments. The Standing Committee on National Fisheries Policy, chaired by the Deputy Prime Minister, has approved these strategies. This reflects the Government’s policy commitment to overcome these problems.

Although fisheries management has existed for some time, the government has not yet been able to ban destructive fishing gears and reduce excessive fishing effort, mostly due to potential economic, social, and political implications. Moreover, the MCS system has not been effective, mainly due to the lack of understanding and participation by the fishing community and fishers themselves. Many fishers have little awareness of resource conservation, concentrating mainly on immediate income needs associated with their socioeconomic situations. Coordination among the Department of Fisheries, fishing communities/associations, and the various other governmental agencies concerned is also considered poor. These problems require solving.

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6.2 Recommendations

In order to conserve and manage marine fisheries resources and their habitats, it is urgent that the government express strong political will and commitment through implementing the approved action plans contained in the National Fisheries Policy. There are a number of other recommended actions at national and regional levels requiring attention, these include: 1. Development of strategic plans of studies and utilisation of living resources; studies on biology and dynamics of important fish stocks; conservation and protection of marine environment against pollution from any sources; fishery resources investigation service; fishing activities research and development; management and conservation of living resources; development of regulations of fisheries and alternative use strategies for living resources. 2. Periodical determination of the total allowable fishing effort and catch of fish in the respective fishing areas, or from respective fish stocks, based on the best scientific evidence, provisions set forth in international agreements and resolutions of international organisations where Thailand is a member State. 3. To undertake a review and expedite amendment of laws, rules, and regulations concerned with the conservation and management of fishery resources and environment and to ensure that they are compatible with relevant regional and international instruments as well as to ensure promoting more coordination for active participation of other department in fisheries management. 4. Improvement of fisheries information and catch and effort statistics in the fishing grounds both inside and outside Thai waters and to strengthen socio-economic information, which will be of value in supporting improved fisheries management measures. 5. To promote awareness building and the participation of fishers, fisher associations, and fishing industry stakeholders in the planning process and implementation of fisheries management measures; education and training for the people concerned must be provided and regular meetings for evaluation and improvement are needed. 6. In order to reduce the problem of open access in fisheries, demarcation of fishing zones for various sizes and type of fishing boats/gears, coral reef zones, seagrass meadows, and conservation zones should be established with agreement among stakeholders concerned. The introduction of right-based fisheries, community-based fishery management, as well as resource enhancement programs through installation of artificial reefs should be created and strengthened for the optimal use of inshore waters as agreed at the ASEAN-SEAFDEC Conference: Fish for People. 7. Fisheries MCS is a vital mechanism for strengthening fisheries management. It needs to be modernised and strengthened, and training for the officers concerned is necessary. 8. One of the problems in tropical multi-species fisheries is the by-catch and discards that require reduction, the development and introduction of appropriate selective fishing gear, as well as technologies for at sea fish processing should be considered in order to reduce by-catch and waste.

Considering the geographical distribution and migration of fisheries resources, it is being increasingly recognised that effective management of the resources has to be conducted at 2 levels, national and regional. National management should be concerned with the actual implementation of the various policies created for instituting sustained development, while regional management should seek to identify common issues and facilitate resolution for the benefit of the coastal States of the region as a whole.

It is evident that a number of fish stocks, both pelagic and demersal resources in the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea, move freely from EEZs of one country to another, or straddle the boundaries of 2 or more countries. The exploitation of those resources may be shared by the neighbouring countries. Therefore, improved understanding of the biology, dynamics, and the state of stocks is required to facilitate the establishment of appropriate management plans.

For evolving regional level management measures, the following actions may be necessary: i) formation of a strong regional body to design regional policies; ii) development of a mechanism to strengthen national management measures; iii) identification of the regional changes in fisheries, especially the shared stocks and periodically advising the member countries; iv) provision of strong scientific support for fisheries development by imparting training on technological changes; v)

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development of a system for communication, exchange of data and interaction on management experiences among the member countries; vi) promotion of compatibility and consensus among the countries in sharing the stock assessment studies; and vii) generation of adequate funds for implementing the management program.

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APPENDIX 1

Rates of Exchange of Commercial Bank in Bangkok Metropolis (Baht per currency unit)

Year Baht per one U.S. dollar Baht per one U.S. dollar Reference rate 1/ Buying Selling

1982 22.9000 23.0500 23.0000 1983 22.9000 23.0500 23.0000 1984 23.5392 23.6892 23.6393 1985 27.0593 27.2093 27.1594 1986 26.1991 26.3491 26.2992 1987 25.6359 25.7859 25.7353 1988 25.1941 25.3441 25.2940 1989 25.6020 25.7520 25.7020 1990 25.4960 25.6360 25.5854 1991 25.4157 25.5657 25.5166 1992 25.3203 25.4553 25.3999 1993 25.2197 25.3697 25.3196 1994 25.0498 25.1998 25.1498 1995 24.8151 24.9651 24.9151 1996 25.2439 25.3939 25.3439 1997 31.1542 31.4817 31.3723 1998 41.0276 41.5850 41.3709 1999 37.6172 37.9618 37.8405 2000 39.9535 40.2694 40.1621 1/ Prior to July 1997, the figures were the rate of the Exchange Equalization Fund (EEF) Source : Bank of Thailand

Table 1a Indo-Pacific mackerel caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 69,866 5,141 12,259 29,238 11,752 3,780 3,837 3,859 1991 55,169 1,494 1,091 17,722 23,929 0 9,865 1,068 1992 88,308 4,126 24,924 38,254 4,972 214 7,510 8,308 1993 68,025 2,553 824 44,944 5,048 360 3,613 10,683 1994 73,944 3,679 19,595 33,230 6,989 14 7,441 2,996 1995 105,323 1,269 34,261 36,530 9,624 74 9,126 14,439 1996 86,617 4,825 32,677 26,525 2,760 0 15,267 4,563 1997 84,620 4,273 31,442 24,105 6,637 0 13,600 4,563 1998 91,943 2,130 25,569 38,459 13,719 0 6,699 5,367 1999 111,366 1,450 27,253 37,336 2,196 0 15,006 27,125 2000 107,667 1,524 21,509 38,699 1,445 0 11,716 32,774 Avg. 85,713 2,951 21,037 33,186 8,097 404 9,425 10,522

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Table 1b Indian mackerel caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 20,922 5,577 1,550 8,120 1,549 3,658 419 49 1991 16,269 8,011 969 6,523 757 0 1 8 1992 29,353 9,639 132 8,156 436 10,506 337 147 1993 33,882 7,633 1,303 4,887 1,094 16,018 979 1,968 1994 49,235 31,645 316 5,188 2,073 9,913 100 0 1995 43,697 7,017 42 4,287 1,643 28,511 1,055 1,142 1996 19,934 3,080 505 4,802 2,607 6,635 2,228 77 1997 18,352 2,748 482 4,519 2,525 5,972 1,994 112 1998 18,475 2,519 2,176 7,437 4,539 0 1,474 330 1999 25,984 1,856 5,446 10,707 3,805 1,011 1,775 1,384 2000 20,561 1,737 1,484 9,953 2,532 657 2,516 1,682 Avg. 26,969 7,406 1,310 6,780 2,142 7,535 1,171 627

Table 1c Spanish mackerel caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 9,223 1,507 393 2,780 2,212 1,379 692 260 1991 6,118 670 205 1,886 1,675 0 1,235 447 1992 6,711 1,017 229 1,271 1,545 104 1,172 1,373 1993 9,568 1,275 212 1,572 1,733 150 1,642 2,984 1994 8,537 2,288 109 947 727 604 1,482 2,380 1995 9,258 1,603 231 1,121 1,174 376 2,513 2,240 1996 8,205 885 370 2,170 1,834 29 2,243 674 1997 7,654 794 358 1,962 1,661 26 1,942 911 1998 7,516 440 767 1,384 3,193 0 807 925 1999 7,922 303 702 1,024 2,430 339 1,180 1,520 2000 6,516 135 607 1,232 1,418 248 1,590 1,539 Avg. 7,930 992 380 1,577 1,782 296 1,500 1,387

Table 1d Longtail tuna caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 101,293 2,642 1,869 5,413 15,416 67,284 4,658 4,011 1991 79,186 4,754 6,521 2,327 2,053 0 63,531 0 1992 72,276 617 2,145 569 3,466 398 3,467 61,614 1993 39,395 1,261 1,300 2,095 3,140 2,131 8,561 20,907 1994 31,767 10,457 14,428 1,900 1,655 865 1,495 967 1995 38,746 7 1,537 850 2,256 351 18,359 15,386 1996 32,235 111 1,732 764 2,795 285 17,672 8,876 1997 29,016 100 1,560 688 2,516 256 15,906 7,990 1998 34,715 1,463 1,102 2,077 4,215 0 12,135 13,723 1999 45,736 339 1,497 1,232 3,290 329 11,710 27,339 2000 52,978 44 1,490 1,280 1,442 219 6,342 42,161 Avg. 50,668 1,981 3,198 1,745 3,840 6,556 14,894 18,452

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Table 1e Little tuna caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 54,915 5,150 1,089 2,777 20,628 14,599 9,799 873 1991 58,763 6,134 270 2,087 3,876 0 46,396 0 1992 84,887 6,707 25 3,827 2,125 7,425 15,074 49,704 1993 67,402 5,691 0 2,895 2,086 9,286 13,784 33,660 1994 67,817 38,960 0 4,224 1,588 15,561 7,272 212 1995 48,117 3,568 0 382 2,781 17,819 9,458 14,109 1996 47,125 926 341 2,643 2,118 8,324 27,569 5,204 1997 42,557 833 307 2,380 2,049 7,491 24,814 4,683 1998 43,930 548 303 592 4,655 0 20,211 17,621 1999 56,681 137 35 712 3,171 1,209 12,947 38,470 2000 43,988 109 80 1,110 1,897 830 11,538 30,424 Avg. 56,017 6,251 223 2,148 4,270 7,504 18,078 17,724

Table 1f Round scad caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 10,676 232 218 997 1,418 72 7,739 0 1991 22,747 53 4 448 898 0 21,344 0 1992 42,525 3,266 795 577 1,297 3,722 32,868 0 1993 46,186 1,380 0 2 892 5,947 37,884 81 1994 38,394 4,753 0 204 0 1,696 31,741 0 1995 54,633 502 0 948 0 7,744 35,755 9,684 1996 52,640 239 0 0 34 2,541 37,370 12,456 1997 47,379 215 0 0 31 2,287 33,634 11,212 1998 57,893 0 0 279 0 0 37,051 20,563 1999 56,461 0 102 2,207 0 2,643 51,071 438 2000 67,902 470 8,321 5,608 0 1,605 51,733 165 Avg. 45,221 1,010 858 1,025 415 2,569 34,381 4,964

Table 1g Hardtail scad caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 13,663 1,447 707 3,451 4,074 806 3,168 10 1991 11,941 5,537 1 383 2,171 0 3,424 425 1992 17,775 530 449 917 1,299 1,915 12,665 0 1993 18,345 1,282 15 241 1,214 3,665 7,053 4,875 1994 20,532 4,707 5 61 1,737 1,843 8,716 3,463 1995 9,474 1,002 3 243 1,096 3,710 2,309 1,111 1996 4,412 858 81 0 929 817 1,421 306 1997 3,947 750 69 0 837 736 1,279 276 1998 7,499 260 471 2,906 391 0 3,172 299 1999 6,232 37 259 1,168 409 340 4,019 0 2000 6,185 35 194 932 0 139 4,885 0 Avg. 10,910 1,495 205 937 1,287 1,270 4,737 979

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Table 1h Bigeye scad caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 21,548 2,823 311 6,715 3,415 512 7,670 102 1991 15,462 692 166 1,315 2,394 0 10,895 0 1992 21,851 876 45 1,920 974 1,340 16,660 36 1993 19,581 1,295 51 540 1,190 2,960 13,544 1 1994 37,080 4,532 87 963 2,347 708 28,427 16 1995 36,449 2,376 77 1,395 2,144 4,388 20,158 5,911 1996 24,533 152 98 6,439 2,156 1,276 10,676 3,736 1997 22,188 136 96 5,799 1,946 1,149 9,495 3,567 1998 24,931 487 406 2,074 1,640 0 18,302 2,022 1999 26,029 103 4,093 9,093 2,274 548 8,206 1,712 2000 29,075 342 6,971 6,518 1,259 535 11,273 2,177 Avg. 25,339 1,256 1,127 3,888 1,976 1,220 14,119 1,753

Table 1i Trevallies caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 36,186 3,007 15,582 9,911 5,154 1,136 887 509 1991 34,574 2,847 21,478 5,254 4,470 0 501 24 1992 41,281 3,416 26,566 2,521 3,590 2,232 2,670 286 1993 40,913 1,498 14,782 13,750 4,963 329 2,347 3,244 1994 54,546 5,711 27,375 8,564 6,734 33 4,798 1,331 1995 46,485 2,657 18,993 1,646 6,942 5,917 7,386 2,944 1996 43,643 3,586 15,729 9,093 6,221 1,142 5,577 2,295 1997 40,731 3,167 14,239 8,193 6,718 1,028 4,805 2,581 1998 33,346 3,818 7,159 6,831 5,851 0 7,495 2,192 1999 35,217 1,743 9,715 8,824 4,705 83 7,224 2,923 2000 30,744 573 12,064 6,007 2,968 62 6,245 2,825 Avg. 39,788 2,911 16,698 7,327 5,301 1,087 4,540 1,923

Table 1j Sardines caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 90,789 14,555 9,276 26,428 20,356 11,746 8,428 0 1991 114,472 7,941 3,120 49,214 7,911 0 46,286 0 1992 141,422 8,689 12,966 66,568 5,699 1,944 45,556 0 1993 112,620 4,558 1,456 67,309 5,503 7,114 19,974 6,706 1994 123,700 5,375 4,785 98,939 7,533 2,195 4,873 0 1995 137,965 1,534 7,239 116,703 6,687 5,517 0 285 1996 159,071 928 5,686 131,712 11,769 862 6,087 2,027 1997 149,177 836 5,742 118,541 15,978 776 5,479 1,825 1998 124,907 1,997 2,447 98,376 12,248 0 8,925 914 1999 126,040 349 17,898 89,088 9,921 220 8,564 0 2000 120,571 412 38,233 78,232 2,528 276 890 0 Avg. 127,339 4,289 9,895 85,555 9,648 2,786 14,097 1,069

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Table 1k Anchovies caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 118,707 107,072 2,493 9,063 39 40 0 0 1991 110,013 52,675 2,579 54,719 1 0 0 39 1992 120,211 72,600 1,978 43,634 86 1,551 156 206 1993 116,648 61,282 5,575 49,119 56 1 80 535 1994 97,343 33,156 1,666 58,812 138 0 1,145 2,426 1995 116,180 62,137 1,214 48,654 39 2 881 3,253 1996 115,217 45,396 3,030 59,858 3,819 0 1,529 1,585 1997 111,482 42,880 2,767 59,149 3,607 0 1,430 1,649 1998 115,747 44,391 3,956 60,541 4,631 0 843 1,385 1999 96,877 37,831 1,017 50,964 5,780 0 466 839 2000 113,665 51,503 2,216 51,967 5,694 0 1,195 1,090 Avg. 112,008 55,538 2,590 49,680 2,172 145 702 1,182

Table 2a Threadfin breams caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 23,583 5,765 829 5,237 4,583 658 4,373 2,138 1991 33,044 12,125 1,030 5,360 8,621 0 220 5,688 1992 51,259 13,187 1,481 5,089 4,451 25 9,661 17,365 1993 57,452 13,007 1,656 3,683 9,192 825 8,334 20,755 1994 55,551 17,610 2,056 3,963 12,167 303 4,785 14,667 1995 71,064 8,671 1,865 5,104 15,306 1,352 22,280 16,486 1996 64,077 7,663 1,055 1,205 5,737 0 27,515 20,902 1997 62,441 6,896 1,006 1,086 5,226 0 24,125 24,102 1998 59,225 5,928 2,833 2,423 7,947 0 17,827 22,267 1999 69,866 5,740 2,011 3,087 6,181 0 22,207 30,640 2000 73,892 6,838 1,552 4,487 6,661 0 19,392 34,962 Avg. 56,496 9,403 1,579 3,702 7,825 288 14,611 19,088

Table 2b Lizard fishes caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 12,985 1,985 492 3,846 2,056 528 3,068 1,010 1991 19,994 3,992 504 4,101 4,842 0 217 6,338 1992 30,789 3,617 458 5,037 2,564 8 8,774 10,331 1993 42,485 4,430 1,206 4,828 4,351 463 12,063 15,144 1994 34,973 5,828 861 3,751 4,715 121 8,741 10,956 1995 58,482 2,643 1,096 5,012 5,094 1,574 9,607 33,456 1996 51,004 2,870 1,471 626 7,673 0 18,704 19,660 1997 62,397 2,610 1,404 572 6,934 0 12,295 38,582 1998 35,289 1,832 945 1,323 9,083 0 8,536 13,570 1999 60,534 2,224 541 2,374 6,998 0 8,966 39,431 2000 52,601 1,826 561 1,131 4,079 0 7,327 37,677 Avg. 41,958 3,078 867 2,964 5,308 245 8,936 20,560

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Table 2c Snappers caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 3,154 196 210 113 1,105 138 609 783 1991 2,633 397 256 195 1,014 0 0 771 1992 4,977 517 162 205 67 0 704 3,322 1993 10,676 448 194 248 573 41 619 8,553 1994 7,977 606 8 296 1,420 69 513 5,065 1995 8,658 391 165 244 2,035 54 991 4,778 1996 8,962 221 235 181 3,284 2 2,360 2,679 1997 8,383 206 226 165 2,970 2 1,720 3,094 1998 11,360 725 193 373 1,974 0 5,586 2,509 1999 8,470 155 121 600 2,409 0 1,451 3,734 2000 5,207 151 227 331 1,228 0 887 2,383 Avg. 7,314 365 182 268 1,644 28 1,404 3,425

Table 2d Big-eyes caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 19,438 4,618 954 4,350 6,509 622 1,876 509 1991 24,899 8,213 882 4,335 6,380 0 327 4,762 1992 36,221 9,062 323 4,165 2,504 153 10,745 9,269 1993 49,710 10,994 759 2,918 11,560 971 8,600 13,908 1994 44,674 13,607 843 2,797 12,696 281 4,686 9,764 1995 57,723 7,807 672 3,895 12,048 1,396 15,809 16,096 1996 67,411 7,445 810 1,558 21,173 0 26,418 10,007 1997 62,673 6,695 770 1,426 19,249 0 23,521 11,012 1998 64,871 4,095 2,052 1,847 20,995 0 16,417 19,465 1999 71,065 4,610 1,774 3,080 16,111 0 19,223 26,267 2000 65,166 5,629 1,102 3,238 12,586 0 15,800 26,811 Avg. 51,259 7,525 995 3,055 12,892 311 13,038 13,443

Table 2e Groupers caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 1,156 163 84 247 156 100 341 65 1991 1,537 348 107 339 452 0 11 280 1992 2,666 510 129 277 162 0 1,171 417 1993 2,742 448 152 209 613 63 479 778 1994 5,598 721 34 193 2,015 35 572 2,028 1995 5,257 352 136 310 1,677 51 798 1,933 1996 5,662 277 201 153 2,721 0 1,463 847 1997 5,515 253 194 140 2,475 0 1,130 1,323 1998 4,904 196 166 304 1,501 0 1,148 1,589 1999 5,420 228 140 586 1,028 0 1,260 2,178 2000 4,843 233 225 258 708 0 1,169 2,250 Avg. 4,118 339 143 274 1,228 23 867 1,244

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Table 3a Banana prawn caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 1,652 271 465 162 248 0 494 12 1991 1,494 542 307 290 328 0 20 7 1992 2,089 154 441 338 372 0 181 603 1993 1,734 341 632 365 354 15 27 0 1994 2,431 1,247 328 449 365 0 36 6 1995 2,445 88 623 384 307 0 1,022 21 1996 1,429 48 558 297 302 0 204 20 1997 1,354 48 532 267 300 0 187 20 1998 2,342 47 418 154 644 0 1,023 56 1999 2,339 135 769 219 401 0 89 726 2000 3,651 91 983 936 728 0 130 783 Avg. 2,087 274 551 351 395 1 310 205

Table 3b Jumbo tiger prawns caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 59 10 23 25 0 0 0 1 1991 135 29 49 41 15 0 1 0 1992 154 0 37 73 44 0 0 0 1993 167 4 35 59 45 19 5 0 1994 363 61 34 140 124 0 3 1 1995 317 3 12 189 101 0 12 0 1996 527 13 50 201 153 0 92 18 1997 495 13 50 180 149 0 85 18 1998 253 7 73 73 31 0 22 47 1999 829 60 37 64 104 0 15 549 2000 1,096 32 59 371 63 0 43 528 Avg. 400 21 42 129 75 2 25 106

Table 3c Tiger prawns caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 245 83 7 118 6 0 31 0 1991 319 159 2 121 18 0 19 0 1992 283 168 0 79 0 0 36 0 1993 308 185 0 70 13 0 40 0 1994 543 230 0 81 85 0 78 69 1995 670 139 0 45 61 0 215 210 1996 1,041 159 3 75 68 0 579 157 1997 1,023 144 3 73 68 0 406 329 1998 839 81 2 118 60 0 176 402 1999 587 156 0 20 136 0 146 129 2000 713 124 18 35 187 0 188 161 Avg. 597 148 3 76 64 0 174 132

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Table 3d King prawns caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 644 187 71 192 166 0 28 0 1991 1,029 212 84 371 350 0 12 0 1992 592 114 16 425 24 0 13 0 1993 400 109 15 267 6 0 3 0 1994 308 9 109 170 7 0 10 3 1995 368 61 0 167 94 0 3 43 1996 498 10 47 232 95 0 71 43 1997 500 10 47 216 89 0 59 79 1998 440 5 133 49 153 0 18 82 1999 287 20 74 134 46 0 4 9 2000 948 11 93 717 53 0 27 47 Avg. 547 68 63 267 98 0 23 28

Table 3e Other shrimps caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 58,110 1,772 7,589 11,115 36,418 39 1,069 108 1991 69,486 950 11,067 24,305 32,084 0 723 357 1992 61,195 647 13,032 17,536 27,782 82 1,382 734 1993 63,815 1,619 13,509 21,919 23,758 305 1,165 1,450 1994 64,314 547 12,570 19,089 29,423 0 1,195 1,490 1995 65,774 240 17,437 10,449 34,077 0 1,787 1,784 1996 68,639 371 12,528 11,496 35,844 0 7,984 416 1997 65,140 353 11,753 10,210 34,765 0 7,167 892 1998 43,078 659 9,794 7,537 21,356 0 1,601 2,131 1999 32,908 971 9,054 5,463 14,846 0 250 2,324 2000 36,891 1,022 9,399 5,969 15,548 0 2,462 2,491 Avg. 57,214 832 11,612 13,190 27,809 39 2,435 1,289

Table 3f Flathead lobsters caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 853 103 94 179 260 17 166 34 1991 923 20 170 56 436 0 11 230 1992 766 11 27 48 82 0 369 229 1993 1,053 119 55 262 167 5 163 282 1994 858 47 33 52 201 0 162 363 1995 1,669 10 117 20 311 0 113 1,098 1996 2,629 57 328 167 1,156 0 357 564 1997 2,687 57 311 152 1,050 0 285 832 1998 2,957 29 368 109 1,038 0 491 922 1999 1,746 3 12 66 646 0 83 936 2000 2,254 2 61 157 575 0 289 1,170 Avg. 1,672 42 143 115 538 2 226 605

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Table 3g Mantis shrimps caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 314 66 72 107 45 0 15 9 1991 382 17 9 305 37 0 0 14 1992 165 10 2 117 6 0 16 14 1993 166 25 8 109 9 0 2 13 1994 296 77 20 180 8 0 3 8 1995 184 63 37 64 11 0 6 3 1996 181 26 65 46 37 0 7 0 1997 176 25 65 45 34 0 7 0 1998 427 2 163 1 60 0 57 144 1999 750 4 387 269 76 0 12 3 2000 866 17 223 609 4 0 13 0 Avg. 355 30 96 168 30 0 13 19

Table 3h Swimming crabs caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 9,993 595 4,213 1,609 3,035 169 302 70 1991 6,532 683 731 2,576 2,052 0 132 358 1992 5,942 497 1,155 1,841 1,176 168 803 302 1993 6,733 559 756 2,043 2,522 61 524 268 1994 8,709 539 834 2,094 4,243 0 552 447 1995 9,321 425 889 997 4,852 4 726 1,428 1996 12,285 569 1,229 1,998 6,360 0 1,517 612 1997 11,408 515 1,166 1,804 5,875 0 1,330 718 1998 9,183 213 707 1,243 5,273 0 1,250 497 1999 7,008 163 588 998 4,311 0 605 340 2000 8,577 187 669 1,236 5,368 0 710 407 Avg. 8,699 450 1,176 1,676 4,097 37 768 495

Table 3i Common squids caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 35,048 6,775 2,064 8,367 12,877 1,759 2,463 743 1991 33,915 5,826 1,910 9,752 14,413 0 338 1,676 1992 29,243 4,707 2,056 6,258 7,893 706 3,207 4,416 1993 35,257 6,084 1,782 5,157 13,078 1,272 2,910 4,974 1994 33,166 5,842 1,771 4,780 12,957 241 2,520 5,055 1995 38,431 4,427 1,759 4,314 12,393 2,165 5,607 7,766 1996 37,802 4,556 2,002 3,473 10,551 0 8,883 8,337 1997 35,773 4,092 1,879 3,168 9,677 0 7,799 9,158 1998 34,442 2,839 2,205 4,207 10,342 0 5,681 9,168 1999 40,246 3,592 3,012 3,875 9,422 0 7,276 13,069 2000 48,911 3,722 5,339 9,235 8,190 0 9,532 12,893 Avg. 36,567 4,769 2,344 5,690 11,072 558 5,111 7,023

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Table 3j Cuttlefish caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 37,352 3,924 2,036 10,039 16,085 725 3,620 923 1991 41,645 5,680 4,449 11,125 15,334 0 464 4,593 1992 39,321 7,767 2,866 7,831 7,853 282 6,780 5,942 1993 36,574 5,673 1,766 7,505 10,938 645 5,141 4,906 1994 34,342 4,963 1,433 6,317 12,229 81 4,146 5,173 1995 37,190 3,296 2,006 5,344 11,874 778 4,385 9,507 1996 37,640 2,787 2,271 2,905 9,643 0 9,232 10,802 1997 37,439 2,494 2,138 2,643 8,840 0 7,655 13,669 1998 36,928 2,310 2,039 2,992 10,699 0 5,762 13,126 1999 37,945 2,594 2,417 2,366 8,716 0 6,498 15,354 2000 35,841 2,345 2,201 2,470 7,154 0 6,413 15,258 Avg. 37,474 3,985 2,329 5,594 10,851 228 5,463 9,023

Table 3k Octopus caught by commercial fishing gears in specific areas of the Gulf of Thailand from 1990 to 2000.

Year Total (mt) Area 1000 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area A Area B 1990 15,729 883 2,050 3,704 7,857 294 866 75 1991 13,960 1,192 1,952 6,045 3,949 0 249 573 1992 14,646 1,034 1,673 6,264 1,942 211 1,992 1,530 1993 13,681 1,089 1,883 4,489 2,478 120 1,870 1,752 1994 11,145 1,012 947 3,856 2,572 32 1,295 1,431 1995 10,795 690 1,600 1,933 1,841 372 1,266 3,093 1996 12,718 578 1,790 2,242 3,291 0 3,090 1,727 1997 12,112 520 1,695 2,049 3,043 0 2,621 2,184 1998 12,949 843 1,626 2,104 3,296 0 1,845 3,235 1999 11,961 1,048 1,697 1,209 3,370 0 1,646 2,991 2000 10,866 449 1,900 1,081 4,015 0 1,877 1,544 Avg. 12,778 849 1,710 3,180 3,423 94 1,692 1,830

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APPENDIX 2 Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered, Vulnerable, and Threatened Marine Species in Thailand No. Type Scienticific name Common name Local name Status (Thai name) 1 Mammal Orcaella brevirostris Irrawady dolphin Loma erawadee CR 2 Mammal Dugong dugon Sea cow, Dugong Payoon CR

3 Mammal Mesoplodon ginkgodens Ginkgotoothed beaked whale Wal fun khaew CR

4 Mammal Peponocephala electra Melonheaded whale Wal hua tang mo EN

5 Mammal Steno bredanensis Roughtoothed dolphin Loma fun hang EN

6 Mammal Delphinus capensis Longbeaked common dolphin Lonma pak yoa EN

7 Mammal Balaenoptera physalus Fin whale Wal fin EN

8 Mammal Balaenoptera edeni Bryde's whale Wal sit tang EN

9 Mammal Physeter macrocephalus Sperm whale Wal hua tui EN

10 Mammal Kogia breviceps Pigmy sperm whale Wal hua tui lex EN

11 Mammal Kogia simus Dwarf sperm whale Wal hua tui kak EN

12 Mammal Orcinus orca Killer whale Wal pet cha kart EN

13 Mammal Globicephalus macrorhynchus Pigmy killer whale Wal num rong krep sun EN

14 Mammal Stenella coeruleoalba Striped dolphin Loma tab EN

15 Mammal Stenella attenuata Spotted dolphin Loma jud EN

16 Mammal Feresa attenuata Pygmy killer whale Wal petchakart lex EN

17 Mammal Neophocaena phcaenoides Finless porpoise Loma hua baht lan leab EN

18 Mammal Sousa chinensis Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphin Loma perk EN

19 Mammal Stenella longirostris Spinner dolphin Loma kadod EN

20 Mammal Tursiops aduncus/truncatus Bottlenose dolphin Loma pakkhod EN

21 Mammal Pseudorca crassidens False killer whale Wal petchabart dum EN

22 Fishes Macrochirichthys macrochirus Dab loas EN

23 Fishes Tetraodon baileyi Pukpult khon EN

24 Fishes Sphyrna blochii Wing hammerhead shark Chalam hua korn yao EN

25 Fishes Chiloscyllium plagiosum Whitespot bambooshark Chalammalayoo chalamhin VU

26 Fishes Carcharhinus brachyurus Copper shark Chalamkeepdang VU

27 Fishes Carcharhinus obscurus Dusky shark Chalamtow VU

28 Fishes Rhizoprionodon acutus Milk shark Chalamhualeam VU

29 Fishes Rhina ancylostoma Bighead quitarfish Ronin krabentongnum VU

30 Fishes Rhinobatos granulatus Rough-backed guitarfish Ronun emud VU

31 Fishes Rhinobatos thouini Bottlenosed guitarfish Emod emud VU

32 Fishes Narcine brunnea Brown Krabenfirefahseenumtan VU 33 Fishes Narcine maculata Blotched electric ray Krabenfirefajudkem VU

34 Fishes Narke dipterygia Electric ray Krabenfirefa VU

35 Fishes Dasyatis brevicaudatus Smooth stingray Krabenhangsun VU

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APPENDIX 2 cont. Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered, Vulnerable, and Threatened Marine Species in Thailand.

No. Type Scienticific name Common name Local name Status (Thai name) 36 Fishes Himantura gerrardi White spotted whipray Krabenjudkao krabenma VU

37 Fishes Aetomylaeus maculatus Mottled eagle ray Krabennokjudkao VU 38 Fishes Aetomylaeus nichofii Nieuhof's eagle ray Krabennokbung VU

39 Fishes Chiloscyllium griseum Grey bambooshark Chalamtookkae chalamkob VU

40 Fishes Stegostoma fasciatum Nurseshark, zebrashark Chalamsuar suartalay VU 41 Fishes Carcharhinus albimarginatus Silvertip shark Chalamplaykeebkao VU

42 Fishes Carcharhinus amboinensis Greyreef shark Chalamtalek VU

43 Fishes Carcharhinus plumbeus Sandbar shark Chalamkradonqsung VU 44 Fishes Rhizoprionodon oligolinx Sharpnose shark Chalamhualeam VU

45 Fishes Rhychobatus australiae White-spotted shovelnose ray Ronunjudkao VU

46 Fishes Rhinobatos schlegelii Brown quitarfish Ronumhuasai VU 47 Fishes Rhinobatos typus Giant shovelnose ray Ronumyak VU

48 Fishes Narcine indica Large spotted numbfish Krabenfirefa indea VU

49 Fishes Narcine prodorsalis Tonkin numbfish Krabenfirefa judlek VU 50 Fishes Temera hardwickii Smooth electric ray Krabenfirefa, plaseal VU

51 Fishes Himantura uarnak Reticulate whip ray Krabenpakleam VU

52 Fishes Aetomylaeus milvus Ocellate eage ray Krabennok VU 53 Fishes Rhinoptera adspersa Rough cownose ray Krabenjamookwua VU

54 Fishes Chirocentrus nudus Smooth wolf herring Dablaosun VU

55 Fishes Setipinna melanochir Duskyhairfin anchovy Meawhudum VU 56 Fishes Narcine brunnea Brown electric ray Krabenfirefaseenumtan VU

57 Fishes Epinephelus coioides Orange spotted grouper Karangjudnumtan VU

58 Fishes Lobotes surinamensis Brown tripletail Kapongkeesao VU 59 Fishes Gymuura poecilura Longtail butterfly ray Krabenpesuar VU

60 Fishes Tetraodon suvatti Puffers fish Pukpao VU

61 Fishes Aetobatus narinari Spot eagle ray Krabenkangkao TH 62 Fishes Carcharhinus leucas Bull shark Chalamhuamart TH

63 Fishes Cromileptes altivelis Humpback grouper Karangnangon TH

64 Fishes Epinephelus lanceolatus grouper, Brindle bass Mortalay TH 65 Fishes Triaenodon obesus Whitetip reef shark Chalam keepkao TH

66 Reptile Dermochelys coriacea Leathery turtle Taomaphaung CR

67 Reptile Caretta caretta Loggerhead turtle Tao huakon CR 68 Reptile Chelonia mydas Green turtle Tao tanu EN

69 Reptile Eretmochelys imbricata Howksbill turtle Taokra EN

70 Reptile Crocodylys porosus Estuarine crocodlie, Salt water Jarakaenumkem EN crocodile Remarks : EX = Extinct CR = Critically endangered species EN = Endangered species VU = Vulnerable species TH = Threatened species

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND APPENDIX 3 PAGE 1

APPENDIX 3 Fishes Found in Habitats of the Gulf of Thailand

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 1 Acanthuridae Acanthurus mata (Cuvier, 1829) Elongate surgeonfish x 2 Acanthuridae Naso lituratus x 3 Acropomatidae Malakichthys wakiyae Temperate Ocean-bass x 4 Akysidae Akysis macronemus Stream Catfish x 5 Ambassidae Ambassis buruensis Bleeker, 1857 Buru Glass Perchlet x x 6 Ambassidae Ambassis commersoni Commerson's Perchlet x 7 Ambassidae Ambassis dayi Perchlet x 8 Ambassidae Ambassis gymnocephalus (Lacepede, 1802) Bald Glassfish x 9 Ambassidae Ambassis interruptus Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1828 Longspined perchlet x x x 10 Ambassidae Ambassis kopsii Bleeker, 1858 Freckled Hawkfish x x x 11 Ambassidae Ambassis macracanthus Bleeker, 1849 Bleeker's wasp fish x x 12 Ambassidae Ambassis ranga Indian Glassy Fish x 13 Ambassidae Ambassis siamensis Glassfish x 14 Ambassidae Ambassis sp. 1 x x 15 Ambassidae Ambassis urotaenis Bleeker, 1852 Bunded-tail Glassy x Perchlet 16 Ambassidae Ambassis vachellii Richardson, 1846 x x 17 Ambassidae Ambassis wolffii Perchlet x 18 Amblycipitidae Amblyceps sp. x 19 Anabantidae Anabas testudineus Common Climbing Perch x 20 Anabatidae Osphronemus goramy Giant Gourami x 21 Anguillidae Anguilla bicolor bicolor McClelland, 1844 Freshwater Eel x x 22 Apochelidae Apocheilus panchaxDay, 1875 Blue Panchax x x 23 Apogonidae Apogon aureus (Lacepede, 1802) Ring-tailed cardinalfish x 24 Apogonidae Apogon cf. hyalosoma x 25 Apogonidae Apogon cookii x 26 Apogonidae Apogon cyanosoma x 27 Apogonidae Apogon exostigma x 28 Apogonidae Apogon fasciatus Shaw, 1790 x x 29 Apogonidae Apogon hyalosoma Bleeker, 1853 x x 30 Apogonidae Apogon kallopterus x 31 Apogonidae Apogon kalosoma x 32 Apogonidae Apogon Leptacanthus x 33 Apogonidae Apogon nigrofasciatus x 34 Apogonidae Apogon novemfasciatus x 35 Apogonidae Apogon sangiensis Sangi Caardinalfish x 36 Apogonidae Apogon semilineatus Temmink & Schelgel, 1843 Black-tipped cardinalfish x 37 Apogonidae Apogon septemstriatus x 38 Apogonidae Apogon sp.1 x x 39 Apogonidae Apogon spp. Cardinalfish x x 40 Apogonidae Apogon taeniophorus x 41 Apogonidae Apogon thermalis Valenciennes, 1829 Thermal Cardinalfish x 42 Apogonidae Apogon trimaculatus x 43 Apogonidae Cheilodipterus artus x 44 Apogonidae Cheilodipterus macrodon Eightlined Cardinal x x 45 Apogonidae Cheilodipterus quinquelineatus Toothed Cardinal x x 46 Apogonidae Cheiloprion labiatus x 47 Apogonidae Fowleria variegata (Valenciennes, 1832) x 48 Ariidae Apogon ventrifasciatus Allen, Kuiter & Randall, x 1828 49 Ariidae Archamia fucata x 50 Ariidae Archamia goni x 51 Ariidae Arius caelatus (Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1840) Engraved catfish x x 52 Ariidae Arius gagora Seacatfish x 53 Ariidae Arius maculatus(Thunberg, 1792) Spotted catfish x 54 Ariidae Arius sagor(Buchanan, 1822) Sagor catfish x 55 Ariidae Arius sp. Seacatfish x 56 Ariidae Arius spp. Seacatfish x 57 Ariidae Arius thalassinus(Ruppell, 1837) Salmon catfish x 58 Ariidae Batrachocephalus mino Frog Seacatfish x 59 Ariidae Hemiarius stormi Seacatfish x 60 Ariidae Hemipimelodus borneensis Sea Catfish x 61 Ariidae Hemipimelodus sp. Sea Catfish x 62 Ariidae Ketengus typus Typus Catfish x 63 Ariidae Osteogeneiosus nilitaris Seacatfish x 64 Atherinidae Hypoatherina temminckki x 65 Atheriniidae Atherinomorus duodecimalis (Cuvier, 1835) x x x 66 Bagridae Bagroides siamensis Bagrid Catfish x 67 Bagridae Batasio tengana Bagrid Catfish x

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND APPENDIX 3 PAGE 2

Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 68 Bagridae Hemibagrus bocourti Bagrid Catfish x 69 Bagridae Hemibagrus nemurus Yellow Mystus x 70 Bagridae Hemibagrus wyckii Bagrid Catfish x 71 Bagridae Heterobagrus bocourti Bocourt's River Catfish x 72 Bagridae Leiocassis poecilopterus Bagrid Catfish x 73 Bagridae Leiocassis siamensis Siamese Rock Catfish x 74 Bagridae Mystus cavasius Long-fatty Finned Mystus x 75 Bagridae Mystus gulio (Hamliton, 1822) Long Whiskers Catfish x x 76 Bagridae Mystus micracanthus Twospot Catfish x 77 Bagridae Mystus mysticetus Catfish x 78 Bagridae Mystus planiceps Catfish x 79 Bagridae Mystus sp. Catfish x 80 Bagridae Mystus vittatus Iridescent Mystus x 81 Bagridae Mystus wolffi Catfish x 82 Bagridae Mystus wyckii Bagrid Catfish x 83 Balistidae Balistoides viridescens x 84 Balitoridae Homaloptera orthogoniata River Loach x 85 Balitoridae Homaloptera septemfasciata River Loach x 86 Balitoridae Homaloptera smithi River Loach x 87 Balitoridae Homaloptera sp. River Loach x 88 Balitoridae Homaloptera zollingeri River Loach x 89 Batrachoididae Allenbatrachus grunniens (Linnaeus, 1758) Grunting toadfish x 90 Batrachoididae Batrachus grunniens Toad Fish x 91 Batrachoididae Batrichthys grunniens (Linnaeus, 1758) x 92 Belonidae Strongylura strongylura (Van Hassch, 1823) Spottail needlefish x x 93 Belonidae Strongyrura incisa x 94 Belonidae Tylosurus acus melanotus x 95 Belonidae Tylosurus crocodilus crocodilus (Peron et Le Hound needlefish x x x Sueur, 1821) 96 Belonidae Tylosurus sp. x 97 Belonidae Xenenthodon cancilla Round-tailed Garfish x 98 Belonidae Xenenthodon sp. Freshwater Garfish x 99 Beloniformes Ablennes hians(Valenciennes, 1846) Flat needlefish x 100 Blenniella Istiblennius dussumieri x 101 Blenniella Istiblennius edentulus x 102 Blenniidae Blenniella bilitonensis x 103 Blenniidae Cirripectes filamentosus x 104 Blenniidae Enchelyurus kraussi x 105 Blenniidae Laiphognathus multimaculatus x 106 Blenniidae Omobranchus fasciolatus Erhenberg, 1839 x 107 Blenniidae Omobranchus ferox (Herre, 1927) x 108 Blenniidae Omobranchus punctatus (Valenciennes, 1836) x 109 Blenniidae Omox biporos x 110 Blenniidae Parenchelyurus hepburni x 111 Blenniidae Petrocirtes variabilis Cantor, 1850 x 112 Blenniidae Salarias fasciatus x 113 Bothidae Arnoglosus sp. x 114 Bothidae Pseudorhombus arsius (Hamilton, 1822) Largetooth flounder x x x 115 Bothidae Pseudorhombus elevatus Ogilby, 1912 Deepbody flounder x 116 Bothidae Pseudorhombus malayanus Bleeker, 1866 Roughscale flounder x 117 Caesionidae Caesio caerulaurea x 118 Caesionidae Caesio coerulaureus Lacepede, 1801 Blue and gold fusilier x 119 Caesionidae Caesio cuning Redbelly yellowtail fusilier x x 120 Caesionidae Caesio lunaris x 121 Caesionidae Caesio xanthonotus Fusilier x 122 Caesionidae Pterocaesio chrysozona x 123 Caesionidae Pterocaesio tile x 124 Callionymidae Callionymus enneactis x 125 Callionymidae Callionymus filamentosus x 126 Callionymidae Callionymus hindsi Richardson, 1844 x 127 Callionymidae Callionymus sagitta Arrowhead Dragonet x 128 Callionymidae Callionymus schaapii Bleeker, 1852 Dragonet x x 129 Callionymidae Callionymus spp. x 130 Carangidae Alectis indicus (Ruppell, 1828) Indian threadfin x x 131 Carangidae Alepes djedaba (Forsskal, 1775) Djedaba crevalle/Solar x x sacd 132 Carangidae Alepes kleinii (Bloch, 1793) Bonded scad x x 133 Carangidae Alepes vari (Cuvier, 1833) Herring scad x x 134 Carangidae Atule mate (Cuvier, 1833) Yellowtail scad x x x 135 Carangidae Carangoides armatus (Ruppell, 1830) Longfin trevally x x

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND APPENDIX 3 PAGE 3

Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 136 Carangidae Carangoides bajad x 137 Carangidae Carangoides ferdau (Forsskal, 1775) Blue trevally x 138 Carangidae Carangoides praeustus Bennett, 1830 Brownback trevally x x 139 Carangidae Caranx djedaba Shrimp scad x 140 Carangidae Caranx kalla Shrimp scad x 141 Carangidae Caranx sexfasciatus Quoy & Gaimard, 1824 Bigeye trevally x x x 142 Carangidae Caranx sp. Shrimp scad x 143 Carangidae Chorinemus lysan Doublespotted Queenfish x 144 Carangidae Chorinemus tol Needlescaled Queenfish x 145 Carangidae Gnathanodon speciosus x 146 Carangidae Scomberoides commersonianus Laccpede, 1801 Talang queenfish x x 147 Carangidae Scomberoides lysan Double-spotted queenfish x x 148 Carangidae Scomberoides tol (Cuvier, 1832) Needlescales queenfish x x 149 Carangidae Selaroides leptolepis (Cuvier, 1833) Yellow-stripe scad x x 150 Carangidae Selaroides sp. Yellowstripe Scad x 151 Carcharhinidae Carcharhinus melanopterus x 152 Carcharhinidae Carcharhinus sp. Requien sharks x 153 Centriscidae Aeoliscus strigatus(Gunther, 1860) Blacklined razorfish x 154 Centropomidae Chanda baculis x 155 Centropomidae Chanda siamensis Siamese Glassfish x 156 Centropomidae Chanda sp. Asiatic Glassfishes x 157 Centropomidae Lates calcarifer (Bloch, 1790) Giant seaperch x x x 158 Centropomidae Parambassis ranga Indian Glassy Fish x 159 Centropomidae Parambassis siamensis Indian Glassy Fish x 160 Centropomidae Psamoperca waigiensis x 161 Chaetodontidae Chaetodon octofasciatus Eight-banded Butterflyfish x x 162 Chaetodontidae Chaetodon sp. x 163 Chaetodontidae Chaetodon wiebeli x 164 Chaetodontidae Chelmon rostratus Long-nosed Butterflyfish x x 165 Chaetodontidae (Cuvier, 1831) Orange-banded coralfish x x 166 Chaetodontidae Heniochus acuminatus (Linnaeus, 1758) Featherfin Butterflyfish x x x x 167 Chaetodontidae Parachaetodon ocellatus (Cuvier, 1831) Ocellated Butterflyfish x x x x 168 Chaetodontidae Pomacanthus annularis Six-ined Anglefish x x 169 Chaetodontidae Pomacanthus sexstriatus Six-banded Anglefish x x 170 Channidae Chanda wolffii x 171 Channidae Channa limbata Red-tailed Shakehead x 172 Channidae Channa lucius Blotched Snake-head Fish x 173 Channidae Channa micropeltes Giant Snake-head Fish x 174 Channidae Channa siamensis x 175 Channidae Channa sp. x 176 Channidae Channa striatus Striped Snake-head Fish x 177 Channidae Chanos chanos (Forsskal, 1775) Milk fish x x 178 Chirocentridae Chirocentrus dorab (Forsskal, 1775) Dorab wolf herring x x 179 Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambica Java Tilapia x 180 Cichlidae Oreochromis nilotica Nile Tilapia x 181 Clariidae Clarias batrachus Batrachian Walking x Catfish 182 Clariidae Clarias macrocephalus Gunther's Walking Catfish x 183 Clariidae Genus prophagorus Nieuhof's Walking Catfish x 184 Clupeidae Amblygaster sirm (Walbaum, 1792) Spotted sardinella x 185 Clupeidae Anodontostoma chacunda (Hamilton, 1822) Chacunda gizzaard shad x x x 186 Clupeidae Clarias meladerma Catfish x 187 Clupeidae Clupea atricauda Bleeker's Blacktip x Sardinella 188 Clupeidae Clupeichthys aesarnensis Thai River Sprat x 189 Clupeidae Clupeichthys goniognathus Sumatran River Sprat x 190 Clupeidae Clupeoides lile x 191 Clupeidae Clupeoides sp. x 192 Clupeidae Dussumieria elopsoides Bleeker, 1849 x 193 Clupeidae Escualosa thoracata (Valenciennes, 1847) White sardine x x 194 Clupeidae Herklotsichthys dispilonotus Two Spot Herring x 195 Clupeidae Herklotsichthys qradrimaculatus x 196 Clupeidae Hilsa kelee (Cuvier, 1829) x x 197 Clupeidae Sardinella albella (Valenciennes, 1847) White sardinella x x 198 Clupeidae Spratelloides gracilis (Temminch & Schlegel, 1846) Striped Roundherring x x x x 199 Cobitidae Acanthopsis choirorhynchos Horseface Loach x 200 Cobitidae Botia beauforti Botia x 201 Cobitidae Botia eos Red-tail Botia x 202 Cobitidae Botia helodes Botia x 203 Cobitidae Botia modesta Yellow-tail Botia x

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND APPENDIX 3 PAGE 4

Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 204 Cobitidae Botia sidthimunki Aree Botia x 205 Cobitidae Botia sp. Botia x 206 Cobitidae Cobitophis anguillaris Loach x 207 Cobitidae Lepidocephalichthys sp. Loach x 208 Cobitidae Lepidocephalus octocirrhis Loach x 209 Cobitidae Pangio anguillaris Loach x 210 Cobitidae Pangio kuhlii Khuli Loach x 211 Cobitidae Pangio myersi Loach x 212 Cobitidae Pangio pangia Java Loach x 213 Coiidae Coius microlepis Siamese Tiger Fish x 214 Coiidae Coius quadrifasciatus Striped Bass, Rock Bass x 215 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus arel (Schneider, 1801) Largescale tonguesole x 216 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus bilineatus (Lacepede, 1802) Fourlined tongue sole x 217 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus lida (Bleeker, 1851) Twonostrils tongue sole x x 218 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus lingua Hamilton & Buchanan, 1822 Long tongue sole x x 219 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus macrolepidotus Largescale tongue sole x 220 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus microlepis Freshwater x 221 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus oligolepis Tonguesole x 222 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus puncticeps (Richardson, 1846) Speckled tonguesole x x x 223 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus semifasciatus Day, 1878 - 1888 x x 224 Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus sp. Tonguesole x 225 Cynoglossidae Paraplagusia blochi Two Lined Tongue Sole x 226 Cyprinidae Albulichthys albuloides Minnow x 227 Cyprinidae Amblyrhynchichthys truncatus Minnow x 228 Cyprinidae Balantiocheilos melanopterus Black-tipped Silver Shark x 229 Cyprinidae Bangana behri x 230 Cyprinidae Barbichthys laevis Golden Carp x 231 Cyprinidae Barbodes altus Red-tail Tinfoil Barb x 232 Cyprinidae Barbodes goninotus Common Silver barb x 233 Cyprinidae Barbodes schwanenfeldi Schwanenfeld's Barb x 234 Cyprinidae Barillius guttatus Barillius x 235 Cyprinidae Barillius nanensis Barillius x 236 Cyprinidae Barillius ornatus Barillius x 237 Cyprinidae Boraras micros x 238 Cyprinidae Catlocarpio siamensis Siamese gisnt carp x 239 Cyprinidae Chela caeruleostigmata Leaping Barb x 240 Cyprinidae Chela laubuca Indian Glass Barb x 241 Cyprinidae Cirrhinus chinensis Mud Carp x 242 Cyprinidae Cirrhinus cryptopogon Mud Carp x 243 Cyprinidae Cirrhinus jullien Jullien's Mud Carp x 244 Cyprinidae Cirrhinus macrosemion Mud Carp x 245 Cyprinidae Cirrhinus microlepis Smallscale Mud Carp x 246 Cyprinidae Cirrhinus prosemion Smallscale Mud Carp x 247 Cyprinidae Cirrhinus spiropleura Jullien's Mud Carp x 248 Cyprinidae Crossocheilus oblongus Siamese Flying Fox x 249 Cyprinidae Crossocheilus reticulatus Loach x 250 Cyprinidae Crossocheilus siamensis Hying Fox x 251 Cyprinidae Cyclocheilichthys apogon Indian River Barb x 252 Cyprinidae Cyclocheilichthys armatus River Barb x 253 Cyprinidae Cyclocheilichthys enoplos Soldier River Barb x 254 Cyprinidae Cyclocheilichthys heteronema River Barb x 255 Cyprinidae Cyclocheilichthys repasson River Barb x 256 Cyprinidae Cyprinus carpio Common carp x 257 Cyprinidae Danio albolineatus Danio x 258 Cyprinidae Danio regina Blue Danio x 259 Cyprinidae Discherodontus schroederi x 260 Cyprinidae Epalzeorhynchos bicolor Red-tailed Black Shark x 261 Cyprinidae Epalzeorhynchos frenatus Red-finned Black Shark x 262 Cyprinidae Epalzeorhynchos kallopterus Flying Fox x 263 Cyprinidae Epalzeorhynchos sp. Black Shark x 264 Cyprinidae Esomus metallicus Flying Rasbora x 265 Cyprinidae Garra cambodgiensis Stonelapping Ninow x 266 Cyprinidae Garra fuliginosa Loach x 267 Cyprinidae Garra sp. Loach x 268 Cyprinidae Garra taeniata Stonelapping Ninow x 269 Cyprinidae Hampala diapar Eye-spot Barb x 270 Cyprinidae Hampala macrolepidota Transverse-bar-barb x 271 Cyprinidae Henicorhynchus caudimaculatus x 272 Cyprinidae Henicorhynchus cryptopogon x 273 Cyprinidae Henicorhynchus siamensis Mud Carp x

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND APPENDIX 3 PAGE 5

Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 274 Cyprinidae Hypophthalmichthys molitrix Silver Carp x 275 Cyprinidae Hypophthalmichthys nobilis Bighead Carp x 276 Cyprinidae Hypsibarbus wetmorei x 277 Cyprinidae Labeo behri Carp x 278 Cyprinidae Labeo bicolor Redtail Sharkminow x 279 Cyprinidae Labeo dyocheilus x 280 Cyprinidae Labeo erythrurus x 281 Cyprinidae Labeo rohita Rohu x 282 Cyprinidae Labeo sp. x 283 Cyprinidae Labiobarbus burmanicus Barb x 284 Cyprinidae Labiobarbus lineatus Carp x 285 Cyprinidae Labiobarbus sp. x 286 Cyprinidae Labiobarbus spilopleura Barp x 287 Cyprinidae Leptobarbus hoeveni Hoeven's Slender Carp x 288 Cyprinidae Lobocheilus gracilis x 289 Cyprinidae Lobocheilus quadrilineatus Barb x 290 Cyprinidae Lobocheilus rhabdoura Barb x 291 Cyprinidae Lobocheilus sp. x 292 Cyprinidae Luciosoma bleekeri Appllo Shark x 293 Cyprinidae Luciosoma setigerum x 294 Cyprinidae Macrochirichthys macrochirus Carp x 295 Cyprinidae Morulius chrysophekadian Black Shark x 296 Cyprinidae Morulius sp. Barb x 297 Cyprinidae Mystacoleucus argenteus Barb x 298 Cyprinidae Mystacoleucus atridorsaliss x 299 Cyprinidae Mystacoleucus marginatus x 300 Cyprinidae Mystacoleucus sp. x 301 Cyprinidae Neolissochilus stracheyi x 302 Cyprinidae Osteochilus hasselti Barb x 303 Cyprinidae Osteochilus lini Barb x 304 Cyprinidae Osteochilus melanopleura Greater Bony Lipped Barb x 305 Cyprinidae Osteochilus microcephalus x 306 Cyprinidae Osteochilus prosenion Mud Carp x 307 Cyprinidae Osteochilus schlegeli x 308 Cyprinidae Osteochilus sp. Barb x 309 Cyprinidae Osteochilus spilopleurus Mud Carp x 310 Cyprinidae Osteochilus vittatus Bony Lipped Barb x 311 Cyprinidae Osteochilus waandersii Waander's Bony Lipped x Barb 312 Cyprinidae Oxygaster maculicauda x 313 Cyprinidae Oxygaster oxygastroides Glass Fish x 314 Cyprinidae Oxygaster pointoni x 315 Cyprinidae Oxygaster siamensis Glassfish x 316 Cyprinidae Oxygaster sp. x 317 Cyprinidae Parachela sp. x 318 Cyprinidae Paralaubuca barroni Carp x 319 Cyprinidae Paralaubuca harmandi x 320 Cyprinidae Paralaubuca riveroi Siamese River Abramine x 321 Cyprinidae Paralaubuca sp. x 322 Cyprinidae Paralaubuca typus x 323 Cyprinidae Probarbus jullieni Jullien's Golden Price x Carp 324 Cyprinidae Puntioplites proctozysron Barb x 325 Cyprinidae Raiamas guttatus Minnow x 326 Cyprinidae Rasbora argyrotaenis Silver Rasbora x 327 Cyprinidae Rasbora borapetensis Blackline Rasbora x 328 Cyprinidae Rasbora caudimaculata Graeter Scissortail x 329 Cyprinidae Rasbora dusonensis Yellowtail Rasbora x 330 Cyprinidae Rasbora lateristriata Yellow Rasbora x 331 Cyprinidae Rasbora myersi Myer's Silver Rasbora x 332 Cyprinidae Rasbora retrodorsalis Pale Rasbora x 333 Cyprinidae Rasbora sumatrana Giant Scissor-tail x 334 Cyprinidae Rasbora trilineata Three-lined Rasbora x 335 Cyprinidae Sikukia stejnegeri Carp x 336 Cyprinidae Systomus beasleyi x 337 Cyprinidae Systomus binotatus Spotted Barb x 338 Cyprinidae Systomus leiacantus Golden Little Barb x 339 Cyprinidae Systomus orphoides Red-cheeked Barb x 340 Cyprinidae Systomus partipentozona x 341 Cyprinidae Systomus somphongsi x

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND APPENDIX 3 PAGE 6

Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 342 Cyprinidae Systomus sp. x 343 Cyprinidae Systomus stolitczkae x 344 Cyprinidae Systomus vernayi x 345 Cyprinidae Tor soro Soro Brook Carp x 346 Cyprinidae Tor tambroides Greater Brook Carp x 347 Dasyatidae Dasyatis bleekeri Freshwater Stingray x 348 Dasyatidae Himantura chaophraya Ray x 349 Dasyatidae Himantura gerrardi (Gray, 1851) x 350 Dasyatidae Himantura imbricata (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) x x 351 Dasyatidae Taeniura lymma(FORSSKAL, 1775) Blue-spotted Fantail Ray x x 352 Diodontidae Chilomycterus orbicularis (Bloch, 1785) Birdbeak burrfish x 353 Diodontidae Diodon holocanthus(Linnaeus, 1758) Freckled porcupine fish x 354 Diodontidae Diodon hystrixLinnaeus, 1758 Porcupine fish x 355 Diodontidae Diodon liturosus Shortspine Ballonfish x x 356 Drepanidae Drepane longimana (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Band sicklefish x 357 Drepanidae Drepane punctata (Linnaeus, 1758) x 358 Echeneidae Echenius naucratesLinnaeus, 1758 Slender suckerfish x 359 Eleotridae Ophiocara porocephala (Valenciennes, 1837) Spangled gukgeon x x 360 Eleotridae Prinobutis koilomatodon x 361 Eleotridedae Bostrychus sinensis (Lacepede, 1801) x 362 Eleotridedae Butis butis (Hamilton, 1822) Crimsontip flathead x x gudgeon 363 Eleotridedae Butis koilomatoton (Bleeker, 1849) x 364 Eleotrididae Eleotris melanosoma Bleeker, 1852 x 365 Eleotrididae Odonteleotris macrodon (Bleeker, 1583) x 366 Elopidae Elops machnata (orsskal, 1775) x 367 Engraulidae Coilia borneensis x 368 Engraulidae Coilia dussumieri Goldspotted Grenadier x 369 Engraulidae Coilia macrognathus Moustached Taper-tail x 370 Engraulidae Coilia sp. x 371 Engraulidae Engraulis grayi Hamilton's thryssa x 372 Engraulidae Engraulis mystax Moustached Thryssa x 373 Engraulidae Engraulis sp. x 374 Engraulidae Stolephorus baganensis Hardenberg, 1933 x 375 Engraulidae Stolephorus commersonii Anchovy x 376 Engraulidae Stolephorus indicus (Van Hasselt, 1823) Indian anchovy x x x 377 Engraulidae Stolephorus insularis Hardenberg, 1933 x 378 Engraulididae Setipinna taty (Valenciennes, 1848) Hairfin anchovy x 379 Engraulididae Thryssa hamiltonii (Gray, 1835) Hanilton's thryssa x x 380 Engraulididae Thryssa kammalensis (Bleeker, 1849) Madura thryssa x 381 Engraulididae Thryssa setirostris (Broussonet, 1782) Longjaw thryssa x 382 Ephippidae Ephippus orbis (Bloch, 1787) Round spadefish x x 383 Ephippidae Platax orbicularis Round Batfish x 384 Ephippidae Platax teira (Forsskal, 1775) Longfin batfiah x x x 385 Fistulariidae Fistularia commersonii Ruppell, 1838 Serrated flutemouth x 386 Gerreidae Gerres abbreviatus Bleeker, 1850 Deepbody silverbiddy x x x 387 Gerreidae Gerres acinaces (Bleeker, 1854) Longtail silverbiddy x 388 Gerreidae Gerres filamemtosus Cuvier, 1829 Whipfin silverbiddy x x 389 Gerreidae Gerres lucidus x 390 Gerreidae Gerres oblongus (Cuvier, 1830) Elongated silverbiddy x x x 391 Gerreidae Gerres oyena (Forsskal, 1775) Slender silverbiddy x x x 392 Gerreidae Gerres poieti (Cuvier, 1829) Strongspine silverbiddy x x 393 Gerreidae Gerres sp. x 394 Gobiesocidae Diademichthys lineatus x 395 Gobiesocidae Lepadichthys sp. x 396 Gobiidae Acentrogobius audax Smith, 1959 x 397 Gobiidae Acentrogobius caninus (Cuvier & Valenciennes, Dogtooth goby x x 1837) 398 Gobiidae Acentrogobius janthinopterus (Bleeeker, 1852) x 399 Gobiidae Acentrogobius viridipunctatus (Valenciennes, Triangle Goby x x 1837) 400 Gobiidae Amblyeleotris fontanesii (Bleeker, 1852) x 401 Gobiidae Amblyeleotris gymnocephalus (Bleeker, 1853) x 402 Gobiidae Amblygobius nocturnus (Herre, 1945) x 403 Gobiidae Amblygobius phalaena (Valenciennes, 1837) x 404 Gobiidae Amoya moloanus (Herre, 1927) x 405 Gobiidae Apocryptodon madurensis (Bleeker, 1849) x x 406 Gobiidae Aulopareia cyanomos (Bleeker, 1849) x 407 Gobiidae Bathygobius fuscus (Ruppell, 1830) Brown goby x x x 408 Gobiidae Boleophthalmus boddarti (Pallas, 1770) x

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Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 409 Gobiidae Boleophthalmus pectinirostris Jumping Goby x 410 Gobiidae Brachygobius sp. Goby x 411 Gobiidae Brachygobius sp.1 x 412 Gobiidae Brachygobius sp.2 x 413 Gobiidae Callogobius sp.1 x 414 Gobiidae Callogobius sp.2 x 415 Gobiidae Cristatogobius lophius Herre, 1927 x 416 Gobiidae Cristatogobius sp.1 x 417 Gobiidae Cryptocentrus caeruleomaculatus x 418 Gobiidae Cryptocentrus cinctus x 419 Gobiidae Cryptocentrus fasciatus x 420 Gobiidae Cryptocentrus Bleeker, 1876 Eightband goby x x 421 Gobiidae Cryptocentrus pavaninoides x 422 Gobiidae Cryptocentrus sp. x x 423 Gobiidae Cryptocentrus sp.1 x 424 Gobiidae Cryptocentrus strigilliceps (Jordan & Seale, 1906) x x 425 Gobiidae Ctenogobiops pomastictus x 426 Gobiidae Ctenogobius cephalopadus Goby x 427 Gobiidae Ctenogobius driengmainensis Goby x 428 Gobiidae Dasson variabilis Scabre Toothed Blenny x 429 Gobiidae Drombus key (Smith, 1947) x x 430 Gobiidae Drombus sp.1 x 431 Gobiidae Drombus triangularis (Weber, 1909) x 432 Gobiidae Eviota prasina x 433 Gobiidae Eviota qreenslandica x 434 Gobiidae Glossogobius bicirrbosus (Weber, 1894) x 435 Gobiidae Glossogobius biocellatus (Valenciennes, 1837) x x 436 Gobiidae Glossogobius circumspectus (Macleay, 1883) x 437 Gobiidae Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton, 1822) Flathead goby x x 438 Gobiidae Glossogobius sp. Goby x 439 Gobiidae Gobiodon citrinus Acroporal x x 440 Gobiidae Gobiodon micropus x 441 Gobiidae Gobiodon quinquestrigatus x 442 Gobiidae Gobiopsis aporia x 443 Gobiidae Gobiopsis macrostoma Steindachner, 1861 x 444 Gobiidae Gobiopsis quinquecincta x 445 Gobiidae Gobiopsis woodsi x 446 Gobiidae Gobiopterus brachypterus (Bleeker, 1855) x 447 Gobiidae Gobiopterus panayensis (Herre, 1944) x 448 Gobiidae Gobiopterus sp.1 x 449 Gobiidae Istigobius ornatus(Ruppell, 1830) Ornate goby x 450 Gobiidae Mahidolia mystacina x 451 Gobiidae Mangarinus sp.1 x 452 Gobiidae Mangarinus waterousi Herre, 1943 x 453 Gobiidae Mugilogobius rambaiae x 454 Gobiidae Mugilogobius sp.1 x 455 Gobiidae Oxyurichthys microlepis (Bleeker, 1849) Smallscale goby x x 456 Gobiidae Oxyurichthys tentacularis (Valenciennes, 1837) Eyebrow goby x 457 Gobiidae Pandaka lidwilli (McCulloch, 1917) x 458 Gobiidae Papillogobius cf punctatus Gill & Miller,1990 x 459 Gobiidae Papillogobius reichei (Bleeker, 1853) x 460 Gobiidae Parachaeturichthys polynema (Bleeker,1853) Eyetail goby x 461 Gobiidae Periophthalmus argentilineatus Valenciennes, x 1837 462 Gobiidae Periophthalmus barbarus Atlantic Mudskipper x 463 Gobiidae Periophthalmus cantonensis Mud Skipper x 464 Gobiidae Periophthalmus chrysospilos Bleeker, 1852 x 465 Gobiidae Periophthalmus minutus Eggert, 1935 x 466 Gobiidae Periophthalmus sp. Mud Skipper x 467 Gobiidae Priolepis nuchifasciatus x 468 Gobiidae Priolepis semidoliatus x 469 Gobiidae Redigobius bikolanus Herre, 1927 x 470 Gobiidae Redigobius chrysosoma (Bleeker, 1875) x 471 Gobiidae Rhinogobius baliuroides x 472 Gobiidae Rhinogobius sp. Goby x 473 Gobiidae Scartelaos cantoris (Day, 1871) x x 474 Gobiidae Scartelaos histophorus (Valenciennes, 1837) x 475 Gobiidae Stigmatogobius javanicus Goby x 476 Gobiidae Stigmatogobius oligactis Goby x 477 Gobiidae Stigmatogobius sadanundio (Hamiton, 1822) Spot goby x

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Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 478 Gobiidae Taenioides cirratus (Blyth, 1860) Yellow tapering goby x 479 Gobiidae Trypauchen microcephalus Bleeker, 1860 x 480 Gobiidae Trypauchen vagina Pink Burrowing Goby x 481 Gobiidae Valenciennea linicola x 482 Gobiidae Valenciennea muralis (Valenciennes,1837) x x 483 Gobiidae Valenciennea puellaris x 484 Gobiidae Valenciennea sexguttata x 485 Gobiidae Valenciennea wardii x 486 Gobiidae Yongeichthys nebulosus(Forsskal, 1775) x x 487 Grammistidae Diploprion bifasciatum(kuhl & van Hasselt, 1928) Yellow emperor x x 488 Gyrinocheilidae Gyrinocheilus aymonieri Siamese Gyrinochellid x 489 Haemulidae Diagramma pictum (Thunberg, 1792) Painted sweetlip x x 490 Haemulidae Plectorhinchus albovittatus Ruppell, 1838 Giant sweetlips x 491 Haemulidae Plectorhinchus chaetodonoides Lacepede, 1801 Harlequin Sweetlip x x 492 Haemulidae Plectorhinchus unicolor x 493 Haemulidae Plectorhynchus gibbosus (Lacepede, 1802) Harry hotlips x x x 494 Haemulidae Plectorhynchus orientalis Oriental Sweetlip x 495 Haemulidae Plectorhynchus picus (Tortonese, 1936) Spotted Sweetlip x 496 Haemulidae Pomadasys kaakan (Cuvier, 1830) Javelin grunter x x 497 Hemiramphidae Hemiramphus dispar Wrestling Halfbeak x 498 Hemiramphidae Hemiramphus far (Forsskal, 1775) Spotted halfbeak x x 499 Hemiramphidae Hemiramphus gaimardi Gaimardi's Halfbeak x 500 Hemiramphidae Hemiramphus melanurus Black-tailed Halfbeak x 501 Hemiramphidae Hyporamphus limbatus (Valenciennes, 1846) x x 502 Hemiramphidae Hyporhamphus dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1846) x x 503 Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus disper (Valenciennes, 1847) x x 504 Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus kampei Sepile River Halfbeak x 505 Hemiramphidae Dermogenys pusillus Wrestling Half-beak x 506 Hemiscylliidae Chiloscyllium griseum Muller & Henle, 1839 Grey bambooshark x 507 Hemiscylliidae Chiloscyllium indicum (Gmelin, 1789) Slender Bambooshark x 508 Hemiscylliidae Chiloscyllium plagiosum (Bennett, 1830) Whitespot Bambooshark x 509 Hemiscylliidae Chiloscyllium punctatumMuller & Henle, 1818 Brown-band catshark x 510 Heteropneustidae Heteropneustes fossilis Scrobranch Catfish x 511 Holocentridae Myripristis botche x 512 Holocentridae Myripristis hexagona x 513 Holocentridae Myripristis murdjan x 514 Holocentridae Myripristis violaceus Lattice Soldierfish x x 515 Holocentridae Sagocentrom rubrum Redcoat x 516 Holocentridae Sargocentron rubrum x 517 Kyphosidae Kyphosus cinerascens x 518 Kyphosidae Kyphosus vaigiensis x 519 Labridae Anampses caeruleopunctatus x 520 Labridae Cheilinus chlorourus x 521 Labridae Cheilinus fasciatus Scarlet-breasted Wrasse x x 522 Labridae Cheilinus trilobatus Triple-tailed Wrasse x x 523 Labridae Choeredon sp. Tuskfish x 524 Labridae Choerodon anchorago(Bloch, 1791) Orange-dotted tuskfish x 525 Labridae Choerodon schoenleinii x 526 Labridae Diproctacanthus xanthurus x 527 Labridae Epibulus insidiator Slingjaw Wrasse x x 528 Labridae Halichoeres argus x 529 Labridae Halichoeres bicolor (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) x x 530 Labridae Halichoeres chlropterus Green Spot Wrasse x x 531 Labridae Halichoeres dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1839) x 532 Labridae Halichoeres hoeveni Three Eye Wrasse x 533 Labridae Halichoeres hortulanus x 534 Labridae Halichoeres margaritaceus x 535 Labridae Halichoeres marginatus Speckle Rainbow Wrasse x x 536 Labridae Halichoeres melanurus x 537 Labridae Halichoeres nebulosus x 538 Labridae Halichoeres nigrescens Dusky Rainbow Wrasse x x 539 Labridae Halichoeres poecilopterus Blackline Wrasse x 540 Labridae Halichoeres purpurascens x 541 Labridae Hemigymnus fasciatus Barred Thicklip Wrasse x x 542 Labridae Hemigymnus melapterus Blackeye Thicklip Wrasse x x 543 Labridae Labroides dimidiatus(Valenciennes, 1839) Bluestreak Wrasse x x 544 Labridae Oxychelinus digrammus x 545 Labridae Stethojulis bandanensis x 546 Labridae Stethojulis interrupta x 547 Labridae Stethojulis sp. x

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Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 548 Labridae Stethojulis strigiventer (Bennett, 1832) Silver ribbon rainbow x 549 Labridae Stethojulis trilineata x 550 Labridae Thalassoma lunare Crescent Grunter x x 551 Leiognathidae Gazza minuta (Bloch, 1797) Toothed ponyfish x x x 552 Leiognathidae Leiognathus bindus (Valenciennes, 1835) Orangefin slipmouth x 553 Leiognathidae Leiognathus brevirostis Shortnose Slipmouth x 554 Leiognathidae Leiognathus daura (Cuvier, 1829) Goldstripe slipmouth x 555 Leiognathidae Leiognathus decorus (De Vis, 1844) x x 556 Leiognathidae Leiognathus equula (Forsskal, 1775) Common slipmouth x x x 557 Leiognathidae Leiognathus fasciatus Striped Slipmouth x 558 Leiognathidae Leiognathus insidiator Pugnose Pongfish x 559 Leiognathidae Leiognathus leuciscus (Gunther, 1860) Whipfin slipmouth x 560 Leiognathidae Leiognathus lineolatus Line Slipmouth x 561 Leiognathidae Leiognathus oblongus (Valenciennes, 1835) x 562 Leiognathidae Leiognathus pan (Wongratana, 1988) x 563 Leiognathidae Leiognathus smithursti (Ramsay & Ogilby, 1886) Smithurst's slipmouth x 564 Leiognathidae Leiognathus splendens (Cuvier, 1829) Splendid slipmouth x x 565 Leiognathidae Leiognathus stercorarius (Everman & Seale, 1907) x x 566 Leiognathidae Secutor insidiator (Bloch, 1787) Slender slipmouth x x 567 Leiognathidae Secutor ruconius (Hamilton, 1822) Deeppug nose slipmouth x x 568 Lethrinidae Gymnocraniius grandoculis x 569 Lethrinidae Lethrinus erythropterus x 570 Lethrinidae Lethrinus lentjan (Lacepede, 1802) Redspot emperor x x x 571 Lethrinidae Lethrinus mebulosus Spangled Emperor x 572 Lethrinidae Lethrinus ornatus (Balenciennes, 1830) Ornate emperor x x 573 Lethrinidae Lethrinus sp. x 574 Lobotidae Lobotes surinamensis (Bloch, 1790) Browm tripletail x x 575 Lutjanidae Lutjanas argentimaculatus Mangrove Redsnapper x 576 Lutjanidae Lutjanas carponotatus x 577 Lutjanidae Lutjanas decussatus Crossband Snapper x 578 Lutjanidae Lutjanas vaigiensis x 579 Lutjanidae Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Forsskal, 1775) Mangrove red snapper x x 580 Lutjanidae Lutjanus biguttatus (Valenciennes, 1775) Twospot banded snapper x 581 Lutjanidae Lutjanus bohar x 582 Lutjanidae Lutjanus carponotatus x 583 Lutjanidae Lutjanus decussatus x 584 Lutjanidae Lutjanus erythropterus x 585 Lutjanidae Lutjanus fulviflamma (Forsskal, 1775) Blackspot snapper x x x 586 Lutjanidae Lutjanus johnii (Bloch, 1792) John's snapper x x x x 587 Lutjanidae Lutjanus kasmira x 588 Lutjanidae Lutjanus lemniscatus x 589 Lutjanidae Lutjanus lunulatus Lunartail Snapper x 590 Lutjanidae Lutjanus lutjanus Bigeye snapper x x x 591 Lutjanidae Lutjanus madras (Valenciennes, 1831) x 592 Lutjanidae Lutjanus monostigmus One spot Snapper x x 593 Lutjanidae Lutjanus quinquelineatus x 594 Lutjanidae Lutjanus russelli (Bleeker, 1849) Russell's snapper x x x x 595 Lutjanidae Lutjanus sebae Emperor Redsnapper x x 596 Lutjanidae Lutjanus timorensis x 597 Lutjanidae Lutjanus vitta x 598 Lutjanidae Lutjanus vittus Brownstripe Snapper x 599 Lutjanidae Symphorus nematophorus (Bleeker,1860) Chinamanfish x 600 Mastacembelidae Macrognathus aculeatus Siamensis Lesser Spiny x Eel 601 Mastacembelidae Macrognathus circumcinctus Lesser Spiny Eel x 602 Mastacembelidae Macrognathus siamensis Spotted Spiny Eel x 603 Mastacembelidae Mastacembelus armatus Armed Spiny Eel x 604 Mastacembelidae Mastacembelus favus Spiny Eel x 605 Mastacembelidae Mastacembelus sp. x 606 Megalopidae Megalops cyprinoides (Broussonet, 1782) Indo-Pacific tarpon x x 607 Microdesmidae Parioglossus formosus x 608 Microdesmidae Parioglossus philippinus x 609 Microdesmidae Parioglossus sp. x 610 Microdesnidae Ptereleotris microlepis x 611 Microdesnidae Ptereleotris monoptera x 612 Microdesnidae Ptereleotris sp. x 613 Monacanthidae Aluterus monoceros(Linnaeus, 1758) Unicorn leatherjacket x 614 Monacanthidae Monacanthus chinensis (Osbeck, 1765) Chinese leatherjacket x x x x 615 Monacanthidae Paramonacanthus choirocephalus (Bleeker, 1852) x x x 616 Monacanthidae Pseudomonacanthus macrurus (Bleeker, 1857) x

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Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 617 Monodactylidae Monodactylus argenteus (Linnaeus, 1758) Butter fish x x x 618 Mugilidae Atherina valenciennesi Sumatran Silverside x 619 Mugilidae Moolgarda cunnesius (Valenciennes, 1836) x x 620 Mugilidae Moolgarda engeli (Bleeker, 1858) x 621 Mugilidae Moolgarda pedaraki (Valenciennes, 1836) x x x 622 Mugilidae Moolgarda seheli x 623 Mugilidae Mugil borneenis Largescale Mullet x 624 Mugilidae Mugil dussumieri Greenback Mullet x 625 Mugilidae Mugil kelaartii Longarm Mullet x 626 Mugilidae Mugil seheli Bluespot Mullet x 627 Mugilidae Mugil sp. Mullet x 628 Mugilidae Mugil subviridis Greenback Mullet x 629 Mugilidae Mugil tado Tade Mullet x 630 Mugilidae Mugil vaigiensis Squaretail Mullet x 631 Mugilidae Oedalechilus labiosus x 632 Mugillidae Chelon macrolepis (Smith, 1849) x 633 Mugillidae Chelon parmata (Cantor, 1849) x 634 Mugillidae Chelon parsia (Hamilton, 1822) x 635 Mugillidae Chelon spp. x 636 Mugillidae Chelon subviridis (Valenciennes, 1836) x x 637 Mugillidae Ellochelon vaigiensis (Quoy & Gaimard) x x x 638 Mullidae Mulloidichthys flavolineatus (Lacepede, 1802) Slender goatfish x 639 Mullidae Mulloidichthys sp. Goatfish x 640 Mullidae Parupeneus heptacanthus (Lacepede,1801) x 641 Mullidae Parupeneus indicus (Shaw,1803) Indian goatfiah x x 642 Mullidae Upeneus sp. Goatfish x 643 Mullidae Upeneus sulphureus Cuvier, 1829 Yellow goatfish x x x 644 Mullidae Upeneus sundaicus (Bleeker, 1855) Ochreband goatfish x 645 Mullidae Upeneus tragula (Richarson, 1846) Freckled goatfish x 646 Mullidae Upeneus tragula Richardson, 1846 Freckle goatfish x x x 647 Muraenidae Congresox talabon(Cuvier, 1829) Yellow Pike-conger x 648 Muraenidae Gymnothorax boschii (Bleeker, 1853) x 649 Muraenidae Gymnothorax sp. x 650 Muraenidae Gymnothorax undulatus x 651 Muraenidae Siderea delicatula x 652 Muraenidae Siderea thyrsoidea x 653 Myliobatidae Aetobatus narinari(Euphrasen, 1790) Spooted eagle ray x 654 Nandidae Badis badis Badis x 655 Nandidae Nandus nandus Gangetic Leaffish x 656 Nandidae Nandus nebulosus Bornean Leaffish x 657 Nandidae Pristolepis fasciatus Striped Tiger Nandid x 658 Nemipteridae Nemipterus hexodon x 659 Nemipteridae Nemipterus peronii (Valenciennes, 1830) Rosy threadfin bream x 660 Nemipteridae Pentapodus setosus Blue Banded Whip Tail x x 661 Nemipteridae Scolopsis bilineatus (Bloch, 1793) Twolined monoclebream x x x 662 Nemipteridae Scolopsis ciliatus (Lacepede, 1802) Sawjawed monoclebream x x x x 663 Nemipteridae Scolopsis dubiosus Yellowstreak x Monoclebream 664 Nemipteridae Scolopsis lineatus x 665 Nemipteridae Scolopsis margaritifer x 666 Nemipteridae Scolopsis monogramma (Kuhl & van Hasselt, Monogrammed x x 1830) monoclebream 667 Nemipteridae Scolopsis sp. Threadfin Bream x 668 Nemipteridae Scolopsis taeniopterus (Valenciennes, 1830) Lattice monoclebream x x 669 Nemipteridae Scolopsis vasmeri x 670 Notopteridae Chitala blanci Blanc'a Atriped Feather x 671 Notopteridae Chitala lopis Indonesian Featherback x 672 Notopteridae Chitala ornata Spotted Featherback x 673 Notopteridae Notopterus notopterus Grey Featherback x 674 Ophichthidae Pisodonophis sp. Snake Eel x 675 Ophichthidae Pisoodonophis cancrivorus (Richardson, 1844) x 676 Ophidiidae Dinematichthys ilucoeteoides Yellow Brotula x x 677 Oryziidae Oryzias javanicus(Bleeker, 1854) x 678 Oryziidae Oryzias minutillus Dwarf Medaka x 679 Oryziidae Oryzias sp. Ricefish x 680 Osteoglossidae Scleropages formosus Asian Bonytongue x 681 Ostraciidae Ostracion cubicusLinnaeus, 1758 x x 682 Ostraciidae Ostracion nasus x 683 Ostracoiidae Lactoria cornuta (Linnaeus, 1758) Longhorned cowfish x x x x 684 Ostracoiidae Lactoria diaphana (Bloch, 1785) x

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND APPENDIX 3 PAGE 11

Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 685 Ostracoiidae Rhynchostracion nasus Small-nosed Boxfish x 686 Pangasiidae Pangasius larnaudii Black Ear Catfish x 687 Pangasiidae Pangasius nasutus x 688 Pangasiidae Pangasius pangasius Pangas Catfish x 689 Pangasiidae Pangasius polyuranodon x 690 Pangasiidae Pangasius sanitwongsei Chao Phraya Gian Catfish x 691 Pangasiidae Pangasius sutchi Striped Catfish x 692 Pangasiidae Pterois miles (Bennett, 1828) x 693 Pangasiidae Pteropangasius cultratus x 694 Pangasiidae Pteropangasius micronema x 695 Pangasiidae Pteropangasius pleurotaenis Shark Catfish x 696 Pempheridae Pempheris adusta x 697 Pempheridae Pempheris moluca x 698 Pempheridae Pempheris oualensis Catalufa Sweeper x x 699 Pempheridae Pempheris sp. Sweeper x 700 Pinguipededae Parapercis alboguttata (Gunther, 1872) Grubfish x 701 Pinguipededae Parapercis cf. kamoharai x 702 Pinguipededae Parapercis sp. x 703 Pinguipededae Parapercis xanthozona x 704 Platycephalidae Cociella crocodila (Tilesius, 1812) Crocodile flathead x 705 Platycephalidae Grammoplites scaber (Linnaeus, 1758) Thorntyscales x 706 Platycephalidae Hoplichthys sp. Ghost Flathead x 707 Platycephalidae Inegocia japonica (Tilesius, 1812) x x 708 Platycephalidae Inegocia sp. Flathead x 709 Platycephalidae Platycephalus indicus (Linnaeus, 1758) Bartail flathead x x x 710 Platycephalidae Platycephalus scabar Round Flathead x 711 Platycephalidae Platycephalus spp. Flathead x 712 Platycephalidae Thysanophrys carbunculus (Valenciennes, 1833) Carbuncle flathead x x 713 Plectorhynchidae Gaterin diagrammus Silver-banded Sweetlip x 714 Plesiopidae Plesiops coeruleolineatus x 715 Plotosidae Plotosus canius Hamilton, 1822 Lagoon eel catfish x x 716 Plotosidae Plotosus lineatus (Thunberg, 1791) Striped Eel Catfish x x x 717 Polynemidae Eleutheronema tetradactylum (Shaw, 1804) Fourfinger threadfin x x 718 Polynemidae Polydactylus microstoma (Bleeker, 1851) x 719 Polynemidae Polydactylus plebeius (Broussonet, 1782) x 720 Polynemidae Polynemus longipectoralis Threadfin Bream x 721 Polynemidae Polynemus paradiseus Paradise Threadfin x 722 Polynemidae Polynemus tetradactylus Threadfin, Tessel Fish x 723 Pomacanthidae Pygoplites diacanthus Roysl Anglefish x x 724 Pomacentridae Abudefduf bengalensis (Bloch, 1787) Sergeant Major x x 725 Pomacentridae Abudefduf coelestinus Black-banded x Demerselfish 726 Pomacentridae Abudefduf notatus (Day, 1869) x 727 Pomacentridae Abudefduf septemfasciatus (Cuvier 1830) x 728 Pomacentridae Abudefduf sexfasciatus Lacepede, 1802 x 729 Pomacentridae Abudefduf sordidus Forsskal, 1775 Blackspot sergeant major x 730 Pomacentridae Abudefduf vaigensis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) Fivebar Sergeant x x 731 Pomacentridae Amblyglyphidodon curacao (Bloch, 1787) Blacknout Chromis x x 732 Pomacentridae Amblyglyphidodon leucogaster (Bleeker, 1847) x 733 Pomacentridae Amphiprion clarkii (Bennett, 1830) Whitetip anemone x 734 Pomacentridae Amphiprion perideraion Bleeker, 1855 Whiteline Anemone x x 735 Pomacentridae Amphiprion polymnus (Linnaeus, 1758) Saddleband Anemone x x 736 Pomacentridae Amphiprion sebae Bleeker, 1853 x 737 Pomacentridae Chromis atripectoralis Welander and Schultz, 1951 x 738 Pomacentridae Chromis cinerascens (Cuvier, 1830) x 739 Pomacentridae Chromis fumea (Tanaka, 1917) x 740 Pomacentridae Chromis sp. Damselfish x x 741 Pomacentridae Chromis viridis (Cuvier, 1830) x 742 Pomacentridae Chrysiptera biocellata x 743 Pomacentridae Chrysiptera hemicyanea x 744 Pomacentridae Chrysiptera leucopoma x 745 Pomacentridae Chrysiptera unimaculata x 746 Pomacentridae Dascyllus aruamus Band Puller x 747 Pomacentridae Dascyllus reticulatus x 748 Pomacentridae Dascyllus trimaculatus Whitespot Puller x x 749 Pomacentridae Dischistodus melanotus x 750 Pomacentridae Hemiplyphidodon plagiometopon x 751 Pomacentridae Neoglyphidodon melas x 752 Pomacentridae Neoglyphidodon nigroris x 753 Pomacentridae Neopomacentrus anabatoides x

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND APPENDIX 3 PAGE 12

Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 754 Pomacentridae Neopomacentrus azysron x 755 Pomacentridae Neopomacentrus bankieri x 756 Pomacentridae Neopomacentrus cyanomua Violet Damsel x x 757 Pomacentridae Neopomacentrus filamentosus x 758 Pomacentridae Neopomacentrus nemurus x 759 Pomacentridae Neopomacentrus taeniurus x 760 Pomacentridae Paraglyphidodon melas Zulu Damselfish x 761 Pomacentridae Paraglyphidodon nigroris Black damsel x 762 Pomacentridae Plectroglyphidodon lacrymatus Whitespotted Devil x x 763 Pomacentridae Plectroglyphidodon leucozonus x 764 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus albimaculus x 765 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus alexanderea x 766 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus amboinensis x 767 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus chrysurus x 768 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus coelestis Yellow-tailed Damselfish x x 769 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus cuneatus x 770 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus hardi Damselfish x 771 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus littoralis x 772 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus moluccensis Yellow Damselfish x x 773 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus philippinus x 774 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus rhodonotus Whitetail Damsel x 775 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus sp. x 776 Pomacentridae Pomacentrus tripunctatus x 777 Pomacentridae Stegaster apicalis Australian Gregory x 778 Pomacentridae Stegastes fasciolatus x 779 Pomacentridae Stegastes nigricans x 780 Pomacentridae Stegastes obreptus x 781 Pomadasyidae Pomadasys argyreus (Valenciennes, 1833) Silver grunt x x 782 Pomadasyidae Pomadasys hasta Silver Spotted Grunt x 783 Pomadasyidae Pomadasys maculatus (Bloch, 1797) Saddle grunt x x x 784 Pomadasyidae Pomadasys sp. x 785 Pristigasteridae Ilisha kampeni (Weber & Beaufort, 1913) x x 786 Pristigasteridae Ilisha megaloptera (Swainson, 1839) Bigeye ilisha x 787 Pristigasteridae Ilisha melastoma (Schneider, 1801) Indian ilisha x 788 Pristigasteridae Opisthopterus tardoore (Cuvier, 1829) Tardoors x 789 Pristigasteridae (Valenciennes, 1847) Indian pellona x 790 Pristigasteridae Pellona sp. Herring x 791 Pseodochromidae Congrogadus subducens x 792 Psettodidae Psettodes erumei (Schnerder, 1801) Indian halibut x 793 Psettodidae Pseudochromis xanthochir x 794 Rachycentridae Rachycentron canadum (Linnaeus, 1766) Kingfish, Cobia x x 795 Scaridae Chlorurus sordidus x 796 Scaridae Scarus frenatus x 797 Scaridae Scarus ghobban Forsskal, 1775 Yellow-scale parrot x x x 798 Scaridae Scarus niger x 799 Scaridae Scarus prasiognathos x 800 Scaridae Scarus rivulatus Rivulated Parrot Fish x x 801 Scaridae Scarus rubroviolaceus x 802 Scaridae Scarus sp. Parrotfish x x 803 Scatophagidae Scatophagus argus (Linnaeus, 1758) Spade fish, Spotted butter x x 804 Schibeidae Eutropiichthys vacha Schilbid Catfish x 805 Schibeidae Laides hexanema Catfish x 806 Schibeidae Platytropius siamensis x 807 Sciaenidae Boesemanis microlepis Boeseman Coaker x 808 Sciaenidae Dendrophysa russelli (Cuvier, 1830) Goatee croaker x x 809 Sciaenidae Johnius belangerii (Cuvier, 1830) Belanger's croaker x x 810 Sciaenidae Johnius spp. Croaker x 811 Sciaenidae Johnius trachycephalus Leaftail Croaker x 812 Sciaenidae Nibea soldado (Lacepede, 1802) Soldier Croaker x x 813 Sciaenidae Otolithes aeneocorpus Slender Croker x 814 Sciaenidae Otolithes cuvieri (Trewavas, 1974) Lessertigertooth croaker x 815 Sciaenidae Otolithes ruber Tigertooth Croaker x 816 Sciaenidae Pennahia anea (Bloch, 1773) x 817 Sciaenidae Pseudosciana soldado White Soldier Croaker x 818 Sciaenidae Pseudoscians sp. Croaker x 819 Sciaenidae Sciaena russelli Russell's Jew Fish x 820 Sciaenidae Sciaena sp. x 821 Scombridae Rastrelliger feaughni Faughn's Mackerel x 822 Scombridae Rastrelliger kanagurta (Cuvier, 1816) Indian mackerel x x 823 Scombridae Rastrelliger neglectus /brachysoma Indo-Pacific Mackerel x

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND APPENDIX 3 PAGE 13

Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 824 Scombridae Scomberomorus commerson (Lacepede, 1800) Narrow-barred Spanish x x x mackerel 825 Scorpaenidae Parascorpaena picta x 826 Scorpaenidae Pterogobius sp. x 827 Scorpaenidae Scorpaenopsis cirrhosa x 828 Scorpaenidae Scorpaenopsis diabolus x 829 Scorpaenidae Scorpaenopsis venosa x 830 Scorpaenidae Trachicephalus uranoscopus (Bloch & Schneider, x 1801) 831 Scorpaenidae Vespicula trachinoides (Cuvier & Valenciennes, Globinfish x x 1829) 832 Serranidae Aethaloperca rogaa (Forsskal, 1775) Redmouth grouper x 833 Serranidae Anyperodon leucogrammicus(Valenciennes, 1828) Slender grouper x 834 Serranidae Cephalopholis argusBloch&Schneider, 1801 Peacock grouper x x 835 Serranidae Cephalopholis boenackBloch, 1790 Chocolate hind x x 836 Serranidae Cephalopholis cyanostigma x 837 Serranidae Cephalopholis microprion x 838 Serranidae Cephalopholis miniata(Forsskal, 1775) Coral grouper x 839 Serranidae Cephalopholis pachycentron Brown hind-banded x seabass 840 Serranidae Cephalopholis sammana Seabass x 841 Serranidae Cephalophotis formosa(Shaw $ Nodder, 1812) Bluelined hind x 842 Serranidae Cromileptes altivelis(Valencienes, 1828) Polkadot grouper x 843 Serranidae Epinephelus areolatus Areolated Grouper x x 844 Serranidae Epinephelus bleekeri (Vaillant & Bocourt, 1877) Duskytail grouper x x x x 845 Serranidae Epinephelus brunneus(Bloch, 1793) Mud grouper x 846 Serranidae Epinephelus caeruleopunctatus White-spooted grouper x 847 Serranidae Epinephelus coioides (Hamilton, 1822) Duskytail grouper x x x x 848 Serranidae Epinephelus corallicola x 849 Serranidae Epinephelus epistictus(Temminch & Schlegel, Broken-line grouper x 1842) 850 Serranidae Epinephelus erythrurus x 851 Serranidae Epinephelus erythrurus (Valenciennes, 1828) x 852 Serranidae Epinephelus fasciatus(Forsskal, 1775) Black-tipped grouper x 853 Serranidae Epinephelus fuscoguttatus(Forsskal, 1775) Brown-marbled grouper x 854 Serranidae Epinephelus heniochus x 855 Serranidae Epinephelus lanceolatus x 856 Serranidae Epinephelus latifasciatus x 857 Serranidae Epinephelus malabaricus(Bloch & Schneider, Malabar grouper x 1801) 858 Serranidae Epinephelus merraBloch, 1793 Dwaft-spotted grouper x 859 Serranidae Epinephelus ongus(Bloch, 1790) White-streaked grouper x 860 Serranidae Epinephelus quoyanus (Valenciennes, 1830) Barred-chest grouper x x 861 Serranidae Epinephelus sexfasciatus (Valenciennes, 1828) Six-banded rockcod x x x 862 Serranidae Epinephelus sp. x x 863 Serranidae Epinephelus tauvina(Forssakal, 1775) Greasy grouper/Reef cod x 864 Serranidae Plectropomus leopardus x 865 Serranidae Plectropomus maculatus Spot Coral Trout x x 866 Siganidae Siganus canaliculatus (Park, 1797) White-spotted Spinefoot x x x x 867 Siganidae Siganus corallinus x 868 Siganidae Siganus fuscescens (Houttuyn, 1782) x 869 Siganidae Siganus guttatus (Bloch, 1787) Golednlined spinefoot x x x 870 Siganidae Siganus javus (Linnaeus, 1766) Streaked spinefoot x x x x 871 Siganidae Siganus lineatus x 872 Siganidae Siganus punctatissimus Peppered Spinefoot x 873 Siganidae Siganus punctatus x 874 Siganidae Siganus vermiculatus x 875 Siganidae Siganus virgatus Doublebarred Spinefoot x x 876 Sillaginidae Sillago aeolus (Jordan & Evermann, 1902) x x x 877 Sillaginidae Sillago lutea (McKay, 1985) x 878 Sillaginidae Sillago sihama (Forsskal, 1775) Common whiting x x x 879 Sillaginidae Sillago sp. x 880 Siluridae Ceratoglanis scleronema Sheatfish x 881 Siluridae Kryptopterus apogon Common Sheatfish x 882 Siluridae kryptopterus bleekeri Whisker Sheatfish x 883 Siluridae Kryptopterus cryptopterus Sheatfish x 884 Siluridae Kryptopterus limpok Whisker Sheatfish x 885 Siluridae kryptopterus sp. x 886 Siluridae Ompok bimaculatus Butter Catfish x 887 Siluridae Ompok eugeneiatus Sheatfish x

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND APPENDIX 3 PAGE 14

Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 888 Siluridae Ompok hypophthalmus Sheatfish x 889 Siluridae Silurus cochinchinensis x 890 Siluridae Wallago dinema x 891 Siluridae Wallago leerii x 892 Siluridae Wallagonia attu Great White Sheatfish x 893 Sisoridae Bagarius bagarius Sisorid Catfish x 894 Sisoridae Bagarius yarrelli Giant Bagarius x 895 Sisoridae Bagroides macropterus Catfish x 896 Sisoridae Glyptothorax fuscus Catfish x 897 Sisoridae Glyptothorax lampris Catfish x 898 Sisoridae Glyptothorax sp. Catfish x 899 Sisoridae Glyptothorax trilineatus Catfish x 900 Sisoridae Oreoglanis siamensis Freshwater Batfish x 901 Soleidae Pardachirus pavoninus (Lacepede, 1802) Broad sole x x 902 Soleidae Solea ovata Richardson, 1849 Ovate sole x 903 Soleidae Zebrias quagga Kaup, 1858 Fringefin zebra sole x 904 Sparidae Acanthopagrus berda (Forsskal,1775) Picnic seabream x 905 Sphyraenidae Sphyraena baracuda (Walbaum, 1792) Great barracuda x x 906 Sphyraenidae Sphyraena forsteri x 907 Sphyraenidae Sphyraena jello (cuvier, 1829) Pickhandle barracuda x x x 908 Sphyraenidae Sphyraena obtusata (cuvier, 1829) Striped barracuda x x x 909 Sphyraenidae Sphyraena qenie (Klunzinger, 1870) x x 910 Sphyraenidae Sphyraena sp. x x 911 Sphyraenidae Sphyrna blochii Winghead Shark x 912 Stromateidae Pampus argenteus Silver Pomfret x 913 Stromateidae Pampus chinensis Chinese Pomfret x 914 Stromateidae Pampus sp. x 915 Synbranchidae Macrotrema caligans x 916 Synbranchidae Monopterus albus Swamp Eel x 917 Synbranchidae Ophisternon bengalense Onegilled Eel x 918 Syngnathidae Choeroichthys brachysoma x 919 Syngnathidae Corythoichthys amplexus x 920 Syngnathidae Cosmocampus investigatoris x 921 Syngnathidae Doryrhamphus excisus excisus x 922 Syngnathidae Doryrhamphus janssi x 923 Syngnathidae Halicampus grayi x 924 Syngnathidae Hippichthys cyanospilus (Bleeker, 1854) x 925 Syngnathidae Hippichthys heptagonus (Bleeker, 1853) x 926 Syngnathidae Hippichthys penicillus (Cantor, 1849) x 927 Syngnathidae Hippichthys spicifer (Ruppell, 1840) x 928 Syngnathidae Phoxocampus belcheri x 929 Syngnathidae Syngnathoides biaculeatus (Bloch, 1875) x 930 Syngnathidae Trachyrhamphus bicoarctatus (Bleeker, 1857) x 931 Synodontidae Saurida micropectoralis Shindo & Yamada, 1972 Shortpectoral fin x 932 Synodontidae Saurida nebulosa Valenciennes, 1849 x x 933 Synodontidae Synodus variegatus x 934 Tachysuridae Tachysurus sp. x 935 Teraponidae Pelates quadrilineatus (Bloch, 1797) or 1790 check Fourlined terapon x x 936 Teraponidae Terapon farbua x 937 Teraponidae Terapon jarbua (Forsskal, 1775) Crescent grunter x x 938 Teraponidae Terapon puta Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829 Smallscale terapon x x 939 Teraponidae Terapon theraps Cuvier, 1829 Threelined terapon x x x 940 Tetraodontidae Arothron hispidus (Linnaeus, 1758) Bristly puffer x 941 Tetraodontidae Arothron immaculatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Innaculate blowfish x x x 942 Tetraodontidae Arothron reticularis (Bloch & schneider, 1801) Reticulated blowfish x 943 Tetraodontidae Arothron sp. x 944 Tetraodontidae Arothron stellatus(Bloch&Schneider, 1801) Star puffer x x 945 Tetraodontidae Lagocephalus lunaris (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Spotrugh back blowfish x 946 Tetrodontidae Chelonodon patoca (Hamilton, 1822) Gangetic Blowfish x x x 947 Tetrodontidae Chelonodon sp. Puffer x 948 Tetrodontidae Sphoeroides lunaris x 949 Tetrodontidae Tetraodon fluviatilis Green Pufferfish x 950 Tetrodontidae Tetraodon leiurus Green Blowfish x 951 Tetrodontidae Tetraodon nigroviridis Proce, 1822 x x 952 Tetrodontidae Tetraodon sp. x 953 Tetrodontidae Tetraodon suvatti Puffer x 954 Theraponidae Therapon jarbua Jabua Terapon x 955 Toxotidae Toxotes chatareus Common Archer Fish x 956 Toxotidae Toxotes jaculatrix (Pallas, 1766) Fourspined archer x x 957 Toxotidae Toxotes microlepis Fiveblotched Archer x

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND APPENDIX 3 PAGE 15

Appendix 3 cont. Fishes found in habitats of the Gulf of Thailand.

No. Family Scientific name Common name WL CR MG SG 958 Triacanthidae Triacanthus biaculeatus (Bloch, 1786) Shortnosed tripodfish x x x 959 Triacanthidae Triacanthus bicoarctatus (Bleeker, 1757) x 960 Trichiuridae Trichiurus lepturus Linnaeus, 1758 Largehead hairtail x x 961 Tripterygiidae Helcogramma obtusirostris x 962 Tripterygiidae Tripterygion bapturum x 963 Tripterygiidae Tripterygion fasciatum x 964 Tripterygiidae Tripterygion sp. x

WL = Wetland CR = Coral MG = Mangrove SG = Seagrass

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand

NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND APPENDIX 4 PAGE 1

APPENDIX 4 The Organisational Structure of the Department of Fisheries (DOF)

Department of Fisheries

Director of General

Deputy Director-General (3) Office of Fisheries Technical Advisor (12)

Administration Internal Auditing Office of Inspector Development Group Group General (7)

Office of Department Fishery Technological Inland Fisheries Research Coastal Fisheries Marine Fisheries Research Fisheries Development Fisheries Administration Secretary Development Division and Development Bureau Research and and Development Bureau and Technology Transfer and Management Development Bureau Bureau Bureau Personnel Division Fishery Inspection and Administrative Administrative Administrative Administrative Administrative Quality Control Division Research group Research group Research group Research Group Finance Division Fisheries Research and National Institute of Far Sea Marine Fisheries Permission and Inland Aquaculture Development Technology Coastal Aquaculture and Technology Transfer Group Fisheries Administrative Planning Division Aquatic Animal Genetic Research Institute Development Institute Section Research and Coastal Aquatic Fisheries Development Institute Animal Health Marine Fisheries Research Dissemination Section Foreign Fisheries Inland Aquatic Animal Fish Trade Inspection Research Institute and Technology Affairs Division Health Research Institute Section Development Institute Coastal Aquatic Bangkok Fisheries Inland Fisheries Fishery Information Animal Feed Section Administrative Section Technology Center Inland Aquatic Animal Research Institute Marine Fisheries Research Feed Research Institute and Development Center (5) Royal Project Section Inland Fisheries Control Marine Shrimp Culture and Surveillance Center Inland Fisheries Research Institute (7) Resources Research and Development Fishery Technology Institute Kung Krabaen Bay Transfer Section Marine Fisheries Royal Development Administration and Study Center Management Division Ornamental Aquatic Fishery Engineering Animal and Aquatic Plant Section Research Institute Pak Panang Basin Marine Fisheries Control Royal Fisheries and Surveillance Center Development Center Inland Fisheries Fishery economics (5) Research and Section Development Center (31) Coastal Fisheries Research and Development Center Fisheries Provincial (13) Office (75)

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand

NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – THAILAND APPENDIX 5 PAGE 1

APPENDIX 5 The Organisational Structure of the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR)

Structure and Function

Department of Marine and Coastal

Resource

Office of Public Sector Office of Law Department Commission

Office of Secretarial Division of Policy and Planning

Institute for Research and Office of Mangrove Office of Marine and Coastal Development of Marine and Conservation Conservation and Coastal Resources (Phuket Enforcement Marine Biological Center

(PMBC)

Regional Offices

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand

United Nations UNEP/GEF South China Sea Global Environment Environment Programme Project Facility

NATIONAL REPORT

on

The Fish Stocks and Habitats of Regional, Global, and Transboundary Significance in the South China Sea

VIET NAM

Dr. Dao Manh Son Focal Point for Fisheries Research Institute for Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries 170 Le Lai Street, Haiphong City, Viet Nam

NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – VIET NAM

Table of Contents

1. BACKGROUND ...... 1

1.1 OVERVIEW OF THE FISHERIES SECTOR ...... 1 1.1.1 Total catch of the coastal provinces ...... 2 1.1.2 Fishing effort by gear ...... 4 1.1.2.1 Trawl ...... 4 1.1.2.2 Purse seine...... 5 1.1.2.3 Line fisheries...... 6 1.1.2.4 Gill net...... 7 1.1.2.5 Other fishing gears ...... 7 1.1.3 Economic value of catch...... 8 1.1.4 Importance of the fisheries sector in terms of employment and dependence...... 9 1.1.4.1 Fishery labors ...... 9 1.1.4.2 Fisheries infrastructure ...... 10 1.1.4.3 Marketing ...... 10 1.1.4.4 Processing and exporting of marine products ...... 11 1.1.4.5 Socio-economy of marine capture fisheries ...... 11 2. SPECIES OF REGIONAL, GLOBAL AND TRANSBOUNDARY SIGNIFICANCE ...... 11

2.1 RANKING OF IMPORTANCE OF SPECIES ...... 11 2.1.1 In terms of landings ...... 12 2.1.2 In terms of local market value...... 12 2.1.3 In terms of status (endangered, threatened, rare etc. IUCN criteria) ...... 12 2.1.4 Food security ...... 13 2.2 BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF THE PRIORITY SPECIES ...... 14 2.2.1 Large pelagic fishes...... 14 2.2.2 Small pelagic fishes ...... 15 2.2.3 Demersal fish species...... 16 2.2.4 Commercially exploited invertebrates...... 17 3. THREATS & CURRENT STATUS...... 17

3.1 STATUS OF THE FISHERY IN TERMS OF CPUE...... 17 3.2 STATUS OF THE FISH STOCKS BASED ON HISTORICAL REVIEW OF LANDINGS AND CPUE...... 21 3.2.1 Fish Resources...... 21 3.2.1.1 Species Composition...... 21 3.2.1.2 Fish distribution...... 22 3.2.1.3 Standing stock and potential yield...... 23 3.2.2 Shrimp resources...... 23 3.2.2.1 Species composition...... 23 3.2.2.2 Distribution and harvesting season ...... 24 3.2.2.3 Shrimp stock and potential yield...... 25 3.2.3 Cephalopod...... 26 3.2.3.1 Species composition...... 26 3.2.3.2. Distribution and harvesting season ...... 26 3.2.3.3 Standing stock and potential yield ...... 27 3.3 THREATS ...... 27 3.3.1 Current threats...... 27 3.3.1.1 Environmental problems caused by fishing activities ...... 27 3.3.1.2 Environmental problems caused by aquaculture ...... 27 3.3.1.3 Environmental problems caused by fisheries logistics supplies and processing plants...... 28 3.3.1.4 Destructive fishing ...... 28 3.3.1.5 Over-fishing ...... 28 3.3.2 Potential threats...... 28 3.3.2.1 Projected market demand ...... 28 3.3.2.2 Increased coastal population...... 29

ii NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – VIET NAM

4. HABITATS AND AREAS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE MAINTENANCE OF EXPLOITED FISH STOCKS ...... 29

4.1 PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SPAWNING, NURSERY, FEEDING, AND FISHING GROUNDS...... 29 4.1.1 Spawning and nursery grounds of fish, shrimp ...... 31 4.1.2 Fishing grounds ...... 32 4.2 UNKNOWN ISSUES SUCH AS STOCKS WITH UNDEFINED SPAWNING GROUNDS ...... 35 4.3 THREATS, CURRENT AND POTENTIAL ...... 35 4.3.1 Coastal development ...... 35 4.3.2 Pollution ...... 35 4.3.3 Oil spills...... 35 4.3.4 Destructive exploitation...... 36 4.4 RANKING OF HABITATS ...... 36 4.4.1 Association with species of importance to food security ...... 36 4.4.2 Association with high value species ...... 36 4.4.3 Association with endangered, rare and threatened species...... 36 5. CURRENT MANAGEMENT REGIMES...... 37

5.1 LEGAL INSTRUMENTS ...... 37 5.2 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS (RESEARCH, MONITORING, CONTROL & ENFORCEMENT) ...... 37 5.3 OVERVIEW OF PATTERNS OF RESOURCES OWNERSHIP AND TRADITIONAL UTILIZATION ...... 38 5.4 CAPACITY, HUMAN & INSTITUTIONAL (INCLUDE LOCATION OF RESEARCH AND MCS INSTITUTIONS)...... 39 5.5 REVIEW OF STAKEHOLDERS...... 39 6. RECOMMENDATIONS...... 40 REFERENCE ...... 41

iii NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – VIET NAM

LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Total production and export value of fisheries in Viet Nam from 1990 to 2002...... 1 Table 2 The catch of marine fish by coastal provinces of Viet Nam from 1991 to 2001 (tonnes)...... 3 Table 3 Number of fishing boats by fishing grounds in Viet Namese waters...... 4 Table 4 Average catch per unit of effort of key fishing gears employed in coastal and offshore waters of Viet Nam...... 4 Table 5 Annual mean catch per one single trawler in Vietnamese waters (tonnes)...... 5 Table 6 Annual mean catch per one pair trawler in Vietnamese waters (tonnes)...... 5 Table 7 Annual mean catch per one purse seiner in Vietnamese waters (tonnes)...... 6 Table 8 Annual mean catch per one line boat in Vietnamese waters (tonnes) ...... 7 Table 9 Total catches in 14 coastal provinces by fishing gear type in 1997 (tonnes) ...... 8 Table 10 Changes in the number of fishing cooperatives in Viet Nam from 1985 to 2000...... 11 Table 11 Changes in the number of fishing groups in Viet Nam from 1985 to 1997...... 11 Table 12 The catch of ten most fishery important provinces in 2001...... 12 Table 13 Market price of some important marine fish species in Viet Nam (1000 VND)...... 12 Table 14 Endangered, vulnerable, threatened, and rare species in Viet Nam’s marine waters...... 12 Table 15 Some major socioeconomic development targets for Viet Nam’s fisheries sector to 2010. 14 Table 16 The number of fishing boats, total horsepower, landings, and catch rate in Viet Nam from 1981 to 2002...... 18 Table 17 Mean CPUE (kg/day) of purse seine and drift gillnet fleets from 2000 to 2002...... 18 Table 18 Mean catch rate (kg/km of net) of large pelagic fish in gill net surveys conducted from 2000 to 2002……………………………………………………………………………….…20 Table 19 Mean CPUE observed during the surveys from 2000 to 2003………………………………..21 Table 10 Proportion (%) of the five dominant species in the total catch of gill net surveys conducted in Vietnamese waters from 2000 to 2003…………………………………………..23 Table 21 Mean CPUE (kg/h) and proportion (%) of the total catch of top ten species by season and area in Viet Nam………………………………………………………………………………23 Table 22 Proportion (%) of the dominant shrimp families in the total catch of shrimp…………………25 Table 23 Biomass and potential yields of selected shrimp and lobsters in Vietnamese waters………27 Table 24 The biomass and potential yield of squid and cuttlefish in Vietnamese waters……………..28 Table 25 The area of mangroves converted for the aquaculture of ark-shell, clam and crab in the Mekong Delta of Viet Nam from 1995 to 2000 (ha)……………………………………..28 Table 26 The area of mangrove forests used for shrimp culture in selected provinces of southern Viet Nam………………………………………………………………………………29 Table 27 Oil concentrations recorded in Viet Nam’s southeastern coastal waters from 1992 to 1995………………………………………………………………………………….36 Table 28 The average coefficient of oil pollution in the coastal estuaries of northern Viet Nam……..37 Table 29 The distribution of five endangered, rare, and threatened sea turtles in Viet Nam’s water..38

iv NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – VIET NAM

LISTS OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Mean length of skipjack tuna caught in gill net surveys from 2000 to 2003...... 14 Figure 2 The length frequency distribution of Atule mate caught during trawl surveys conducted in southeastern and southwestern areas of Viet Nam during December 2000...... 15 Figure 3 The Length frequency distribution of Loligo chinensis caught during trawl surveys conducted in southeastern and southwestern areas of Vietnamese water in December 2000...... 17 Figure 4 CPUE of the single trawl fleet (20 to 45 hp) in northern (Gulf of Tonkin), central, southeastern, and southwestern (Gulf of Thailand) waters of Viet Nam...... 19 Figure 5 Mean CPUE of pink and white prawns in Vietnamese waters located within the Gulfs of Tonkin and Thailand from 1996 to 2003...... 21 Figure 6 CPUE distribution of trawls (kg/h) and gill nets (kg/km) during the southwest (right) and northeast (left) seasons from the surveys conducted by ALMRV and the Offshore Fisheries Project in 2000 and 2001...... 23 Figure 7 The key ground of Penaeidae shrimp in Vietnamese waters...... 25 Figure 8 The main fishing grounds (as highlighted in green) in Vietnamese waters...... 33

v

NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – VIET NAM 1

Fish Stocks & Habitats of Regional, Global and Transboundary Significance in the South China Sea

1. BACKGROUND

1.1 Overview of the fisheries sector

Viet Nam is situated in the tropical monsoon area of South East Asia. It has a coastline of 3260km and an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of more than 1 million km2. At present, the fisheries sector plays an important role in the social and economic development of Viet Nam.

Total fisheries production was estimated at 2,410,900 tonnes in 2002, of which 1,434,800 tonnes was from capture fisheries. Export value in 2002 reached US$2,014 million (MOFI 2003) (Table 1).

Table 1 Total production and export value of fisheries in Viet Nam from 1990 to 2002.

Total catch Marine capture Aquaculture Total export value Year (tonnes) (tonnes) (tonnes) (Million USD) 1990 1,019,000 709,000 310,000 205.000 1991 1,062,163 714,253 347,910 262.234 1992 1,097,830 746,570 351,260 305.630 1993 1,116,169 793,324 368,604 368.435 1994 1,211,496 878,474 333,022 458.200 1995 1,344,140 928,860 415,280 550.100 1996 1,373,500 962,500 411,000 670.000 1997 1,570,000 1,062,000 481,000 776.000 1998 1,688,530 1,130,660 537,870 858.600 1999 1,827,310 1,212,800 614,510 971.120 2000 2,003,700 1,280,590 723,110 1,402.170 2001 2,226,900 1,347,800 879,100 1,760.600 2002 2,410,900 1,434,800 976,100 2,014.000 Source: The Implementation of Work plan 2002 and Fishery Socio-Economic Development Plan 2003, Ministry of Fisheries (2003).

Vietnamese waters have many bays, , and estuaries, including Ha Long Bay, Bai Tu Long Bay, and Tam Giang lagoon, and over 400,000ha of mangroves. There is huge potential for the development of capture fisheries, marine aquaculture, and other economic sectors, including transportation and tourism.

There are over 2,030 fish species in Vietnamese waters, of which approximately 130 species have economic value, 1,600 crustacean species, 2,500 species of mollusc, and many other kinds of seaweed and seabirds. The standing stock of fisheries resources is estimated to be 3.1 to 3.3 million tonnes, with a potential yield of approximately 1.4 to 1.5 million tonnes (Study on Marine Fishery Resources and Selection of Appropriate Fishing Patten for Development of Offshore Fisheries Dao Manh Son, 2003).

The fisheries sector is currently Viet Nam’s third biggest exporting sector, after crude oil and garments. This sector provides about 40% of the animal protein in the diet of Vietnamese people, creates jobs for over 4 million labourers, and provides part time income for millions of people.

However, the fisheries sector is facing many difficulties, largely due to capture fisheries in Viet Nam being mostly small-scale. For instance, 84% of fishing boats have a capacity of less than 90hp, and fishing activities mainly take place in near shore areas causing higher fishing pressure, resulting in the overexploitation and severe decline of living resources. In this setting, the income of fishing boats decreases, and competition among them increases, resulting in resources becoming increasingly exhausted.

Therefore, it is necessary to orient the development of fisheries in the right direction by strengthening coastal fisheries management, and developing offshore fisheries in a sustainable manner.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 2 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – VIET NAM

1.1.1 Total catch of the coastal provinces

Historical total catch by province

As shown in Table 2, the coastal provinces of Kien Giang, Ba Ria-Vung Tau, Binh Thuan, and Ca Mau had the highest marine catches, with total catches in 2001 of 256,200 tonnes, 140,180 tonnes, 131,000 tonnes and 125,000 tonnes, respectively.

Main species caught in the fishing grounds:

Among the 2030 marine fish species in Viet Nam’s waters, approximately 70% of these are demersal and semi-demersal fish, with the remaining 30% being pelagic species. The distribution of dominant species varies by area. The main species by areas are as follows:

Tonkin Gulf: Ponyfishes (Leiognathus spp.), glow-belly (Acropoma japonicum), threadfin porgy (Evynnis cardinalis), roundscad (Decapterus maruadsi), and splendid squid (Loligo chinensis).

Central and middle area of the South China Sea: Skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares), common dolphinfish (Coryphaena hyppurus), bigeye tuna (Thunnus obessus), swordfish (Xiphias gladius), and silky shark (Carcharhinus menisorrah).

Southeast area: Japanese leatherjacket (Monacanthus nipponensis), red bigeye (Priacanthus macracanthus), bensasi goatfish (Upeneus bensasi), cuttlefish (Sepia spp.), squid (Loligo spp.), and octopus.

Southwest area: Frigate tuna (Auxis thazard), short mackerel (Rastrelliger brachysoma), goatfish (Upenus bensasi), squid, cuttlefish, pike conger and trevallies (Carangidae spp.).

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – VIET NAM 3

Table 2 The catch of marine fish by coastal provinces of Viet Nam from 1991 to 2001. (tonnes)

Provinces 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 State Enterprises 9,850 10,471 8,300 7,873 3,750 4,000 3,875 3,800 3,000 3,130 1,540 Local provinces 702,527 700,710 789,757 882,125 950,890 958,500 1,074,755 1,147,600 1,209,800 1,277,460 1,394,243 Quang Ninh 12,000 10,225 10,850 11,665 12,000 13,300 14,456 15,332 16,300 19,000 20,000 Hai Phong 11,500 11,500 11,150 11,763 13,000 16,500 15,500 17,200 19,000 22,500 27,200 Thai Binh 9,000 7,000 5,000 5,000 7,100 6,500 6,000 11,300 12,200 5,400 5,832 Nam Ha 5,480 5,700 6,935 7,976 9,350 Nam §inh 7,950 9,050 12,550 14,800 23,500 25,380 Ninh Binh 440 471 570 600 750 600 900 900 1,000 1,100 1,200 Thanh Hoa 18,000 18,178 21,450 21,900 22,050 18,000 25,200 28,500 33,000 34,000 33,405 NgheAn 16,500 17,360 19,120 20,000 22,000 12,000 24,000 25,000 26,500 29,000 30,000 Ha Tinh 11,200 13,700 13,745 14,300 15,000 13,600 14,590 14,600 16,500 21,380 21,000 Quang Binh 9,000 8,900 10,601 11,704 12,000 13,000 13,524 13,572 15,550 17,100 18,212 Quang Tri 5,500 5,000 5,280 7,200 6,600 5,000 7,000 9,541 10,000 10,500 10,300 Thua Thien Hue 9,000 7,750 8,013 11,500 9,100 9,700 11,110 12,800 14,000 12,000 11,414 QNam-§a Nang 30,844 28,100 36,500 37,435 42,300 §a Nang 42,000 21,000 22,000 24,735 26,200 22,000 Quang Nam 29,500 31,570 32,000 37,000 39,500 Quang Ngai 22,700 25,300 26,400 30,000 38,000 38,000 44,600 47,000 52,000 29,000 28,700 Binh §inh 23,300 23,000 24,926 25,000 28,450 25,500 32,530 35,000 35,800 36,300 46,400 Phu Yen 14,060 13,150 18,400 15,524 21,000 20,800 22,650 24,442 24,500 27,500 28,100 Khanh Hoa 36,910 38,500 38,100 40,429 44,520 44,000 49,500 50,000 52,000 65,000 66,130 Ninh Thuan 12,840 12,970 14,320 19,000 19,500 22,000 27,000 25,200 26,400 27,500 29,500 Binh Thuan 77,160 78,000 92,000 94,000 95,000 97,000 110,000 100,620 103,200 112,550 131,000 Ba Ria -Vung Tau 61,200 70,000 76,468 84,793 91,860 100,000 95,000 102,400 103,800 115,000 140,180 HCM City 10,800 5,340 8,120 14,600 18,500 19,000 20,485 26,000 24,015 23,830 17,100 Tien Giang 24,590 25,125 23,550 36,000 39,650 38,000 40,000 57,960 57,900 56,000 62,980 Ben Tre 35,000 30,000 35,000 36,000 50,000 50,000 48,000 54,462 57,000 58,000 61,570 Tra Vinh 23,000 24,150 36,820 48,800 33,000 33,800 31,000 32,000 35,500 37,500 44,000 Vinh Long 14,200 14,200 3,000 2,500 Can Tho 18,000 2,785 739 913 1,400 1,250 380 Soc Trang 13,806 14,500 14,523 16,500 18,000 15,900 18,500 20,500 24,000 24,850 Minh Hai 75,000 76,000 94,200 101,500 104,000 Bac Lieu 112,000 46,745 46,851 48,500 50,500 57,360 Ca Mau 93,000 92,700 111,000 123,000 125,000 Kien Giang 110,303 112,000 134,000 155,000 170,800 173,000 196,535 210,100 212,300 223,000 256,200 An Giang 2,000 1,500 1,500 Long An 3,000 1,000 2,500 7,460 6,500 9,600 9,500 9,800 10,100 9,730 Total 712,377 711,181 798,057 889,998 954,640 962,500 1,078,630 1,151,400 1,212,800 1,280,590 1,395,783 Source: Fishery Statistics 2002, Fisheries Information Center. (FICen)

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 4 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – VIET NAM

Trends in marine catches

Total marine catch increased from 419,470 tonnes in 1981 to 1,434,800 tonnes in 2002. During the same period, total engine power increased from 453,871 to 4,038,365hp, respectively. Similarly, total engine power increased 8.9 times, however, total marine catch only increased 3.4 times. This indicates that profits are perhaps diminishing.

1.1.2 Fishing effort by gear

In recent years, the number of fishing boats increased considerably from 29,117 in 1983 to 81,800 in 2002. The size of engines used by fishing boats has increased. Average engine power per boat increased from 16.3hp/boat in 1983 to 49.4 hp/boat in 2002.

Table 3 presents the number of boats operating in coastal and offshore fishing areas.

Table 3 Number of fishing boats by fishing grounds in Vietnamese waters.

Region Total number Total horse Fishing area (boats) power (hp) Coastal Off shore Tonkin Gulf 20,268 409,578 18,977 94% 1,291 6% Central 35,155 838,233 29,198 83% 5,957 17% South East 11,508 810,440 9,619 84% 1,889 16% South West 9,660 786,520 7,657 79% 2,003 21% Total 76,591 2,844,771 65,451 86% 11,140 14% Source: The Implementation of Work plan 1999 and Fishery Socio-Economic Development Plan 2000, Ministry of Fisheries (2000).

Around 86% of fishing boats in Viet Nam operate in coastal fishing grounds, with a major part of the marine catch derived from coastal fishing areas.

Catch per Unit of Effort by key gears and area

The Research Institute for Marine Fisheries has observed many fishing gears operated by different fishing boats. Based on these observations, an estimate of average catch per unit of effort of some fishing gears employed in coastal and offshore waters is presented in Table 4.

Table 4 Average catch per unit of effort of key fishing gears employed in coastal and offshore waters of Viet Nam.

Pair trawl Single trawl Purse seine Region (kg/hp/h) (kg/hp/h) (kg/gear operation) Coastal Off shore Coastal Off shore Coastal Off shore Tonkin Gulf 0.23-0.63 0.19-0.49 0.04-0.39 0.06-0.86 125.2 303-582 Central 0.24-0.34 0.41-0.58 0.3-0.41 0.19-0.45 170-500 428-2008 South East and 0.15-0.94 0.25-0.49 0.11-0.43 0.19-0.49 616-910 470-887 South West

1.1.2.1 Trawl

Trawls are one of the most important fishing gears used in Viet Nam, as well as in many other countries. The catch produced by trawl fisheries constitutes 20 to 30% of the total world marine catch, 40% of the total Asian marine catch, and 43% of the total Viet Nam marine catch.

Key types of trawls used in Viet Nam:

Shrimp trawl As high towing speed is not required while fishing, most fishing boats (<45hp) use a single trawl. Shrimp trawlers represent approximately 95% of the total trawlers operating in the Tonkin Gulf and 91% in the central waters of Viet Nam. Particularly, in the southeast and southwest, fishers use large single shrimp trawlers up to 350hp. With very fine stretched mesh at cod-end from 18 to 25mm, shrimp trawls capture not only shrimp, but also many juvenile fishes.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – VIET NAM 5

The proportion of trash fish in catches made by shrimp trawl boats of less than 90hp has been observed to be as high as 80.7%, whilst that for boats greater than 90hp is approximately 60% of the total catch. In this respect, fishing depth is an important factor. Small shrimp trawlers (<90hp) normally operate at depths of 10 to 20 m, whilst only 4% of the total large shrimp trawlers (90 to 350hp) operate in waters 15 to 20m deep.

Resources in Viet Nam’s coastal waters are declining, and fishing pressure is increasing. Shrimp trawl fishing is often pinpointed as the main reason for resource decline. For this reason, adequate studies into the effects of fishing on the dynamics of fish populations are required to provide a scientific basis for the adjustment of the number of shrimp trawls operating in coastal waters.

Fish trawl High towing speed is required to operate this gear type effectively, so medium to large size vessels typically use this gear. Single trawlers are often not able to maintain a constantly high towing speed, causing low catches, so many fishers have changed to a pair trawling pattern.

Fish trawls commonly have a head rope length of 30 to 36m, an overall length of 40 to 70m, and a stretched mesh at codend from 18 to 30mm. Several types of Chinese trawls have recently been introduced in Viet Nam. These trawls are too big for Vietnamese fishing boats. The nets are 120 to 160m long, with a head rope length of 90 to 95m, and wing mesh sizes from 1000 to 4000mm. This type of net does not align with the towing speed of the local boats. Due to low towing speed, catches are low.

The results of investigations into towing speed indicate that Vietnamese fishing boats do not gain optimum velocities. Hence, there is a need for a fish trawl net that is suitable for Vietnamese boats. The identification of such a net would assist the development of Viet Nam’s offshore fisheries.

Catches in main fishing grounds by trawl fisheries:

Single trawlers Almost all single trawlers in Viet Nam are shrimp trawlers. In Tonkin Gulf, shrimp trawlers mostly have engine capacities less than 60hp, however, in the southeast and southwest, shrimp trawlers are quite big, some having engine capacities greater than 450hp. The annual catch of trawlers by horsepower group is presented in Table 5.

Table 5 Annual mean catch per one single trawler in Vietnamese waters. (tonnes)

Horsepower group (hp) Region 36-60 61-90 91-135 136 -300 301 -450 >450 Tonkin Gulf 10-20 - - - 330 -466 - Southeast-west - 324 106 -129 135 -272 118 -617 550 - 685

Pair trawlers All pair trawlers target fish resources. Several large trawlers (>300hp) operating in the Tonkin Gulf are employing large meshed nets with stretched mesh at wing ranging from 1,000 to 4,000mm. This type of gear is effective in making large catches of small, low value fish. The annual catch of the pair trawl fleet is presented in Table 6.

Table 6 Annual mean catch per one pair trawler in Vietnamese waters. (tonnes)

Horse power group (hp) Region 36-60 61-90 91-135 136-300 301-450 >450 Tonkin Gulf - 144 145-210 154 416-580 440-736 Southeast-west - 196-231 194-298 179-400 367-661 396

1.1.2.2 Purse seine

Purse seine is another important fishing gear for Viet Nam, and is mostly used for offshore fishing. Catch derived from the purse seine fishery represents 20.6% of Viet Nam’s total marine catch, whilst the number of purse seine boats (5,174 units) is only 7.6% of the total fishing fleet.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 6 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – VIET NAM

Common Purse seines

Use of purse seines with artificial light or aggregative devices for fish attraction Purse seine fishers use artificial light to attract and gather fish. This is the most common purse seine fishing technique in Viet Nam today, with approximately 70 to 90% of Viet Nam’s purse seine fleet using light or aggregative devices for fish attraction when fishing.

Purse seines used to catch small pelagic fish in Viet Nam are often 350 to 500m in length, with a stretched height from 70 to 120m. The bunt stretched mesh size used in these purse seines is usually 20 - 25mm. For Anchovy purse seines, these dimensions may be smaller, with net lengths from 300 to 500m, net heights from 45 to 55m, and bunt stretched mesh sizes at codend from 4 to 6mm, being common.

Ordinary purse seine Due to the need to encircle schools of fish moving in front of the gear, ordinary purse seine nets used without light or aggregating devices need to be larger. These nets are usually 600 to 800m long, 100 to 160m deep, and have a bunt stretched mesh size at codend of 20 - 40mm. For faster swimming fish, purse seine length and depth is increased.

Almost all purse seine operations in Viet Nam involve the use of a single fishing boat.

Fishing effort of purse seine fleet The main target species in the purse seine fishery are small pelagic fish, including tuna, mackerel, Indian mackerel, herrings, scads, and anchovies. One fishing trip of a purse seine boat often involves 7 to 20 days at sea. Catches depend largely on the abundance of resources in the fishing area.

Average catches of a purse seine boat using light for fish attraction range from 306.6 to 902.7kg/gear operation, whilst those of an ordinary purse seiner range from 351.5 to 465kg/gear operation. The average revenue of one purse seiner in Kien Giang and Vung Tau province ranges from 816,900 to 2,494,800 VND/operation.

In some central provinces, the catch composition of purse seine boats includes mainly anchovies. The annual mean catch of one purse seine boats is presented in Table 7.

Table 7 Annual mean catch per one purse seiner in Vietnamese waters. (tonnes)

Horse power group (hp) Region 36-60 61-90 91-135 136-300 301-450 > 450 Tonkin Gulf 44 30-45 31-45 45-50 - - Central 52-168 104 - - - - Southeast-west 195 150-171 160-213 159-261 155-400 -

1.1.2.3 Line fisheries

Yellowfin tuna longline This fishery has been developed recently in Phu Yen and Khanh Hoa provinces. Fishing boats involved in this fishery have engine capacities from 45 to 60hp. The length of the mainline used is approximately 18 to 25km. The total number of hooks ranges from 330 to 580. The length of branch lines are from 50 to 60m. Average catches from a 15 to 30 day fishing trip range from 1,200 to 4,300kg, and are mostly composed of bigeye and yellowfin tuna. The tuna for exporting, after removing internal organs and blood is commonly preserved in cool seawater at 0oC using ground ice and freesing equipment.

Pike conger longline The most developed areas of this fishery are Ca Mau and Kien Giang provinces. Fishing boats involved in this fishery have engine capacities from 20 hp to 350hp, and commonly operate in waters from 25 to 35m deep. The main target species is pike conger, which often represents 90% of the total catch. The length of the mainline used is between 20 and 30km with 900 to 2,000 hooks. One 8-day fishing trip, using a mainline of 30km, will often result in catches between 2,000 and 5,000kg.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – VIET NAM 7

Shark longline This fishery has developed strongly in the central provinces, including Binh Dinh, Binh Thuan, and Khanh Hoa. The fishing grounds are typically offshore. Fishing boats involved in this fishery have engine capacities from 60 to 90hp. The length of mainline used ranges from 24 to 32km, with 620 to 1,322 hooks. A fishing trip of 20 to 30 days often results in 3,900 to 4,200kg of catch.

Squid hand line This is a simple and low-investment fishery with only one line and 2 to 3 hooks used. The target species is squid. This gear is often used by fishing boats with an engine capacity less than 23hp, and is sometimes used in combination with other gears.

Fish hand line This gear is used to catch groupers and other fish. This fishery is minor, making a very small contribution to total production.

Fishing effort of line fisheries

The catch per unit effort (CPUE) of is calculated as the average catch per 100 hooks per one operation, as well as the average revenue per 100 hooks per one operation.

Observations indicate that the average catch per 100 hooks of a tuna longline is 14.8 times higher than that of pike conger longline, 10.2 times higher than shark longline, and 5.6 times higher than mackerel longline.

The average catch of a squid hand line ranges from 4 to 6kg/person/day.

Table 8 Annual mean catch per one line boat in Vietnamese waters. (tonnes)

Horse power group (hp) Region 36-60 61-90 91-135 136-300 301-450 >450 Tonkin Gulf 9-15 - - - 40 40 Center 3-23 19-34 29-40 - - - Southeast-west 20-42 19-45 - 25-50 - -

1.1.2.4 Gill net

Gill net fishing is a traditional fishing activity in Viet Nam, however, it is only conducted by small fishing boats. The common types of gill net used include:

Shrimp trammel net This gear is normally used by boats with an engine capacity less than 25hp. Length of nets range from 500 to 2,000m, with heights from 1.5 to 3.0m, the stretched mesh of the inner layer ranges from 48 – 50mm. This gear is used in inshore waters and estuaries that are less than 20m deep.

Cuttlefish trammel net This gear is normally used by boats with an engine capacity less than 25hp. The length and height of the net is the same as that of the shrimp trammel net. The stretched mesh of inner net is approximately 80mm. This gear is used in inshore waters with high salinity (not in estuaries).

Demersal fish trammel net This gear is normally used by boats with an engine capacity from 15 to 45hp. The length of nets range from 2 to 5km, with heights from 4 to 6m. This gear is used in inshore waters from 15 to 35m deep.

1.1.2.5 Other fishing gears

Besides the main fishing gears described above, a number of other fishing gears are operated effectively in Vietnamese waters. These include lift nets, stow nets, push nets, and traps. The catches made by different gear types in certain areas of Viet Nam’s EEZ are introduced in Table 9.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand 8 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – VIET NAM

Table 9 Total catches in 14 coastal provinces by fishing gear type in 1997. (tonnes)

Seawaters Total Trawl Purse Gill net Line Lift net Stationary Other catch seine net gears Gulf of Tonkin 73,703 27,182 4,880 18,728 4,773 14,110 1,240 2,391 100% 36.9% 6.6% 25.4% 6.5% 19.1% 1.7% 3.2% Central area 173,218 31,078 41,614 34,674 23,793 36,534 841 4,504 100% 17.9% 24.0% 20.0% 13.7% 21.7% 0.5% 2.6% Southern area 283,415 169,958 62,593 18,729 16,452 - 13,371 2,322 100% 60.0% 22.0% 6.6% 5.8% - 4.7% 0.8% Total 530,336 228,218 109,087 72,131 45,028 50,644 15,452 9,217 (14 provinces) 100% 43.0% 20.6% 13.6% 8.5% 9.5% 2.9% 1.7%

1.1.3 Economic value of catch

Trend in catch per unit of effort (CPUE)

There are a large and increasing number of small fishing boats operating in Viet Nam’s coastal waters. The corresponding increases in fishing effort and total catch have led to the overexploitation of fisheries resources in these areas. Consequently, for each unit increase in fishing effort in Viet Nam’s coastal waters, the income of fishers per unit of effort diminishes. In order to maintain financial returns on their investments in time and effort, fishers typically intensify their operations by increasing fishing duration, increasing number of gear operations, and reducing mesh size. This often further contributes to the problem of overexploitation, driving further increases in fishing effort. For example, the average catch per 1 horsepower declined significantly from 1985 to 2002 (Table 16). Specifically, the average catch per 1 horsepower was 1.11 tonnes/hp in 1985, although by 2002 this had fallen to 0.35 tonnes/hp, or 31.5% of the 1985 catch rate.

Trend in price and value of catch

As discussed above, approximately 82% of Viet Nam’s total marine catch is derived from waters less than 50 m deep. The overexploitation of coastal fisheries resources has the following consequences: - The proportion of high value fish species in catches is gradually reduced. - The sizes of individual high value fish in catches become smaller over time. - The proportion of trash fish (very low value fish) in catches tends to increase. This drives fluctuations in the price per kg and value of catch.

Fish price per kg The prices obtained for species of high commercial value, especially coral-associated species such as grouper, eel, and lobster, have recently increased significantly. The price of other commercial species, including yellowfin tuna, snapper, and mackerel, have also increased. However, price for these latter species is not stable due to fluctuations in market supply and demand.

Value per fishing trip Due to ongoing reductions in catch rates, the quantity of high quality fish, size of fish, and income per fishing trip has declined.

Estimated value of the total catch At present, Viet Nam’s fisheries statistics only provide general information regarding total catch, total number of fishing boats, and total engine power. Information at the fishing gear or species level has not been collected due to an underdeveloped fisheries statistics system in Viet Nam.

In fact, the total annual catch of marine fish from Vietnamese waters was estimated very roughly. Although the total catch (Table 1) may not be precise, it provides an indication of the level of resource exploitation.

Estimates of the cost of fishing, based on data collected from different fleets (trawl, purse seine, gill net, and line fishing boats) and horsepower groups across a variety of regions (Tonkin Gulf, Centre, South East and West) indicate that the: - Mean price per one tonne of catch is 4.214 million VND; and the - Mean cost per one hp is 1.843 million VND per year (1 US$ = 15,340 VND in 2002).

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It is possible to estimate the total annual value and cost of fishing by multiplying these figures with those relating to total catch and total engine capacity. The data from 1981 to 2002 indicate that the catch rate and income per horse power decreases with increases in engine capacity.

The total costs of fishing increased 8.89 times from 836,484.3 VND in 1981 to 7,442,706.7 million VND in 2002. However, during this period, the total value only increased 3.42 times from 1,767,646.6 to 6,046,247.2 million VND. Profit per fishing boat or operator in Viet Nam’s marine fisheries tends to decline as horsepower or the number of boats increases.

Highest profits were obtained during the period from 1986 to 1991, with total profits ranging from 1,462 to 1,558 billion VND. Since 1991, total profits have declined. This indicates that traditional waters, less than 50m deep, have been overexploited and that fishing in these areas results in poor economic returns. It is considered that the development of sustainable fisheries in Viet Nam requires a reduction in the size of the coastal fishing fleet, supported by an expansion of fishing effort in offshore areas.

1.1.4 Importance of the fisheries sector in terms of employment and dependence

1.1.4.1 Fishery labors

Viet Nam’s fisheries are small-scale, multi-species, and multi-gear. The majority of investment in these fisheries is private. These small-scale fisheries contribute more than 87% of the total catch. Some 640,000 Vietnamese people are engaged in fishing, including approximately 60,000 people participating in offshore fishing activities.

Development of state-owned fishing enterprises has not been effective due to insufficient management and lack of investment. They gradually lose their leading role in application of new technologies as well as in catch contribution. In 2001, according to the Ministry of Fisheries, there were 452 fishing co- operatives (Table 10) comprising 15,650 labourers and 4,300 fishing groups comprising 21,000 fisheries labourers.

The educational level in every Vietnamese fishing community is low. It is estimated that: 68% of people in these communities only finish primary school; slightly more than 20% complete lower secondary school; about 10% finish secondary schools; and only 0.65% have graduated from vocational schools or universities.

The following socio economic conditions influence the quantity and quality of fishery labourers in Viet Nam: - Coastal fisheries in all areas of Viet Nam face the threat of overexploitation. There is a need to introduce strict measures aimed at reducing fishing effort in coastal waters. However, many fishers cannot afford to purchase fishing boats suitable for offshore use due to lack of sufficient capital. Therefore, a continuously growing number of coastal and inshore fishers exacerbate existing conditions. - Marine fishing is a customary and hereditary profession in Viet Nam. Fishers normally do not have any other sources of income. Compared to agriculture, incomes associated with fishing are typically higher. This situation attracts many labourers to this sector. - Due to low levels of education, it is difficult for fishers to learn about advanced technology, especially offshore fishing techniques. Similarly, finding employment in other areas is often a major challenge for small-scale fishers. - The decline in fisher incomes, associated with the degradation of coastal resources, has driven fishers to increase the efficacy of fishing effort. This has involved fishers: + reducing mesh size to catch fish of all shapes and sizes, including juvenile fish; + increasing the number of gear operations per trip, or extending the duration of fishing; and + using destructive fishing gears or methods, including explosives, chemicals, and other poisonous substances. - In the reduction of overall fishing effort exerted in coastal waters, there is a need to create alternative employment opportunities for fishers.

There is a requirement for these socio economic considerations to be incorporated into Viet Nam’s strategic policy and planning for fisheries in the future.

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1.1.4.2 Fisheries infrastructure

At present, there are about 700 shipyards in Viet Nam with a capacity to build 4,000 new boats and repair 10,000 units in a year. Normally, hulls of fishing boats are made of wood. Some fishing enterprises and transportation units use steel. Those boats may be equipped with an engine capacity of 200 to 400hp.

At the end of 2002, the fisheries sector had 63 fishing ports, including 47 in coastal provinces and 16 on islands. The construction of these facilities relied on a range of different capital sources. Among them, 48 ports are in operation, providing a total jetty length of 6,700m. 15 ports are still under construction.

Although the Ministry of Fisheries has attempted to improve infrastructure, the logistical system for fisheries remains underdeveloped and does not have all the necessary services. Some services are not operated effectively. For instance, several access routes have not been dredged, hampering the navigation of fishing and transportation boats into and out of port facilities. Similarly, the number of shelters and landing places is not sufficient for Viet Nam’s large fishing fleet, resulting in efficient offloading of catch. This often leads to the deterioration of catch quality.

There are 8 manufacturing enterprises producing net thread, packing bags and other fish related packaging. These facilities have an annual capacity to produce 200 tonnes of thread and 7,500 tonnes of packing materials. Among them, 2 are State-owned, 2 are joint-ventured with foreign countries, 3 have 100% foreign capital investment, and 1 is a private Vietnamese-owned factory.

In 2000, new fish market complexes were constructed in BacLieu, Kien Giang and Quang Ninh (CoTo Island).

There are 266 industrial processing enterprises in Viet Nam having more than 300 processing plants. Most of them use freezing technology (Do Van Nam, 2003). In general, marine fisheries in Viet Nam are still small-scale. The management of the sector is difficult due to the complexity of the multi-species tropical fish fauna, too many small fishing boats and gears, too many small landing sites and beaches scattered along Viet Nam’s coastline, open access to fisheries resources, and underdeveloped production techniques.

1.1.4.3 Marketing

At present, there are no fish auctions or large markets in Viet Nam. Intermediaries play key roles in the trading of fisheries products.

Intermediaries often buy fish on a wholesale basis from fishing boats, and then sell items to the skipper of the fishing boat that are required for the next fishing trip. These items include ice, fresh water, fishing gear, and food. Powerful intermediaries often enter into contracts with fishers that involve the intermediary lending the fishers money, usually 20 to 70 million VND/boat, to cover the costs of fishing, in return for monopoly rights to purchase the entire landings from a boat.

The landings are usually sorted into species and size classes prior to sale in the following key markets: - Export market: High value products are selected and stored properly and carefully. Intermediaries sell them to export processing plants or export them directly to China and other countries. - Domestic market: Products selected for domestic consumption are usually transported in frozen form to big cities for sale as fresh fish, or to processing plants for the production of dried products for domestic markets. - Fish sauce processing: About 40 to 50% of the total landings, or trash fish, from trawl fishing, and low value products derived from other fisheries, including sardinella and anchovies, are used in the production of fish sauce. In 1998, approximately 160 million litres of fish sauce was produced in Viet Nam. Apart from the powerful intermediaries associated with the larger landing sites, small-scale traders operate in most small landing places. These traders are typically female workers in fishing communities, or the wives of fishing boat owners and operators. They buy small quantities of landings for resale in local fresh food markets.

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1.1.4.4 Processing and exporting of marine products

In 2000, the majority of exports of marine products were frozen (shrimp, fish, squid), representing 65% of the total export quantity. Frozen shrimp represented approximately 66% of these exports in terms of both value and quantity. Other important fish exports include dried cuttlefish, dried squid, and frozen fish fillets. Canned food for export is still limited in quantity. Other value added products make up 35% of the total export value.

Fisheries exports have grown in terms of quantity and value. The export quantity increased from 3,441 tonnes in 1980 to 64,366 tonnes in 1990. The export value increased from US$11.2 million in 1988 to US$550 million in 1995, and then to US$2,014 million USD in 2002. This 2002 export value is approximately 180 times higher than that observed in 1988. In 1990 to 2000, the national export turnover increased 584%, with an average yearly growth of 21.2%.

1.1.4.5 Socio-economy of marine capture fisheries

The fisheries of Viet Nam have recently experienced a rapid and continuous growth phase, becoming one of the key sectors of the national economy. In 2003, fisheries contributed to more than 4% of the national GDP. The yearly average increase in the contribution of fisheries to GDP has been estimated at 40%. In 1990, the GDP of fisheries was 1,281 billion VND, growing to 6,664 billion VND in 1995, and by 2003, it was approximately 25,675 billion VND. The average GDP/fisher is approximately US$160/year. However, compared with average national living standards, the welfare conditions of fishers are still low. Fishing communities contain 2.5 to 3% of the total population of Viet Nam, of which 49% are male and 51% are female. The average number of persons per one fishing household is 6 to 7 persons. Most fishers can only afford to buy small fishing boats and gear, resulting in most fishing effort being directed towards coastal fisheries resources. In the fisheries sector, there exist different economic components: (1) state-owned fishing enterprises; (2) fishing cooperatives; (3) fishing groups; and (4) private fishers. The number of fishing cooperatives reduced dramatically from 1985 to 1996. However, they did increase slightly during the late 1990s (Table 10).

Table 10 Changes in the number of fishing cooperatives in Viet Nam from 1985 to 2000.

Year 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 2000

Number of fishing cooperatives 673 398 95 94 184 452 Source: A preliminary Analysis on Socio-economic Situation of Coastal Fishing Communities in Viet Nam, Nguyen Long, 2000.

Fishing groups consisting of several fishers, who are willingly to cooperate with each other in fishing and investment, have grown in popularity (Table 11).

Table 11 Changes in the number of fishing groups in Viet Nam from 1985 to 1997.

Year 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 Number of fishing groups 2,205 2,884 3,773 3,886 5,542 Source: The Implementation of Work plan 1999 and Fishery Socio-Economic Development Plan 2000, Ministry of Fisheries (2000).

2. SPECIES OF REGIONAL, GLOBAL AND TRANSBOUNDARY SIGNIFICANCE

2.1 Ranking of importance of species

In Viet Nam, the data on total catch by species is not available. Generally, catches are sorted into separate commercial groups. The number of commercial groups depends on the type of the fishery. The most complicated catch compositions are associated with trawl fisheries. The commercial groups are defined by the species, size, quality, and market price. Some commercial groups consist of only one or two species, whereas other groups contain many species, for instance the trash fish group. Trawl fisheries may also contain both demersal and pelagic fishes.

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2.1.1 In terms of landings

Table 12 presents Viet Nam’s provinces with the highest total catches in 2001.

Table 12 The catch of ten most fishery important provinces in 2001. Unit: 1000 tons Province Kien B/Ria- Binh Ca Mau Khanh Tien Ben Tre Binh Tra Quang Giang V/Tau Thuan Hoa Giang Dinh Vinh Nam Catch 256.2 140.18 131.0 125.0 66.13 62.98 61.57 46.4 44.0 39.5

2.1.2 In terms of local market value

According to an observation of the Research Institute for marine Fisheries (RIMF), the market price of some important species in terms of quantity and high value are presented in Table 13. Table 13 Market price of some important marine fish species in Viet Nam (1000 VND).

Important species in terms of quantity Important species in terms of high value Species Market price Species Market price Round scad 6.0 – 9.0 Spiny lobster 500.0 – 550.0 Sardinella 5.0 – 8.0 Marine eel 180.0 – 210.0 Indo - Pacific mackerel 5.0 – 7.0 Tiger shrimp 120.0 – 150.0 Frigate tuna 4.0 – 7.0 Mud crab 100.0 – 140.0 Yellowstripe scad 3.0 – 4.0 Silver pomfret 100.0 – 120.0 Ponyfish 1.0 – 2.0 Grouper 90.0 – 120.0 Trash fish 0.3 – 2.0 Abalone 90.0 – 110.0 Spanish mackerel 30.0 – 40.0 Cuttlefish 50.0 – 80.0 Seabream 30.0 – 50.0 Snapper 40.0 – 60.0 Yellowfin tuna 40.0 – 60.0 Seabass 40.0 – 50.0 (Exchange rate: 1 US$ = 15,340 VND in 2002)

2.1.3 In terms of status (endangered, threatened, rare etc. IUCN criteria)

Recently, declines in the abundance of some fish species have been observed in the waters of Viet Nam and the broader South East Asian region. A number of these species are classified as endangered or threatened. There are 37 marine fish species, 5 spiny lobster species, 27 mollusc species and 3 cephalopod species in Viet Nam waters that are considered as endangered, threatened, or rare in Viet Nam red book. Table 14 Endangered, vulnerable, threatened, and rare species in Viet Nam’s marine waters.

No Type Scientific name Status 1 Fishes Amphioxus belcheri Vu 2 Fishes Stegostoma fasciatum Ra 3 Fishes Rhincodon typus Ra 4 Fishes Alopias pelagicus Dd 5 Fishes Cephaloscyllium umbratile Ra 6 Fishes Etmopterus lucifer Ra 7 Fishes Pristis cuspidatus Ra 8 Fishes Pristis microdon Ra 9 Fishes Rhina ancylostoma Th 10 Fishes Narcine tonkinensis Ra 11 Fishes Chimaera phantasma Dd 12 Fishes Elops saurus Ra 13 Fishes Megalops cyprinoides Ra 14 Fishes Albula vulpes Ra 15 Fishes Nematolosa nasus En 16 Fishes Anodontostoma chacunda En 17 Fishes Ateleopus japonicus Ra 18 Fishes Solenostomus paradoxus Ra 19 Fishes Trachyrhamphus serratus Ra 20 Fishes Syngnathus acus Ra 21 Fishes Solenognathus hardwickii Ra 22 Fishes Hippocampus histrix Vu 23 Fishes Hippocampus kuda Vu

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Table 14 cont. Endangered, vulnerable, threatened, and rare species in Viet Nam’s marine waters.

No Type Scientific name Status 24 Fishes Hippocampus japonicus Dd 25 Fishes Hippocampus trimaculatus Vu 26 Fishes Hippocampus kellogi Vu 27 Fishes Velifer hypselopterus Ra 28 Fishes Zeus japonicus Ra 29 Fishes Zeus cypho Ra 30 Fishes Schindlerria praematura Ra 31 Fishes Bostrichthys sinensis Vu 32 Fishes Satyrichthys rieffeli Ra 33 Fishes Psilocephalus barbatus Ra 34 Fishes Oxymonocanthus longirostris Ra 35 Fishes Masturus lanceolatus Th 36 Fishes Mola mola Ra 37 Fishes Antennarius melas Ra 38 Spiny lobster Panulirus homatus Vu 39 Spiny lobster Panulirus longipes Vu 40 Spiny lobster Panulirus ornatus Vu 41 Spiny lobster Panulirus versicolor Vu 42 Spiny lobster Tachypreus tridentatus Th 43 Mollusc Haliotis asinina Vu 44 Mollusc Haliotis ovina Vu 45 Mollusc Trochus niloticus En 46 Mollusc Trochus pyramis En 47 Mollusc Turbo marmoratus En 48 Mollusc Chelycypraea testudinaria Th 49 Mollusc Cypraea argus Ra 50 Mollusc Cypraea histrio Ra 51 Mollusc Cypraea mappa Ra 52 Mollusc Cypraea spadicea Ra 53 Mollusc Cypraea turdus Ra 54 Mollusc Mauritia scurra Ra 55 Mollusc Blasicrura chinensis Ra 56 Mollusc Ovula costellata Ra 57 Mollusc Calpurnus lacteus Ra 58 Mollusc Calpurnus verrucosus Ra 59 Mollusc Lambis crocata Ra 60 Mollusc Strombus luhuanus Vu 61 Mollusc Cymatium lotorium Ra 62 Mollusc Charonia tritonis Vu 63 Mollusc Epitonium scalare Ra 64 Mollusc Mytilus viridis Vu 65 Mollusc margarritifera Vu 66 Mollusc Tridacna gigas Ra 67 Mollusc Anomalocardia squamosa En 68 Mollusc Gafrarium tumidum En 69 Mollusc Nautilus pompilius En 70 Cephalopoda Loligo chinensis En 71 Cephalopoda Sepioteuthis lessoniana Vu 72 Cephalopoda Sepia pharaonis En Remarks: En = endangered; Vu = vulnerable; Th = threatened; Ra = rare and Dd = data deficient. Source: Country Report of Viet Nam for Transboundary Diagnostic Assessment, National Environment Agency, 1998.

In a report on the status of sea turtles in Viet Nam, Pham Thuoc et al. listed 5 endangered species in Viet Nam. They are Green turtle, Loggerhead turtle, Leatherback turtle, Hawksbill turtle and Olive Ridley turtle. The 2000 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals classifies 4 of these species as endangered and 1, the Hawksbill turtle, as critically endangered at the global level. All five species is listed in Appendices I and II of the Convention on Migratory Species.

2.1.4 Food security

Since 1996, Viet Nam has transformed its general policy and strategy from a central planned economy to a market economy with socialism style. In line with this new direction, the Ministry of Fisheries, in its Master Plan (2000 to 2010), has set the following objectives for the socio economic development of this sector:

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- Increase domestic consumption of fish and fishery products. - Increase export earnings. - Create substantial additional employment. - Improve the sector's infrastructure, equipment, and technology base. - Increase the sector's contribution to national income.

Table 15 Some major socioeconomic development targets for Viet Nam’s fisheries sector to 2010.

Year Item Unit 2001 2005 2010 1. Total fisheries production 1,000 t 2,256.941 2,450 3,400 Consists of: - Marine capture fisheries 1,000 t 1,367.393 1,300 1,400 - Aquaculture fisheries 1,000 t 879.548 1,150 2,000 2. Export value USD billion 1.76 3.0 4.5 Source: Master plan for fishery Socio-Economic Development to 2010, Research Institute for Fishery Economics and Planning, 2002.

The main species contributing to total fisheries production and food security in Viet Nam are tuna, round scads, sardine, anchovy, mackerel, threadfin bream, lizardfish, trevally, grouper, snapper, squid, cuttlefish, black tiger prawn, catfish, tilapia, clam, blood cockle, and mud crab.

2.2 Biology and ecology of the priority species

Since 2000, the project of Assessment of the Living Marine Resources in Viet Nam has conducted a series of scientific surveys by trawlers in the gulf of Tonkin, Southeast - Southwest waters and by gill- netters and long liners in the Central waters of Viet Nam. The below analyses in this report used the data from these surveys.

2.2.1 Large pelagic fishes

Generally, the most important component of the large pelagic fish resource in Vietnamese waters is tuna, belonging to the Scombridae family. Other families including Xiphiidae, Istiophoridae, and Coryphaenidae are also found in these waters.

The most important species found in scientific surveys conducted 2000 – 2003 with gill nets in central and southeastern waters of Viet nam were skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), Devil ray (Mobula diabolus), and yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares).

Skipjack tuna are mainly caught with gillnets of 100mm stretched mesh size. The length of this species observed in Viet Nam’s waters from 2000 to 2003, ranged from 13 to 84 cm, with fish of lengths between 40 and 50 cm dominating catches. Figure 1 shows the mean length of skipjack tuna caught in 8 surveys (based on 31327 individuals) with very small fluctuation over the time.

Figure 1 Mean length of skipjack tuna caught in gill net surveys from 2000 to 2003.

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Yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) is also a target species for gillnet and longline fisheries conducted in Vietnamese waters. Yellowfin tuna caught by longline were much bigger than that caught by gillnet in identical areas, ranging from 85 to 112cm.

2.2.2 Small pelagic fishes

The important small pelagic fishes caught in Vietnamese waters include scads (Decapterus), herrings (Sardinella), anchovy (Stolephorus), and Indian mackerel (Rastrelliger brachysoma). Other species belonging to genus and families of Trichiurus, Sphyraena, Priacanthus, Selaroides, Selar, Polynemus, Formioniger and Leiognathidae also contribute significantly to total catch volumes of this group.

In the coastal waters of the Gulf of Tonkin, small pelagic fishes are present at all times. Generally, they start to come closer to shore in the southern part of the gulf for spawning during March, and from May to June, they are abundant in all inshore waters.

The continental slope in the central region of Viet Nam is very narrow. Therefore, fishes tend to concentrate close to the shore or in small bays like Quy Nhon, Nha Trang, and Phan Rang.

There are four southeastern areas characterised by high abundances of small pelagic fish. The include: (1) coastal waters from Phan Thiet to Vung Tau; (2) the Mekong estuaries; (3) waters adjacent to Con Dao Island: and (4) Phu Quy Island waters. Fishes with deep-water characteristics have been found in the fourth area. In the Gulf of Thailand, small pelagic fishes are ubiquitous. The most important pelagic species in the catch of a series of trawl surveys from 2000 to 2003 were Atule mate, Decapterus maruadsi, and Selaroides leptolepis. The description of biology of fishes in the below part is originated from a bottom trawl survey in the Southeast and Southwest waters of Viet Nam in December 2000.

Atule mate The lengths of Atule mate caught during trawl surveys conducted in the southeast and southwest areas in December 2000 ranged from 7 to 20cm. The mean length was 14.9cm. Total biomass of this species was estimated to be 2,747 tonnes (Q=1) with a CV of 58%. The gonads of 208 fishes (72.6%) were in the resting phase for both sexes (December 2000).

Atule mate % n=958 30 M ean=14.9 25 20

15 10

5 0 7 8 9 1011121314151617181920

Fl (cm)

Figure 2 The length frequency distribution of Atule mate caught during trawl surveys conducted in southeastern and southwestern areas of Viet Nam during December 2000.

Selaroides leptolepis The catch of this species contributed 3% of the total catch during the 2000 trawl survey. The total biomass was estimated to be 8,168 tonnes with a CV of 59%. The catch was mainly taken in depths from 20 to 100m. The highest biomass was observed in the 30 to 50m depth range (6,257 tonnes). The length frequency of 1,788 measured fishes ranged from 6 to 16cm, with a mean length of 11.9cm.

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There were no juvenile fish observed in the exploited stock during this period, with 49.7% of studied gonads in the resting stage (II). Approximately 38% of fish gonads were at gonad stage (III) and 11.4% of the surveyed population were ripe stage, indicating that a part of the stock was going to spawn soon.

Decapterus maruadsi This species contributed 1.25% to the total catch volume during the survey period. Total biomass was estimated to be 2,288 tonnes with a CV of 63%, with the main catches being taken in waters deeper than 30m. Lengths ranged from 13 to 22cm, with a mean length of 15.4cm. The 15cm length class dominated catches of this species. According to the analysis of gonads from 265 individuals, approximately 13.6% of the catch were juveniles. The main part of the stock was in resting stage (75.8%) for both sexes. A few female were ripe and at the spawning stage (2.3%). The gonads of the remaining fish were developing.

2.2.3 Demersal fish species The demersal resources of Vietnamese waters can be divided into two groups: (1) coastal resources; and (2) deep sea resources. The first group, including Lutianidae, Mullidae, Nemipteridae, Pomadasssyidae, Synodidae, and Priacanthidae, are mainly targeted with bottom trawls. Most fishes in the second group are of low economic value, including Myctophidae, Scorpaenidae, Chimaeridae and Lophiidae. In the surveys conducted in December 2002, in southeastern waters and the Gulf of Thailand, the dominant species were Upeneus bensasi, Trachinochephalus myops, Saurida undosquamis, Saurida tumbil, and Priacanthus macracanthus. The key biological information collected for these species during the survey is presented below. Upeneus bensasi This species contributed 7.21% to total catch. The biomass of this species was estimated to be 14,240 tonnes with a CV of 51%. The main catch was derived from waters deeper than 30m in southeastern waters and 50m in southwestern waters. Lengths ranged from 6 to 18cm, with a mean length of 10.4cm. Analysis of gonads revealed that approximately 22% of the catch was juvenile. More females were developing or ripe (30.8%) as compared to males (2.4%). Trachinocephalus myops This species contributed 5.83% to total catch. The biomass of the species was estimated to be 10,761 tonnes with a CV of 40%. The main catch was derived from waters deeper than 30m. The lengths of 2,115 individual fishes ranged from 7 to 39cm, with a mean length of 16.2cm. The length frequency distribution peaked firstly at 12cm and secondly at 24cm. Analysis of gonads revealed that approximately 9.9% of the catch was juvenile. Generally, a higher percentage of males were developing or ripe (37.0%) as compared to females (28.5%). Saurida undosquamis This species contributed 5.56% to total catch. The biomass of the species was estimated to be 10,575 tonnes with a CV of 40%. The main catch was derived from waters deeper than 30m. Lengths ranged from 6 to 49cm, with mean length of 16.8cm. Analysis of length frequency enabled to identification of at least two cohorts in the catch. The smaller sized cohort dominated the catch. Analysis of gonads revealed that approximately 12.5% of the catch was juvenile. There were a higher proportion of males than females with gonads in the resting (II) and developing stages (III). Generally, 16% of both sexes were ripe. There was no fish in the spawning stage during the time of the survey. Saurida tumbil This species contributed 2.02% to total catch. Lengths ranged from 7 to 48cm, with a mean length of 17.9cm. Analysis of gonads revealed that both sexes were mainly in the gonad resting stage (54.7%).There were about 26.7% in developing stage, and 9.3% in the ripe stage. Approximately 9.3% were juvenile. There were no fish in spawning condition, indicating that the survey period did not align with the spawning season for this species.

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Priacanthus macracanthus This species contributed 5.16% to the total catches during the survey. Lengths ranged from 5 to 30cm, with a mean length of 17.7cm. The length group from 17 to 19 cm dominated the catch.

The results of gonad analysis indicate that 3.3% were juvenile. Most of the catch was in the gonad resting stage (57.9%). Females appeared to reach active stage sooner than the male (11.2% for female and 4.6% for male). There were no fish in spawning stage (V) observed during the survey.

2.2.4 Commercially exploited invertebrates

Loligo chinensis According to the trawl surveys conducted during 2000, this species contributed 2.84 % to total catches. The biomass was estimated at 5,642 tonnes with a CV of 31%. The length frequency distribution of 726 individuals is provided in Figure 3. Mantle lengths ranged from 6 to 33cm, with mean length of 13.2cm.

N Loligo chinensis 100 N=726 90 Mean = 13.2 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 ML(cm)

Figure 3 The Length frequency distribution of Loligo chinensis caught during trawl surveys conducted in southeastern and southwestern areas of Vietnamese water in December 2000.

Metapenaeus affinis Length frequency data were collected monthly from the commercial trawl fishery (fleet <45 hp) in 1997. The length of female of Metapenaeus affinis ranged from 6 to 33cm, with a mean length of 13.2cm.

3. THREATS & CURRENT STATUS

3.1 Status of the fishery in terms of CPUE

As shown in Table 16, annual mean catch rate per horsepower has declined rapidly year by year. The reason for that could be overexploitation in the near shore waters, where most of fishing boats harvesting in.

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Table 16 The number of fishing boats, total horsepower, landings, and catch rate in Viet Nam from 1981 to 2002.

Year No of motorised Total Horsepower Landings Catch rate fishing boats (units) (hp) (tonnes) (Tonnes/hp/Year) 1981 29,584 453,871 419,470 0.92 1982 29,429 469,976 475,597 1.01 1983 29,117 475,832 519,384 1.09 1984 29,549 484,114 530,650 1.10 1985 29,323 494,507 550,000 1.11 1986 31,680 537,503 582,077 1.08 1987 35,406 597,022 624,445 1.05 1988 35,774 609,317 622,364 1.02 1989 37,035 660,021 651,525 0.99 1990 41,266 727,585 672,130 0.92 1991 43,940 824,438 730,420 0.89 1992 54,612 986,420 737,150 0.75 1993 61,805 1,291,550 793,324 0.61 1994 67,254 1,443,950 878,474 0.61 1995 69,000 1,500,000 928,860 0.62 1996 69,953 1,543,163 962,500 0.62 1997 71,500 1,850,000 1,078,000 0.58 1998 71,779 2,427,856 1,130,660 0.47 1999 73,397 2,518,493 1,212,800 0.48 2000 75,928 3,185,558 1,280,591 0.40 2001 78,978 3,722,577 1,347,800 0.36 2002 81,800 4,038,365 1,434,800 0.35 Source: The Implementation of Work plan 2002 and Fishery Socio-Economic Development Plan 2003, Ministry of Fisheries (2003).

Pelagic resources There was no comprehensive acoustic survey carried out in Vietnamese waters during the decade prior to late 2003. Recently, the Government of Viet Nam has provided support to the Research Institute for Marine Fisheries for a three-year acoustic project, which is still in its initial stage. The major gears used to exploit small pelagic resources are purse seine, drift gill net, and high opening bottom trawl. So far, the status of these resources has not been updated by scientific surveys. However, the project Assessment of the Living Marine Resources in Viet Nam (ALMRV) established an enumerator-sampling programme in 1996 aimed at collecting data from commercial fisheries along Viet Nam’s coastline. Table 17 shows the mean catch rate of the purse seine and drift net fleets by area from 2000 to 2002. According to these figures, the mean catch rate (kg/day) of many fleets seems to have significantly decreased over time. Catch rate has decreased more than half in some horsepower classes and fleets of drift gillnet boats. The catch rate of nearly all purse seine fleets has declined significantly. The most serious problem has occurred in the fleet of 90 to 140hp class purse seine boats in the north (from 1324.2kg in 2000 to 447.9kg in 2002) and in the central region (from 1128.6kg in 2000 to 362.1kg in 2002).

Table 17 Mean CPUE (kg/day) of purse seine and drift gillnet fleets from 2000 to 2002.

Region Landing Drift gillnet Purse seine year 20 20-45 46-89 90-140 >140 20-45 46-89 90-140 >140 North 2000 26.2 176.5 299.3 752.2 494.8 1324.2 1687.7 2001 24.3 43.4 200.0 323.6 133.3 867.3 2002 28.7 61.7 116.5 302.0 295.2 447.9 Center 2000 42.1 144.7 205.9 413.5 644.7 1128.6 2001 56.9 206.3 144.0 471.3 712.7 423.8 2002 41.8 207.3 95.7 205.4 344.4 362.1 Southeast 2000 56.7 272.8 193.2 317.6 117.1 951.4 958.5 1134.8 2001 45.4 108.6 264.9 313.4 667.5 738.1 867.3 2002 52.1 141.3 332.6 343.7 507.3 737.9 Southwest 2000 18.3 95.5 232.8 249.3 868.1 815.9 1191.9 2001 15.8 26.8 257.0 1358.2 2002 25.0 50.9 191.0 224.8 Source: Extraction from Vietfishbase, Enumerator Programme, Assessment of the Living Marine Resources in Viet Nam, 2003.

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To update information regarding the relative abundance of large pelagic fishes, there have been two gillnet surveys conducted each year since 2000 in central and south-eastern waters of Viet Nam during the southwest and northeast monsoon seasons. In general, the mean catch per unit effort observed during the two seasons was quite stable at a low value of more than 31kg/km of net (Table 18).

Table 18 Mean catch rate (kg/km of net) of large pelagic fish in gill net surveys conducted from 2000 to 2002.

Year Southwest monsoon season Northeast monsoon season (NE) Total (SW) CPUE CV (%) CPUE CV (%) CPUE CV (%) 2000 29.0 90 33.7 68 31.4 78

2001 41.8 93 30.9 134 36.7 109 2002 31.5 115 31.8 109 31.6 110

Source: Extraction from Vietfish Survey Database, Assessment of the Living Marine Resources in Viet Nam, 2003.

Demersal resources According to Pham Thuoc (1993), during the decade after 1988, the density of demersal fish resources in south-eastern waters declined by 93.7% in waters shallower than 30m, and by 60.57% in waters deeper than 30m.

Figure 4 shows fluctuations in CPUE of the single trawl fleet (20 to 45hp) by area from 1996 to 2002. It is noted this figure generated from Vietfish database, Enumerator Programme, Assessment of the Living Marine Resources in Viet Nam includes only active boats.

CPUE (kg/h) of single trawl 20-45HP

30

25

20

15 kg/h

10

5

0 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

North Center SouthWest SouthEast

Figure 4 CPUE of the single trawl fleet (20 to 45hp) in northern (Gulf of Tonkin), central, southeastern, and southwestern (Gulf of Thailand) waters of Viet Nam.

In the period from 2000 to 2003, a number of scientific trawl surveys (using the same boat and same gear) were conducted in the Gulf of Tonkin, south-eastern and south-western (Gulf of Thailand) waters. Table 19 shows the mean catch rate by area and depth stratum observed during these surveys. The lowest catch rate (22.3kg/h) was derived from the Gulf of Tonkin in November 2001, with the highest from south-eastern waters in November 2003 (1670.9kg/h).

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Table 19 Mean CPUE observed during the surveys from 2000 to 2003.

CPUE (kg/h)

Depth stratum (m) Gulf of Tonkin May-01 Nov-01 20-30 57.6 22.3 30-50 73.2 101.2 50-100 113.3 95.6 100-200 77.7 97.1 CPUE (kg/h) in southeastern waters May-00 Nov-00 May-02 Nov-02 Nov-03 20-30 62 25.4 39.4 47.5 81.1 30-50 77.9 60.7 52 49.1 144.1 50-100 65.9 87.4 53.4 72.6 211.2 100-200 187.5 107.5 65.2 141.8 221.7 > 200 m 1670.9 CPUE (kg/h) in the Gulf of Thailand May-00 Nov-00 May-02 Nov-02 Nov-03 20-30 37.8 54.3 43.4 71.1 73.3 30-50 79.9 91.3 70.5 65.6 108.4 50-100 68.4 77.9 62.5 71 148.3 Source: Bottom survey technical reports, Assessment of the Living Marine Resources in Viet Nam, 2000 – 2003.

Shrimps Shrimp trawling is an important fishing activity in the Gulf of Tonkin and the Gulf of Thailand. The most important fleet targeting shrimp resources in northern waters are single trawlers of the 20 to 89hp class, whilst in southeastern and southwestern waters the 20 to 45 and > 140hp classes are important. In the Gulf of Thailand, shrimp mostly occur in waters less than 30m deep. The recent use of large boats (> 90hp) to catch shrimp is believed to have caused severe degradation of the resource. In general, not only the catch rate of shrimp has declined, the compositions of catches have changed. The catch rates of high value shrimp, including white prawn and pink prawn, are low. The trend line indicates a clear decrease in the catch rate of pink prawn in both the Gulfs of Tonkin and Thailand (Figure 5). The catch rate of white prawn in these areas is not significant at all.

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Figure 5 Mean CPUE of pink and white prawns in Vietnamese waters located within the Gulfs of Tonkin and Thailand from 1996 to 2003.

3.2 Status of the fish stocks based on historical review of landings and CPUE

With the rapid development of fisheries during recent decades, it is believed that marine resources in near shore waters are overexploited. The Government of Viet Nam has recently devoted much effort to the redirection of fishing effort from coastal waters towards offshore waters. A number of studies and surveys aimed at assessing the status of fisheries resources have been initiated in Viet Nam. Different international donors have supported these efforts, and the results will be used to guide the development of sustainable fisheries in Viet Nam.

3.2.1 Fish Resources

3.2.1.1 Species Composition

In the continental shelf areas of the northern and central regions, 301 and 260 species have been identified, respectively. In the continental shelf areas of the southeast and southwest, 845 and 581 species have been identified, respectively.

There were 70 species belonging to 31 genus caught in gill nets during a survey conducted from October to November 2002, with the dominant families being Carrangidae, Scombridae, and Gemplydae. Table 20 highlights the five dominate species in the total catch in gill nets used during surveys from 2000 to 2002. Katsuwonus pelamis always ranked first in terms of contribution to total catch volume. Table 20 Proportion (%) of the five dominant species in the total catch of gill net surveys conducted in Vietnamese waters from 2000 to 2003.

Name 2000 2001 2002 NE SW NE SW SW NE Katsuwonus pelamis 68.0 50.0 63.0 62.0 65.3 63.81 Mobula diabolus 5.5 6.9 8.5 15 4.6 4.8 Mobula japanica 1.,2 9 3.9 10.2 0.59 Thunnus albacares 3.2 6.4 4.6 1.7 3.04 Auxis thazard 6.7 2.7 3.3 1.68 Source: Bottom survey technical reports, Assessment of the Living Marine Resources in Viet Nam, 2000 – 2003.

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Demersal fishes live near the seafloor and in communities comprised of a large number of other species. Normally, trawl catches also consist of some small pelagic fish. No fish species has been observed to dominate trawl catches across all areas and seasons. Table 21 shows the mean CPUE and proportion of the top ten species caught in the trawl surveys conducted during both fishing seasons of 2000 and 2001. In the Gulf of Tonkin, Evynnis cardinalis was the most abundant in both seasons. In the southeast, Paramonacanthus nipponensis was dominant during the southwest monsoon and Upeneus bensasi dominated during the northeast monsoon. In the Gulf of Thailand, Loligo chinensis and Leiognathus spp. were ranked first in the southwest and northeast seasons, respectively. Table 21 Mean CPUE (kg/h) and proportion (%) of the total catch of top ten species by season and area in Viet Nam.

Gulf of Tonkin Southeast waters

Species name % to total catch Species name % to total catch

SW 2001 NE 2001 SW 2000 NE 2000 Evynnis cardinalis 34.54 9.46 Paramonacanthus nipponensis 42.73 4.26

Loligo chinensis 8.16 3.70 Trachinocephalus myops 5.56 7.22 Acropoma japonicum 6.77 5.46 Upeneus bensasi 3.41 8.64 Trachurus japonicus 4.04 3.16 Loligo chinensis 3.24 2.71

Saurida tumbil 3.31 3.84 Pristotis jerdoni 2.88 1.66 Leiognathus spp. 2.63 5.04 Charybdis cruciata 2.52 1.44 Trichiurus lepturus 2.55 7.56 Priacanthus macracanthus 2.4 6.32 Charybdis cruciata 2.14 0.53 Saurida undosquamis 2.22 6.21 Decapterus maruadsi 1.70 2.22 Selaroides leptolepis 2.18 3.45 Lophiomus setigerus 1.38 0.99 Nemipterus bathybius 2.17 1.68 Gulf of Thailand Species name % to total catch Species name % to total catch SW 2000 NE 2000 SW 2000 NE 2000 Loligo chinensis 7.8 3.32 Sepia esculenta 3.25 3.53 Leiognathus spp. 6.61 17.25 Lagocephalus inermis 3.11 2.35 Trichiurus lepturus 3.92 4.5 Paramonacanthus nipponensis 2.62 0.89 Selar crumenophthalmus 3.64 0.32 Nemipterus tambuloides 2.59 0.34 Loligo duvauceli 3.36 3.1 Apogon spp. 2.32 1.2 SW: Southwest monsoon season; NE: Northeast monsoon season Source: Bottom survey technical reports, Assessment of the Living Marine Resources in Viet Nam, 2000 – 2003.

3.2.1.2 Fish distribution

The fisheries of Viet Nam clearly divide into two seasons: (1) the southwest monsoon (May to October); and (2) the northeast monsoon (November to April). In the southwest monsoon, fishes tend to move into shallow waters for spawning, and during the northeast monsoon, they move into deeper areas. Normally, catch rates during the southwest monsoon season are higher than during the northeast monsoon season. However, the quality of fish is usually better during the northeast winter season.

Figure 6 presents the CPUE distribution by fishing season as indicated from the trawl and gillnet surveys conducted in 2000 and 2001.

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Figure 6 CPUE distribution of trawls (kg/h) and gill nets (kg/km) during the southwest (right) and northeast (left) seasons from the surveys conducted by ALMRV and the Offshore Fisheries Project in 2000 and 2001.

3.2.1.3 Standing stock and potential yield.

It is necessary to note that Viet Nam was unable to undertake any comprehensive studies into small pelagic resources for quite some time. Furthermore, there was no appropriate methodology for estimating the biomass of the large pelagic fish stock. To obtain some knowledge regarding the relative abundance of large pelagic fishes, gill nets and longlines have been used in scientific surveys.

According to Pham Thuoc (2000), the total standing stock of Viet Nam’s marine fish was estimated at 3.3 to 3.5 million tonnes, resulting in 1.5 to 1.6 million tonnes of sustainable yield.

3.2.2 Shrimp resources

3.2.2.1 Species composition

There have been 225 shrimp species from 69 genera and 24 families found in Vietnamese waters. Out of those, the 6 most important families are Penaeidae (59 species); Solenoceridae (12 species); Nephropidae (3 species); Aristeidae (3 species); Palinuridae (9 species); and Scyllaridae (9 species).

From 2001, several surveys regarding shrimp resources were conducted in the Gulf of Tonkin, and the southeast and southwest (Gulf of Thailand) waters in Southwest monsoon (SW) and Notheast monsoon (NE) season. Table 22 shows the proportion of the most dominant families in the total catch of shrimp during these surveys.

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Table 22 Proportion (%) of the dominant shrimp families in the total catch of shrimp.

2001 2002 2003 Area Family Name SW NE SW NE SW NE Gulf of Tonkin Penaeidae - - 17.87 9.60 9.32 13.46 Solenoceridae - - 0.82 1.54 0.39 - Squillidae - - 3.96 4.24 - 2.46 Total - - 22.64 15.38 9.70 15.92 Southeast waters Penaeidae - - 14.02 13.12 - - Solenoceridae - - 0.41 - - Squillidae - - 3.32 3.76 - - Total - - 17.74 16.88 - - Gulf of Thailand Penaeidae 10.39 22.76 25.31 20.54 - - Solenoceridae 3.33 4.62 1.91 - - Squillidae 4.12 3.66 5.28 3.71 - - Total 17.84 31.04 32.50 24.26 - -

The family of Penaeidae was found in all surveyed areas in both seasons. However, a major part of the catch of this family was comprised of low value species. The contribution of high value shrimp of the Penaeidae family to total catch was not significant.

3.2.2.2 Distribution and harvesting season The family of Penaeidae is ubiquitous in Gulf of Tonkin waters less than 30 m deep. However, they are typically more abundant in the Diem Dien-Tra Ly and Lach Bang-Lach Quen estuaries, and waters of Cat Ba-Do Son, Bai Tu Long Bay, and those adjacent to the Mi andMieu Islands. The species of Thenus orientalis of the family of Scyllaridae is mostly found at depths less than 50 m during both monsoon seasons, while the species of Ibacus ciliatus maily distributes at depth beyond 25 m. Species of the Penaeidae family are present throughout the year in coastal waters of the central region at depths less than 50 m. However, they are typically less abundant than the species of the Scyllaridae family. Ibacus ciliatus are abundant in this area at depths greater than 50 m during the dry season. The harvesting of shrimp in waters of the central region mostly occurs during the dry season. The Penaeidae family and Thenus orientalis are relatively abundant in southeastern and southwestern waters throughout the year. Significant areas for shrimp in southern Viet Nam include the area from Cung Hau to An Dinh estuaries, Anh Dong-Nam Du waters (Kien Giang province), the northwest area of Hon Chuoi Island (Ca Mau province), and waters adjacant to Phu Quy Island. In 1986, Pham Thuoc, in his PhD thesis mapped the key grounds of Penaeidae shrimp in Vietnamese waters (Figure 7).

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Figure 7 The key ground of Penaeidae shrimp in Vietnamese waters.

3.2.2.3 Shrimp stock and potential yield

Table 23 presents the biomass and potential yields of commercially important shrimp and lobsters in Vietnamese waters.

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Table 23 Biomass and potential yields of selected shrimp and lobsters in Vietnamese waters.

Area Depth Name Biomass Potential yield (m) (tonnes) (tonnes) Gulf of Tonkin < 30 Penaeidae 1,408 704 Scyllaridae 152 48 > 30 Thenus orientalis 278 Scyllaridae 321 101-117 Central <50 Penaeidae 1,200 600 waters Scyllaridae 1,506 550 > 50 Penaeidae 1,100 402 Scyllaridae 14,793-16,175 5,399 – 5,904 Nephropidae 319 116 Southeastern < 30 Penaeidae 3,983 1,946 waters Scyllaridae 4,344 1,586 > 30 Penaeidae 1,012 369 Scyllaridae 13,220-15,373 4,825 – 5,611 Nephropidae 614 224 Southwestern < 30 Penaeidae 3,383 1,691 waters (Gulf of Scyllaridae 5,461 1,993 Thailand) > 30 Scyllaridae 1,858 –3,799 678 –1,378 Source: The resources of shrimp, lobsters and cephalopod resources in Vietnamese waters: status and conservation methods, Pham Ngoc Dang, Nguyen Cong Con, 1995.

The families of Penaeidae and Scyllaridae are the most important in terms of distribution and bundance in Vietnamese waters. 3.2.3 Cephalopod 3.2.3.1 Species composition In Vietnamese waters, 53 cephalopod species have been identified. Among them, one species belong to the class Nautiloidea, whilst the remaining 52 species belong to 12 genera from 6 families (Pham Ngoc Dang and Nguyen Cong Con, 1995). There are 12 species with high economic value: Sepioteuthis lessoniana; Loligo chinensis; L. duvauceli; L. edulis; L. singhalensis; Sepia pharaonis; S. aculeate; S. lycidas; S. esculenta; Sthenoteuthis oualaniensis; and Octopus vulgaris.

3.2.3.2. Distribution and harvesting season

Cephalopod resources are mainly distributed in the waters of the Gulf of Tonkin and southern Viet Nam. The oceanic flying squid is found in offshore waters of the central region.

Spawning season of squid Squid (Loliginidae) usually spawn during summer from April to September, with peak spawning occurring during July and August. Cuttlefish (Sepiidae) usually spawn during winter from December to March.

Harvesting season Squid is mainly caught in waters of the Gulf of Tonkin and southern Viet Nam during the southwest monsoon season (May to October). The gears used include squid hand line, stick-held falling net, purse seine, lifting net with light, and trawls. Squid hand lines are mostly used in waters adjacent to small islands and coral reefs. Cuttlefish are targeted from October to March, mainly with trammel nets. The key grounds are: - Co To-Cat Ba, Long Chau-Bach Long Vi waters - Hon Me, Hon Mat waters - Qui Nhon coastal waters - Phu Yen: from Dai Lanh to Cha La Island (Van Phong Bay). - Khanh Hoa: from Nha Trang to Ca Na - Phan Thiet: from off Mui Ne to Phu Quy Island - Vung Tau: off Vung Tau, southeastern waters of Con Son Island - Ca Mau: northwest and southeast of Hon Khoai Island - Kien Giang: north and nouthwest of Phu Quoc

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Flying Squid is harvested from May to November using squid hand lines.

3.2.3.3 Standing stock and potential yield The standing stock of cephalopods in Vietnamese waters was estimated at 100,000 to 104,000 tonnes with a potential yield of 45,000 tonnes (Vu Huy Thu and Pham Thuoc, 2003). This figure does not include the flying squid resource.

Table 24 The biomass and potential yield of squid and cuttlefish in Vietnamese waters.

Water areas Biomass (ton) Potential yield (ton) Tonkin Gulf 13,500-14,000 Central waters 33,000-35,000 Southeast and Southwest waters 54,400-55,000 Total 100,900 - 104,000 45,000

Source: Guidelines on exploitation and protection of the marine resources of Viet Nam, Vu Huy Thu and Pham Thuoc, 2003.

3.3 Threats 3.3.1 Current threats

3.3.1.1 Environmental problems caused by fishing activities

The practice of releasing waste like garbage, human waste, and petrol sludge directly from fishing boats into the sea is quite common. In addition to this, oil leaking from boats also contributes to pollution at fishing ports and landing places. A survey conducted at the fishing harbours of Cat Ba, Bach Long Vi, Do Son, and Diem Dien in northern Viet Nam indicated that oil pollution is a common problem. The lowest level of oil pollution was observed at Bach Long Vi fishing harbour (0.10mg/l), whilst the highest was at Cat Ba (0.28mg/l). However, oil concentrations in both places exceed Viet Nam’s standard for coastal water quality (Quality standards of sea water of Viet Nam 5943, 1995). This situation has the potential to hinder the development of fisheries resources.

3.3.1.2 Environmental problems caused by aquaculture

Aquaculture has the potential to contribute to the degradation of resources and the environments upon which they depend.

Discharges of untreated wastewater and the remains of trash feed fish from aquaculture facilities into Viet Nam’s coastal waters can potentially cause disease in populations of wild marine fish species.

Mangroves play very important roles in fisheries. At the most basic level, the primary production of mangroves supports numerous forms of wildlife and avifauna, including estuarine and coastal fisheries. Around 90% of marine species depends on mangroves for at least one part of their lifecycle. However, mangrove and other littoral areas continue to be destroyed in Viet Nam for the development of facilities associated with the aquaculture of shrimps, clams, ark-shells, and crabs (Table 25).

Table 25 The area of mangroves converted for the aquaculture of ark-shell, clam and crab in the Mekong Delta of Viet Nam from 1995 to 2000 (ha).

Cultured species 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Blood ark-shell 1,494 1,319 1,626 2,250 3,718 4,919 Clam 3,425 1,905 3,155 5,105 6,053 7,734 Crab 1,270 239 1,243 513 420 307 Total 6,189 3,513 6,124 7,868 10,191 12,960

Table 26 highlights the area of mangroves in some southern provinces that have been cleared for the development of shrimp aquaculture facilities.

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Table 26 The area of mangrove forests used for shrimp culture in selected provinces of southern Viet Nam.

No. Province Area (ha) 1998 1999 2000 1 Ca Mau 37,143 41,000 45,000 2 Ben Tre 3,250 3,650 4,213 3 Soc Trang 1,560 1,980 2,072 4 Kien Giang 598 650 850

The continuing degradation of mangroves will not only reduce terrestrial and aquatic production and wildlife habitats, but will also seriously affect the environmental stability of coastal forests. These forests have been effective buffers between the sea and inland agricultural areas and villages.

Presently, the restoration of mangrove forest ecosystems is a primary concern of the Government of Viet Nam. A mangrove rehabilitation programme has been launched in many coastal provinces. Recently, Bac Lieu province has planted 1,100 to 1,200ha of new mangrove forests each year. Its neighbouring province of Ca Mau has carried out 7 mangrove restoration projects. Ben Tre province plans to increase mangrove forest area in that province to 10,416ha after the year 2000, including 2,273ha combined with aquaculture. In northern Viet Nam, thousands of hectares of mangroves have recently been planted in Hai Phong, Thai Binh, and Nam Dinh provinces.

3.3.1.3 Environmental problems caused by fisheries logistics supplies and processing plants

The majority of logistical suppliers and fish processing facilities are located along the coast or adjacent to estuaries. Among them, only a few facilities treat wastewater prior to its release into coastal waters. Small-scale processing facilities, which do not usually treat waste, are one of the main causes of pollution in the water bodies into which they release wastes.

The amount of solid wastes is equivalent to 35 to 40% of raw materials. Liquid wastes are estimated at 1.5 to 2 billion m3/year, including the water used for washing raw materials, and wastewaters pressed from fishmeal.

3.3.1.4 Destructive fishing

According to incomplete statistics from 1998 to 2000, Viet Nam’s inter-sectoral surveillance force uncovered 149 cases involving the illegal transportation and trading of explosives; 843 cases of explosives use; 19,658 cases involving the use of electric pulses; and 106 cases involving the use of poisons in fishing. Exploitation of corals for sale to tourists or cement factories is a large problem in central Viet Nam.

To overcome this problem, the Government of Viet Nam has introduced strong management measures, including: the issuing of legal regulations stipulating desired fishing behaviours; establishing inspection committees for the control of destructive fishing in important provinces; and surveillance and monitoring activities. The Government also devotes a lot of effort to an awareness and education programme, which involves training, TV messages, newsletters, posters, and magazines.

3.3.1.5 Over-fishing

It is generally believed that there are indications of over-fishing in the coastal waters of Viet Nam, as approximately 80% of Viet Nam’s total catch is derived from these waters. The catch rates and size of fishes have declined over recent years. The composition of catches have also changed, with large declines in the representation of high value species such as silver pomfret, grouper, snapper, and prawn in landings.

3.3.2 Potential threats

3.3.2.1 Projected market demand

The export value from fishery products of Viet Nam has rapidly increased. Especially, when Viet Nam becomes an official member of the World Trade Organisation, there will be more markets opening to

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Viet Nam. It is also expected that domestic demand for fish products will increase in line with general increases in per capita income in Viet Nam. Similarly, the government has recently established favourable policies to assist fishers and fish-farmers, including soft loans and low taxes, fisheries infrastructure improvement projects, and technology development. This setting may lead to the unsustainable development of fisheries in the case of ineffective fisheries management. Some species, including anchovy, lobster, and prawn, are fully or overexploited. High demand situations will give such species little chance to recover.

3.3.2.2 Increased coastal population

Coastal Viet Nam is 1.3 times more populated than the average for the whole country. Similarly, annual population growth in coastal provinces is higher than other areas, creating a need for finding more employment opportunities, such as those associated with fisheries.

4. HABITATS AND AREAS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE MAINTENANCE OF EXPLOITED FISH STOCKS

4.1 Physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the spawning, nursery, feeding, and fishing grounds

Based on geography, bathymetry, hydrodynamics, and climatic conditions, Vietnamese waters can be divided into 4 areas:

Gulf of Tonkin

Water circulation In summer (the southwest monsoon season), currents flow up along the coastline to the north of the Gulf, exiting through the west coast of Hai Nan Island, creating a closed clockwise circulation. This system forms an up-welling area of 60 nautical miles long along the west of the gulf from Ha Tinh to Quang Binh. The current speed is low at approximately 10 to 15 cm/s. In winter (the northeast monsoon season), this current reverses its direction. The currents in the whole area reach an average speed of 10 to 15cm/s.

Temperature The water temperature in the Gulf of Tonkin fluctuates widely throughout the year from 16 to 23oC in winter and 28 to 31oC in summer.

Salinity The salinity ranges from 27.0%o to 32.0%o and from 32.0%o to 33.5%o in summer and winter, respectively.

Plankton In general, the average zooplankton biomass in the Gulf of Tonkin is higher than that in central and southeastern waters with an average biomass ranging from 80 to 120mg/m3.

Central waters

Water circulation The hydrological regime in this area is controlled by a distinct offshore hydrological regime. In summer, from the latitude of 160N to 180N, inflow water partly goes into the Gulf of Tonkin, partly flows parallel to the shore to the south. Upon reaching 100N to 110N, the direction of the current changes to and northwest to southeast direction. Further from the shore, the current flows parallel to the line if latitude until reaching the longitude of 1110E, where the current flows in a south to north direction, or in an opposite direction to the coastal current.

The mean speed of currents in summer in this region is usually between 30 and 40cm/s, occasionally peaking at 75cm/s.

The formation of currents in winter is similar to that in summer, however, its average speed increases to 70cm/s, with a maximum of 150cm/s.

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Temperature During summer, water temperature ranges from 27 to 30oC, and during winter, it ranges from 25oC to 28oC.

Salinity Marine water salinity in the central region is very stable, with little difference between summer and winter. Salinity tends to fluctuate from 31.5%o to 34.5%o throughout the year.

Plankton Zooplankton biomass in waters of the central region is relatively low, with an average concentration ranging from 20 to 40mg/m3.

Southeast seawaters

Water circulation The coastal waters of the southeastern region are shallow and the seafloor is flat. In summer, the coastal hydrological regime is dominated by water from coastal rivers and streams. Coastal currents, which are largely influence by river water, flow in a northwest to southeast direction. The speed of the current is quite low, ranging from 10 to 15cm/s.

During winter the current in eastern waters of this region appears to be a continuation of the current dominating the central region, flowing in a north to south direction, with a mean speed ranging from 20 to 30cm/s. In the western area, currents flow in a northeast to southwest direction. Around Con Son Island, there is a small orthodromic whirlpool, and a large antidromic whirlpool appears in the area of Cu Lao Thu Island. The current speed in the coastal area ranges from 15 to 20cm/s.

Temperature Water temperature fluctuates from 29oC to 30oC in summer, and 25 oC to 27oC in winter.

Salinity In this region, salinity is stable, except in estuarine areas, where salinity decreases by 2 to 3% during the rainy season.

Salinity ranges from 29.0% to 33.0%o and 33.75%o to 34.0% in the rainy season and dry season, respectively.

Plankton According to an extensive time series survey, average biomass of zooplankton in this area is similar to the central region. The average zooplankton biomass in the coastal estuary of fishing grounds 9 and 13 ranges from 40 to 80mg/m3, whilst that in the estuary of fishing grounds 11 and 12 ranges from 20 to 40mg/m3.

Gulf of Thailand Water circulation In summer, the northwest to southeast current flows partly into the southeast area and partly into the Gulf of Thailand near the Ca Mau Cape.

Temperature Water temperature is stable throughout the year. It ranges from 29 to 30oC in the rainy season and from 26 to 28oC in dry season.

Salinity In the rainy season, mean salinity values at surface and bottom layers are observed at 27.0% to 27.4% respectively. During the dry season, mean salinity are 32.0 and 33.5% for the said layers.

Plankton The highest zooplankton biomass has been observed in fishing ground 15 in the Gulf of Thailand. Here, zooplankton biomass ranges from 120 to 160mg/m3. Fishing ground 14 (Figure 8) has an average zooplankton biomass ranging from 80 to 120mg/m3.

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4.1.1 Spawning and nursery grounds of fish, shrimp

Studies of fish eggs and larvae are used to identify fish spawning and nursery grounds. Before 1985, this was a key area of investigation in many surveys conducted in Viet Nam’s northern and southeastern waters. From the mid 1980s through to the 1990s, this area received little attention until the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) conducted some analyses on eggs and larvae in 1999. The Vietnamese Research Institute for Marine Fisheries also completed a number of surveys in 2002 and 2003. However, these efforts have mainly focused on the Gulf of Tonkin, and waters of the central and southeastern regions. A paucity of information exists for the Gulf of Thailand. Typical of tropical fish fauna, marine fishes in Viet Nam spawn throughout the year round and in all waters. We will now consider fish spawning and nursery grounds based on studies on eggs and larvae in specific areas of Viet Nam.

Gulf of Tonkin Although eggs and larvae scatter over the Gulf of Tonkin, there are five areas where spawning is concentrated: (1) from Co To to Ha Mai Island; (2) around Bach Long Vi Island; (3) coastal waters from Cat Ba Island to the Ba Lat estuary; (4) from Ninh Co to Lach Ghep estuaries; and (5) coastal waters from Dien Chau Gulf to the Cua Viet estuary. More fishes tend to spawn from March to September. However, peak spawning occurs from April to June. In a survey conducted from August to September 2003 (Do Van Nguyen 2004), the highest density of fish eggs and larvae was found in the area from Cat Ba to Long Chau Islands, with 6,000 to 9,000 eggs/1,000m3. In the southern part of the Gulf, densities ranged from 9,000 to 22,900eggs/m3. The highest larval densities, observed in the southern Gulf area, ranged from 3,000 to 12,000 larvae/ 1000m3. The analysis of eggs indicated that the dominant families were Engraulidae (17.08%), Synodontidae (5.48%), and Clupeidae (2.01%). The dominant families in term of larvae were Scombridae (16.56%), Clupeidae (14.29%), and Leiognathidae (12.15%). In the survey conducted from October to November 2003 (Do Van Nguyen 2004), the areas with highest concentrations of eggs and larvae were Cat Ba and Bach Long Vi Islands, as well as the southern part of the Gulf (more than 1000 eggs or larvae/1,000m3). A counting of egg and larvae by Do Van Nguyen indicated that the family of Engraulidae ranked first (50.14 and 59.04%, respectively). Other dominant families were Synodontidae, Synoglossidae, Gobiidae and Leiognathidae.

Central waters In waters of the central region, there is no typical spawning ground. Eggs tend to be scattered along the coastline or adjacent to river estuaries, whilst the distribution of fish larvae extends a little further offshore. In this area, it seems more fishes spawn from April to September, with peak spawning activity occurring from May to July.

According to a survey conducted from April to May 2003, the dominant families were Excoetidae (19.11% of total eggs and 35.70% of total larvae), Scombridae (13.75% and 24.40% eggs and larvae, respectively) (Do Van Nguyen 2003). The eggs and larvae were scattered throughout the area. However, densities were highest (more than 500 eggs or larvae/1000m3) in waters adjacent to Danang, the Paracels archipelagos, as well as more southern waters. The composition of eggs and larvae observed in the survey from October to November 2003 differed slightly (Do Van Nguyen 2003). According to the number of total eggs, the family of Clupeidae ranked first (41.62%) and Scombridae (8.67%) second. The larvae of Myctophidae (35.08%) and Scombridae (7.52%) were dominant.

Southeastern waters According to historical data (Do Van Nguyen 1981 and 1999), there are three main spawning grounds: (1) around Cu Lao Thu Island; (2) around Con Son Island; and (3) coastal waters from Phan Thiet province to Ca Mau Cape. In general, the spawning season in this area is longer than that observed for the Gulf of Tonkin, and can be divided into two groups: - Migratory fishes, such as tuna and flying fish, tend to spawn more from April to September in the coastal waters between Quang Ngai to Khanh Hoa provinces. - Commercially important inshore fish species spawn from February to March until October to November. They may spawn 3 to 4 times during this season.

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The data available from recent SEAFDEC surveys (Do Van Nguyen, 1999), conducted from 30 April to 29 May 1999, indicate that the area with the highest concentration of fish eggs (>1,000 eggs/1,000m 3) is that from Phu Quy Island to the Mekong revers estuaries. The concentration of larvae was highest in waters extending from the Mekong estuaries to Con Son Island. According to egg counts, the dominant families were Engraulidae, Synodontidae, Cynoglossidae, and Clupeidae. Families of Engraulidae, Leiognathidae, Gobiidae, Carangidae, Mullidae, Scombridae, and Nemipteridae dominated according to larvae quantities.

4.1.2 Fishing grounds

According to the study, “Characteristics of Viet Nam Fisheries Resources, Biomass, and Potential Yield” (Pham Thuoc, 1981 to 1985), there are 15 main fishing grounds in Vietnamese waters. Most of these are located in coastal waters, close to islands, and in waters less than 200m deep. There are only 3 offshore fishing grounds. These are located in central and southeastern waters. Based on location, the fishing grounds can be grouped into four areas:

Gulf of Tonkin: Fishing ground numbers 1 to 3.

Fishing Ground Number 1: This fishing ground includes the area adjacent to Bach Long Vi Island, with a maximum depth of 50m. The main fishing season is from June to August. The dominant species caught in this area include round scad (Decapterus maruadsi), lizardfish (Saurida tumbil), threadfin bream (Nemipterus spp.), bensasi goatfish (Upeneus bensasi), and spined red bream (Argyrops swainson).

Fishing Ground Number 2: This fishing ground is located in the centre of the Gulf of Tonkin, with a depth of 50m. The main species caught in this area include spined red bream (Argyrops swainson), round scad (Decapterus maruadsi), bensasi goatfish (Upeneus bensasi), yellow goatfish (Upeneus sulphureus), and threadfin bream (Nemipterus spp.).

Fishing Ground Number 3: This fishing ground is located in the southern part of the Gulf of Tonkin near Hon Me-Hon Mat Islands, where water is approximately 20m deep. The major species caught include goatfish (Upeneus spp.), lizardfish (Saurida tumbil), threadfin bream (Nemipterus spp.), and malabar jack (Caranx malabaricus).

Central waters: 5 fishing grounds, including 3 coastal and 2 offshore areas.

Fishing Ground Number 4: The depth of Hon Gio (Thuan An) fishing ground ranges from 45 to 70m. The main fishing season is from April to July. The main species caught in this area include threadfin bream (Nemipterus spp.), goatfish (Upeneus spp.), lizardfish (Saurida tumbil), coastal trevally (Carangoides caeruleopinnatus), and gray emperor ().

Fishing Ground Number 5: This fishing ground is located in waters to the northeast of Cu Lao Cham Island, with depths ranging from 100 to 300m. The bottom substrate is sandy mud. The area of this fishing ground is approximately 1,306 square nautical miles (4,476km2). The main species caught include lizardfish (Saurida tumbil), yellow tail scad (Atule mate), and goatfish (Upeneus spp.).

Fishing Ground Number 6: This fishing ground is located northwest of Da Nang province. It runs in a southeast to northwest direction, with water depths ranging from 50 to 200m. The main species caught in this area include spined red bream (Argyrops swainson), croaker (Argyrosomus argentatus), yellow tail scad (Atule mate), lizardfish (Saurida tumbil), and threadfin bream (Nemipterus spp.).

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Figure 8 The main fishing grounds (as highlighted in green) in Vietnamese waters. Source: Fish resources of Viet Nam seas: biological charateristics, biomass assessment and exploitation potentials, Pham Thuoc, Schechin 1986 (PhD thesis).

Fishing Ground Number 7: This underwater knoll “125” fishing ground is located in offshore waters adjacent to Da Nang province. The knoll surface is only more than 5km2. It occurs at a depth of 215m, and the bottom consists of organic sediments. The main species caught in this area include redlipped fish (Dipterygonotus leucogrammicus) and small head hairtail (Trichiurus muticus).

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Fishing Ground Number 8: The “Margest-” underwater knoll stretches in a southeast to northwest direction in offshore waters adjacent to Qui Nhon province. It is 5.7km long and 1.1kms wide (total area is 6.37km2). The water depth at the top of the mountain is 290 to 350m, with a slope of 2 to 3. This is a very good fishing ground for trawl fishing.

Southeastern waters: Fishing grounds numbers 9 to 13.

Fishing Ground Number 9: This underwater knoll fishing ground is located in offshore waters adjacent to Phan Rang-Phan Thiet. Its geographical location is 11o15’N and 111o32’E. The knoll is 16 km long and 2.4km wide, with a total surface area of a little more than 40km2. The water depth at the top of the mountain is 280m. The main species caught is redlipped fish (Dipterygonotus leucogrammicus), which accounts for 62% of the total catch in this area.

Fishing Ground Number 10: This fishing ground is located east of Phan Thiet province. Its bottom is muddy-sand. The peak-fishing season is from December to February. True lizardfish (Saurida undosquamis) is the main species and can be caught throughout the year. Similarly, red bigeye (Priacanthus tayenus), round scad (Decapterus maruadsi), and lizardfish (Saurida tumbil) are abundant in this area.

Fishing Ground Number.11: This fishing is located south of Cu Lao Thu Island, with water depths ranging from 50 to 200m. This is area is fishable throughout the year. However, winter is considered the peak-fishing season. Catch rates decline during the rainy season (April to July). The main species caught include lizardfish (Saurida undosquamis), red bigeye (Priacanthus macracanthus), greater lizardfish (Saurida tumbil), snapper (Lutjanus sanguineus), and red goatfish (Upeneus bensasi).

Fishing Ground Number 12: This fishing ground is located in the waters surrounding Con Son Island, with a fine sand and clamshell bottom that occurs at depths from 25 to 40m. The peak-fishing season is from autumn to winter. The main species caught in the area include round scad (Decapterus maruadsi), snapper (Lutjanus sanguineus), lizardfish (Saurida tumbil), yellowtripe trevally (Selaroides leptolepis), goatfish (Upeneus spp.), and threadfin bream (Nemipterus spp.).

Fishing Ground Number 13: The fishing ground is located in the estuary of the Hau Giang River, with depths ranging from 10 to 22m. Fishing takes place in this area throughout the year. Fish are most abundant at the mouth of the Hau Giang River. The main species caught include silver-spotted grunt (Pomadasys hasta), common threadfin (Polynemus plebejus), sardine (Sardinella), coastal trevally (Carangoides caeruleopinnatus), blotched croaker (Nibea maculata), and snapper (Lutjanus erythropterus).

Gulf of Thailand : Fishing grounds numbers 14 and 15.

Fishing Ground Number 14: This fishing ground is located in the southwestern coastal waters of Viet Nam. Waters in this area are only 10 to 15m deep. High catch rates are observed in this area throughout the year. The main species caught is ponyfish (Leiognathus), which accounts for 70% of total catch. Other species include yellowtripe trevally (Selaroides leptolepis), snapper (Lutjanus sanguineus), grunter (Theraponidae), and threadfin bream (Nemipterus).

Fishing Ground Number 15: This fishing ground is located in waters southwest of Phu Quoc Island. Waters in this area are only 10 to 15m deep. High catch rates are observed in this area throughout the year. The main species caught include pony fish (Leiognathus) (25 to 30%), yellowtripe trevally (Selaroides leptolepis), snapper (Lutjanus sanguineus), grunter (Theraponidae), and anchovy (Stolephorus spp).

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4.2 Unknown issues such as stocks with undefined spawning grounds

Very few studies regarding spawning, nursery, and feeding grounds have been conducted in Vietnamese waters, especially those located in the Gulf of Thailand. Therefore, spatial and temporal variations in fish distribution and abundance, particularly in offshore areas and regarding pelagic fishes, cannot be compared against any baseline information. In order to strengthen knowledge regarding the status of resources, there is a need for the initiation of a comprehensive fisheries research programme.

4.3 Threats, current and potential

At present, there are a number of threats to spawning, nursery, feeding, and fishing grounds. These are mainly associated with the rapid development of Viet Nam’s coasts, including the establishment of a number of new industrial zones, over population, deforestation, oil spills, and use of destructive fishing gears.

4.3.1 Coastal development

The Government of Viet Nam’s renovation policy, applied during the last 20 years, has resulted in a large number of new factories, industrial zones, ports, aquaculture facilities, and tourism zones along Viet Nam’s coast. In general, waste treatment in most facilities is poor, leading to reductions in the health of the ecosystems into which the wastes are released. Furthermore, the uncontrolled utilisation of mangrove for the establishment of aquaculture facilities for has reduced the overall availability of this valuable spawning and nursery habitat.

4.3.2 Pollution

The release of untreated water and waste into the sea is a growing problem, with negative impacts on coastal ecosystems. The pollutants may come from industrial activities, agriculture, ports, and tourism areas. They may include ammonia, oxygen-demanding contaminants, heavy metals, bacteria, viruses, and toxic chemicals.

4.3.3 Oil spills

Oil spills in Vietnamese waters may occur because of activities associated with oil exploitation, transportation, or leaking from ships and fishing vessels. The concentration of oil in waters adjacent to large ports usually exceeds Viet Nam’s standard (0.05-1mg/litre).

The combined discharges or leaks of oil from a large number of fishing boats can seriously pollute fishing harbours or landing places. It is believed that this source contributes around 61.5 to 86.5% of the total oil discharged into Viet Nam’s coastal waters. A study carried out in a number of estuaries located in the Gulf of Tonkin shows oil concentrations fluctuating from 0.18 to 2.01mg/l. In large ports, including Hai Phong and Hon Gai, oil concentrations exceeded 1.0 mg/l. Generally, in highly polluted areas, oil concentrations can exceed Viet Nam’s allowable limit (Quality standards of sea water of Viet Nam 5943-1995) by 333 to 670%. In the middle of Tonkin Gulf in August 1998, the concentration of oil was 0.108 mg/l (about 36% of the limit).

Table 27 highlights the concentrations of oil recorded for southeastern waters from 1992 to 1995.

Table 27 Oil concentrations recorded in Viet Nam’s southeastern coastal waters from 1992 to 1995.

Observation time Concentration (mg/l) % of the national National limit Minimum Maximum Average limit 12/1992 0.025 0.320 0.178 59.3 12/1993 to 1/1994 0.397 0.660 0.175 158.3 5/1994 0.060 0.120 0.087 29.0 0.30 12/1994 0.030 0.218 0.105 35.0 3-4/1995 0.007 0.064 0.029 9.6

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The coefficient of oil pollution represents the relationship between recorded oil concentrations and the national limit (0.3mg/l). The coefficient of oil pollution in the coastal estuaries of northern Viet Nam is provided in Table 28.

Table 28 The average coefficient of oil pollution in the coastal estuaries of northern Viet Nam.

Coefficient of oil pollution Areas 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Cua Luc 0.9 211 1.6 2.0 2.5 2.7 2.7 Bach Dang 1.1 1.8 1.2 1.0 1.6 1.7 2.2 Ba Lat 0.9 2.4 1.3 1.7 2.5 1.7 2.0 Sam Son 0.5 2.0 1.3 2.6 1.7 2.0 2.0 The whole area 0.8 2.1 1.4 1.8 2.1 2.0 2.2

The figures presented in Table 28 indicate that oil pollution in these areas has increased over time. In 1995, oil pollution in the whole area was low. However, from 1996 to 2001, the coefficient of oil pollution generally increased, fluctuating between 1.2 and 2.7.

4.3.4 Destructive exploitation

It appears that the further fisheries resources are degraded in Viet Nam, there are more fishers employing illegal fishing methods. The most destructive fishing method in Viet Nam is dynamite fishing, which leads to severe degradation of critical fisheries habitats, including coral reefs. The use of intensive light and excessively small mesh sizes in fishing nets are also thought to be unsustainable fishing practices in Viet Nam.

The extraction of coral from reefs for selling to tourists, or for cement production, has seriously damaged fish habitats, especially in Khanh Hoa and Ninh Thuan provinces.

4.4 Ranking of habitats

4.4.1 Association with species of importance to food security

Fish is an important component in the diet of Vietnamese people. As a result, the consumption rate of fish in Viet Nam is high and increasing. The goal of the Vietnamese fisheries sector is to increase its annual total production to 3.4 million metric tonnes by 2010, including 1.4 million tonnes of marine fish and 2.0 million tonnes of fish from aquaculture (Master Plan for Fishery Socio-Economic Development to 2010, Research Institute of Fishery Economic and Planning, 2002). Catches from southern Vietnamese waters make the greatest contribution to fisheries production in Viet Nam.

4.4.2 Association with high value species

The most important habitats for small pelagic fishes, including scads, herrings, and Indian mackerel, are those of southern Vietnamese waters. Waters of the central region are most important for large pelagic fish, including tuna, swordfish, sailfish, and dolphin fish. The coral reefs in the Gulf of Tonkin (adjacent to Bach Long Vi Island), the central region (adjacent to Con Co, Paracels, and Spartly Islands), and the southeast (adjacent to Cu Lao Thu Island), are critical habitats for demersal fishes, including grouper and snappers. Lobsters mainly occur in waters of the central region from Quy Nhon to Khanh Hoa provinces.

4.4.3 Association with endangered, rare and threatened species

The most important habitats associated with endangered, rare, and threatened species are river mouths, coral reefs, sea grass, and seaweed habitats. In the Gulf of Tonkin, these habitats are located in the Cat Ba, Ha Long, Bach Long Vi and Co To areas, and are inhabited by many endangered species, including Clupanodon thrissa, Haliotis diversicolor, and other reef fishes. In the central region, there are areas of seagrass important for turtles, dugong, sharks, and dolphins in waters extending from Hue to Binh Thuan provinces.

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Lobsters mainly live in reefs present in the waters adjacent to Phu Yen, Khanh Hoa, and Binh Thuan areas. In the southern regions, the waters of the Mekong estuaries and the Phu Quoc Islands are considered the most important for endangered, rare, and threatened species, including dugong, milk fish, and sea horse.

Table 29 presents the distribution of endangered turtles in Viet Nam’s marine waters. The critical area in the Gulf of Tonkin is Cat Ba Island, whereas in the Gulf of Thailand, Phu Quoc and Tho Chu Islands are important. Table 29 The distribution of five endangered, rare, and threatened sea turtles in Viet Nam’s water.

Area No of species Scientific name English name Gulf of Tonkin 4 Chelonia mydas Green turtle Caretta caretta Loggerhead turtle Dermochelys coriacea Leatherbackturtle Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill turtle Central area 4 Caretta caretta Loggerhead turtle (including Paracels islands Chelonia mydas Green turtle and Spratly islands) Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill turtle Lepidochelys olivacea Olive Ridley turtle

Southeast area 4 Caretta caretta Loggerhead turtle Chelonia mydas Green turtle Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill turtles Lepidochelys olivacea Olive Ridley turtle Southwest area 3 Caretta caretta Loggerhead Chelonia mydas Green turtle Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill turtle Source: Status and Protection of Sea Turtles Resources of Viet Nam, Pham Thuoc et al., 2001.

The 2000 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals classifies 4 of these species as endangered and 1, the Hawksbill turtle, as critically endangered at the global level.

5. CURRENT MANAGEMENT REGIMES

5.1 Legal instruments

There are many legal instruments for the management of Viet Nam’s fisheries. They include a large number of regulations (stipulating the objectives, functions, and organisation of the fisheries sector), norms and standards (standards used in the fisheries sector; safety control of fishing boats; quality control of fishery products; and aquaculture management), duties of fisheries stakeholders (taxation regulations), behaviours on resource users.

The most important document for the protection of fisheries resources and their habitats is “The Ordinance on Fisheries Resources Protection and Development”, issued by the National Assembly on 25 April 1989. In this ordinance, all activities leading to destruction of resources and their habitats are prohibited. The government is responsible for the identification of closures or temporary-closures in areas such as spawning and nursery grounds. The registration of all mechanised fishing boats is required. The trading of endangered, rare, and threatened species is prohibited.

In support of this range of fisheries rules and regulations, the Department of Fishery Resources Conservation was established in 1991 within the Ministry of Fisheries. Provincial divisions were established in all coastal provinces. The main tasks of the Provincial Division of Fishery Resources Conservation are the licensing of vessels and the monitoring of fishing activities in provincial waters.

To provide a more formal basis for the development of responsible fisheries and their management, the National Assembly of Viet Nam introduced new fisheries legislation on 26 November 2003. This legislation will be enacted on 1 July 2004.

5.2 Institutional arrangements (research, monitoring, control & enforcement)

The highest government agency responsible for the administration, development, and management of Viet Nam’s fisheries is the Ministry of Fisheries (MOFI). MOFI consists of the following departments:

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- Department of Fisheries Management - Department of Fisheries Resources Conservation - Department of Planning & Investment - Department of Personnel & Labour - Department of Science & Technology - Department of Legislation - Department of Finance & Accounting - Department of International Cooperation - Administrative Office - Inspection

Concerning capture fisheries at the central level, the Department of Fisheries Management is responsible for establishing policies for fisheries development and the renovation of non-state-owned fisheries enterprises. The Department of Fisheries Resources Conservation, through its nationwide network of Provincial Fishery Resources Conservation Divisions, takes care of resource protection and enhancement, quarantine, as well as vessel registration and licensing. In all coastal provinces, there is a Provincial Fisheries Department. In the inland provinces, the Department for Agriculture and Rural Development is responsible for fisheries. This department assists the local authority (People’s Committee) in the administration and development of fisheries. Normally, the department has subordinate networks at the district and community level in important areas for fisheries. The Research Institute for Marine Fisheries, established in 1961, is responsible for assessing fisheries resources and fleet performance. The Institute collects and analyses information and data derived from surveys and studies conducted in Vietnamese waters. The Institute’s research outputs provide MOFI with a scientific base for the institution of management and development policies. The Research Institute of Fisheries Economics and Planning mainly deals with development of master plans.

Fisheries rules and regulations are enforced through monitoring and surveillance activities conducted by the fisheries inspection staff of the Fishery Resources Conservation Divisions, and coast guards, the navy and marine police.

5.3 Overview of patterns of resources ownership and traditional utilization

Living marine resources in Viet Nam are common property and managed by government. Access to resources is open to all individuals and organisations that qualify for a fishing licence. According to government regulations, all boats larger than 0.5 tonnes require a licence prior to fishing. The licences for coastal waters (6 miles from the shore for the Gulf of Tonkin and southern waters; and 3 miles from the shore for waters of the central region) are valid for 12 months. Licences for near shore waters are valid for 24 months. Near shore waters are defined from the outer boundary of the coastal water area boundary to the depth strata of 30m in the Gulf of Tonkin and southern waters, and to the depth strata of 50m for waters of the central region. Licences for fishing in offshore area are valid for 36 months. Fishing boats with an engine capacity greater than 90hp are not permitted to fish in coastal and near shore waters. Some gears like trawl push net, beach seine, and gears using artificial light to attract fish (except squid hand line) are banned in the coastal waters.

Fisheries in Viet Nam are mainly small scale. Most boats operate in water less than 50m deep. A large numbers of boats from the central region fish in the Gulf of Tonkin or southern waters for extensive periods. Being aware of high fishing pressure in coastal areas the government has recently encouraged fishers to redirect fishing effort towards offshore waters and resources, with soft loans and tax reduction incentives. As a result, there have been many new large fishing entering Viet Nam’s offshore fisheries. However, a number of these larger boats have been observed fishing in coastal and nearshore areas. In fact, with few patrol boats and staff, the enforcement forces ineffectively control fishing activities in Viet Nam’s EEZ. The open access nature of Viet Nam’s fisheries severely hinders resource and habitat conservation efforts.

In order to improve the management of fishery resources, there are some proposals to divide Vietnamese waters into different management zones. These proposals suggest that the management of coastal and nearshore waters should be transferred to the local authorities. Co management may be another alternative for these areas.

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5.4 Capacity, human & institutional (include location of research and MCS institutions)

To ensure proper management and development of fisheries, there is an administrative network from the national to grass-root levels in Viet Nam. This network is made up of representatives of MOFI, the provincial departments, the district office, and the community in important fisheries areas. The enforcement units of all Provincial Fishery Resources Conservation Divisions are equipped with patrol boats for surveillance. At important fishing harbours and river mouths, there are fisheries inspection stations. To supply scientific information to MOFI, there is the Research Institute for Marine Fisheries (RIMF) and Institute of Fisheries Economics and Planning. The Research Institute for Marine Fisheries (RIMF) RIMF is part of the Ministry of Fisheries. At present, the RIMF headquarters are in Haiphong province, with a Marine Biodiversity Research Station on Cat Ba Island in the Gulf of Tonkin. The Government of Viet Nam has recently given approval for RIMF to establish a research centre in the southeastern province of Vung Tau. A centre for resource conservation and fisheries development is also planned for the province of Kien Giang (Gulf of Thailand).

RIMF has the main following tasks: 1) to survey and research living marine resources (distribution, migration, biology, stock assessment, potential yield estimates and resource conservation methods, etc.); 2) to study the marine environment and relationships between environment and fisheries development, including methods for monitoring the marine environment; 3) to study biodiversity and the establishment of marine protected areas (MPA); 4) to study, trial, develop and apply new technologies for exploiting fish; 5) to develop post - harvest technologies; 6) to transfer technologies in the fields of fishing, post - harvest technologies to all economic counterparts; 7) to provide postgraduate training on specific subjects and other training on marine fisheries science and technology; and 8) to provide consultation services. Institute of Fisheries Economics and Planning in Hanoi This institute conducts research on the economics and management of fisheries. Planning the restructuring of production and the establishment of regional and master plans are some of its key activities. Centre for Fisheries Science -Technology and Economics Information (FICen) in MOFI This centre is responsible for gathering and supplying information to the fishery management process. Other research institutions and agencies Some other institutions and agencies involved in fisheries research are: - The Centre for Natural Resources and Environment Study (CRES) under the National University of Viet Nam (NU). - The Sub-institute for Forestry Sciences in South Viet Nam. - The Research Institute of Oceanography, Nha Trang. - The Branch Institute of Oceanography, Hai Phong. - The Branch Institute of Ecology of Biological Resources, Ho Chi Minh City.

Extension Services The top organisation of fisheries extension services is the National Extension Center, located in the Ministry of Fisheries. Extension centres have been established in 24 of the 28 coastal provinces, and in 26 inland provinces, with the purpose of transferring knowledge to fishers and fish farmers to enhance their activities. However, these organisations are currently focused mainly on aquaculture.

5.5 Review of stakeholders

Fishers The most important stakeholders in capture fisheries are the fishers. The fishery sector is considered an important source of employment due to the large amount of primary and secondary jobs created in fisheries. According to the national strategy for the fisheries sector, fisheries should create around 4 million jobs in 2010.

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State-owned fishing enterprises Generally, the state-owned enterprises own large fishing boats. Traditionally, these enterprises have played a leading role in fisheries. However, since the introduction of the market economy, these enterprises have lost their competitiveness. Many of them have now discontinued their activities.

Fishing cooperatives After 1985, most of fishing cooperatives were disbanded due to poor effectiveness. In 1997, some new cooperatives were re-established for obtaining loans from financial institutions. Fishing cooperatives play a useful role in fisheries management, as the government can efficiently introduce its policies or management measures to fishers through this system.

Fishing groups Due to the large amounts of capital required to purchase fishing boats and gear, fishers tend to create fishing groups. People in fishing groups can receive support from others in a very flexible way. Since 1985, the number of groups has rapidly increased.

Private business The private business approach to capture fisheries is the most popular in Viet Nam. Many fishers own private fishing boats, requiring less than 5 crew. Others may own more than one boat or larger boats requiring more than 5 employees. Some people make capital investments in large boats, with a capacity to operate at sea for extended periods. These people may have several large boats operating as part of a larger fleet.

6. RECOMMENDATIONS Due to the important contribution of fisheries to the national economy and social stability, the Government of Viet Nam has committed to develop fisheries in a sustainable way. Therefore, many measures have been adopted to maintain the resources and their habitats. As key players in Viet Nam’s fisheries systems, fishers cannot be excluded from any fishery management system. This sector can only be successful by managing fisheries in light of fisheries resource and ecosystem interdependencies, as well as the socio economic welfare of fishers and their communities. The management of fisheries resources is heavily dependent on information. Fisheries management measures should be based on information that is sound, robust and provided in a timely fashion. In light of the status of fisheries resources and their habitats, as well as the performance of fisheries, the following recommendations aimed at improving Viet Nam’s fisheries situation are provided: 1. Strengthen the assessment of fisheries resources status via the establishment of a regular resource-monitoring programme. This programme should collect necessary biological data and provide regular assessments. A fixed station survey programme may be appropriate. 2. Strengthen the national fishery statistics system to facilitate the use of indicators in monitoring trends in commercial fisheries. This approach was agreed by the ASEAN countries in a series of technical consultations for the implementation of the Code of Conducts for Responsible Fisheries. The use of indicators can enable the rapid identification of the effects of fishing on fisheries resources and their ecosystems. For example, a decrease in catch rate, or change in catch composition, may provide an indication of broader unsustainable trends in the fishery. 3. Replant mangroves in coastal areas for the creation of spawning and nursery grounds for aquatic resources. 4. Establish Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). MPAs can be an effective tool in resource enhancement. At present, there are two pilot projects of Hon Mun in Khanh Hoa and Cu Lao Cham in Quang Nam provinces. The Ministry of Fisheries, with support from various international donors, is working on the establishment of 15 MPAs in Vietnamese waters. It is intended that these areas will assist in the recovery of overexploited resources. 5. Improve the use of responsible fishing gears and practices. Although, the government has issued regulations, clearly prohibiting destructive fishing gears and methods, this problem has become more serious in recent years. Therefore, the enforcement force should be provided with sufficient means to conduct effective surveillance and monitoring activities. 6. Reduce fishing pressure in nearshore waters. Alternative income sources should be created for those fishers required to leave fisheries.

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7. Help fishers increase the value of their catches through the adoption of effective post-harvest handling and processing. 8. Raise awareness of fishers regarding fisheries laws and regulations.

REFERENCE Assessment of the Living Marine Resources in Viet Nam. 2000 – 2003. Bottom survey technical reports. Assessment of the Living Marine Resources in Viet Nam. 2001. Bottom survey technical report, Southeast – Southwest Waters,2000. Assessment of the Living Marine Resources in Viet Nam, 2003. Vietfishbase, Enumerator Programme. Assessment of the Living Marine Resources in Viet Nam. 2003. Vietfish Survey Database. Dao Manh Son et all. 2003. Survey study on marine fishery resources and selection of the appropriate fishing pattern for development of offshore fishery in Viet Nam”. Hai Phong, May 2003. Do Van Nam.2003.Preliminary Assessment of waste and environment pollution of fishery processing plants and recommendation on management regime. Do Van Nguyen. 2002. Primary study on density distribution of fish eggs and larvae in coastal waters of the central region, Viet Nam in October - November 2002. RIMF scientific report. Do Van Nguyen. 2003. Primary study on density distribution of fish eggs and larvae in coastal waters of the central region, Viet Nam in March – April 2003. RIMF scientific report. Do Van Nguyen. 2004. Primary study on density distribution of fish eggs and larvae in the Gulf of Tonkin and Northern Part of the Central waters, Viet Nam in August – September and October – November 2003. RIMF scientific report. Fisheries Information Centre. 2002. Fishery Statistics, 2002. K.Hotta and I.M.Dutton. 1995. Costal Management in the Asia – Pacific Region: Issues and Aproaches (Page 209-224). Ministry of Fisheries. 2000. The Implementation of Work plan 1999 and Fishery Socio-Economic Development Plan 2000. Ministry of Fisheries.2003. The Implementation of Work plan 2002 and Fishery Socio-Economic Development Plan 2003. Ministry of Fisheries. 1996. The Aquatic Resources of Viet Nam. The Agriculture Publish House. National Environment Agency. 1995. Quality standards of sea water of Viet Nam. National Environment Agency, 1998. Country Report of Viet Nam for Transboundary Diagnostic Assessment. Nguyen Long, 2000. A preliminary Analysis on Socioeconomic Situation of Coastal Fishing Communities in Viet Nam. Pham Ngoc Dang, Nguyen Cong Con, 1995. The resources of shrimp, lobsters and cephalopod resources in Vietnamese waters: status and conservation methods. Pham Thuoc et al.. 2000. Status of the Demersal Fishery Resources of the Viet Nam Seawaters. Pham Thuoc et al.. 2001. Status and Protection of Sea Turtles Resources of Viet Nam. Pham Thuoc, 1981 to 1985. Characteristics of Viet Nam Fisheries Resources, Biomass, and Potential Yield”. Pham Thuoc. 1993. Resources status and fishery exploitation in Vietnamese waters. Pham Thuoc. 1986. Fish resources of Viet Nam seawaters: biological characteristics, biomass assessment and exploitation potentials, (PhD thesis). Research Institute of Fishery Economic and Planning. 2002. Master Plan for Fishery Socio-Economic Development to 2010. Ta Dang Minh. 1995. Study on status assessment of oil pollution in Vietnamese seawaters and development of the technical solutions for preventing oil pollution and oil products. Vinh Chu Tien. 1999. Report on exploring marine resources to support for off shore fisheries development (Document of RIMP). Vu Huy Thu and Pham Thuoc.2003. Guidelines on exploitation and protection of the marine resources of Viet Nam.

Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand

UNEP/GEF Project Co-ordinating Unit United Nations Environment Programme United Nations Building 2nd Floor, Block B Rajdamnern Nok Avenue Bangkok 10200, Thailand

Department of Fisheries Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 186 Narodom Blvd. P.O. Box 582, Phnom Penh Cambodia .

Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Jl.Medan Merdeka Timur no. 16 Jakarta Pusat 10110 Indonesia

National Fisheries Research and Development Institute Department of Agriculture 940 Kayumanggi Press Building I Quezon Avenue, Quezon City 1103 Philippines

Chumporn Marine Fisheries research & Development Center 408 Moo 8, Paknum Sub-district Muang District Chumporn 86120 Thailand

Research Institute for Marine Fisheries Ministry of Fisheries 170 Le Lai Street Hai Phong City Viet Nam