Lucyna Kudła Pedagogical University of Cracow

Founder of female religious schools in the nineteenth-century Galicia

The nineteenth century brought many changes to the lands referred to by the term Galicia. The changes were political, economic and administrative in nature. They resulted from transformations caused by the change of borders, emergence of temporary states and change of invaders. It also affected edu- cation in Galicia. The most favourable period for Polish education is related to the introduction of autonomy, which allowed for faster development of education at various levels, disseminated access to education to children and youth from various social groups and expanded learning opportunities for girls. Galicia enabled female religious congregations to act and develop openly and freely. They influenced the large-scale development of charity and edu- cation at various levels. Female religious congregations that dealt with the upbringing and education of girls were developing dynamically. New con- gregations appeared in addition to orders traditionally involved in nursing, educational and teaching activities such as the Benedictine , nuns of the Order of the Holy Sacrament, handmaids of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, nuns of the Visitation, Presentation Sisters, Canonesses and Norbertine Sisters. Galicia was a shelter for congregations removed from the Prussian and Russian parti- tions, an example may be the Ursuline congregation or the Sisters of the Im- maculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary, nuns of the Order of the Holy Family of Nazareth, Felician Sisters and sisters of the Marinoii Family. Due to favourable conditions and social demand for nursing, educational and teaching works, the development of activities was progressing quite quickly 292 | Lucyna Kudła

and new religious institutions were created. Most of the monastic schools were established in Cracow and Lviv. The act of establishing private schools and scientific-educational institu- tions was regulated by the Act of 1869. These schools were supposed to teach and educate at the level of public schools. They were under the supervision of public school authorities and that is why it was necessary to receive an authorization of the National School Board to establish any school. The com- pliance with terms and conditions and full curriculum applicable in public schools as well as regulations of the authorities regarding the use of specified textbooks determined the receipt of public school privileges. Certificates is- sued by monastic schools were equivalent with public school certificates. The requirements of school authorities were very strict. Private schools underwent annual inspections of school inspectors who controlled the condition of school rooms, the level and conditions of teaching, school equipment, teaching aids, the condition of school libraries, teachers’ qualifications, educational and teaching methods. A positive opinion of such a lustration gave the opportunity to apply for a state subsidy granted to schools. Failure to comply with educa- tional regulations led to the loss of funds and public powers. An example may be the school of Presentation Sisters in Cracow, where in 1871 the authorities demanded to exclude the school from enclosed religious orders and build an entrance from the street for the needs of the emerging teacher seminar. The congregation lost control over the building. The head of the school did not agree to such a condition, and the school lost its subsidy and public powers. This forced the congregation to transform the school into a private one, sup- porting itself from student fees and financial aid from outside.1 Difficult economic situation of religious orders and lack of funds often contributed to the establishment of schools, nurseries, boarding houses or dormitories which enabled the congregations to gain funds necessary to maintain their activity. These institutions were opened and run even by con- gregations that had not been involved in educational or teaching activities and by congregations that were purely contemplative in nature. Religious congregations in Galicia managed all types of schools: folk, fac- ulty, high schools, middle schools, teacher seminars. They also managed well- developed child-care institutions: orphanages, nurseries and educational care centres. The nuns also ran schools and vocational courses to enable girls and

1 R. Gąsior, T. Matuła, Szkoła Sióstr Prezentek w Krakowie w latach 1627–1918, Lublin 1998, p. 255. Founder of female religious schools… | 293 women to obtain professional qualifications. All congregations used external assistance. Support was provided by the clergy, bishops and simple priests of the parishes that were close to the schools. Of course, some support was also provided by the landed gentry and aristocrats who were guided by philan- thropy. In addition, assistance was provided by various social committees, associations, municipal and communal authorities. The landed gentry often funded those institutions for personal reasons. By establishing nurseries or schools – and therefore providing care for children – mothers could work for the court. Family traditions were often cultivated and nuns were employed to help in parish churches, run nurseries and schools and to provide medical care to the population in the area. The founders sup- ported congregations joined by their relatives, thus paying off financial liab- ilities (dowries). At the end of the 19th century, especially in Eastern Galicia, where the Russians prevailed, Polish schools and nurseries were supposed to maintain the national character. They taught Polish, cultivated Polish patriotic traditions, and led religious education. There is no information about the funds of many folk and faculty schools. It can be presumed that they were partly supported with salaries associated with school foundations or the congregations’ own funds and charity. The schools founded by individual founders were supported with their own assets. The founders worth mentioning are the Czartoryski family, especially Duke Jerzy Konstanty and Duchess Wanda. She was a distinguished social and pat- riotic activist and a spokeswoman for women’s education. Her commitment and funds contributed to the establishment and maintenance of a folk school in Czerwona Wola. The Servant Sisters of Stara Wieś, who ran a nursery, were brought there. The funds of the Czartoryski family were used to build a new brick nursery with a chapel and a classroom. Initially, there was only one class. The school also established a boarding school.2 The merits of Duchess Jadwiga Sapieha, née Sanguszko, the founder and benefactor of the school in Krasiczyn, are also worth mentioning. She had the support of her husband, Duke Adam Sapieha, a spokesman for organic work and president of the Galician Economic Society. They were the parents of Duke Bishop Adam Sapieha. She continued the philanthropic work of her mother-in-law, Jadwiga Sapieha, who founded the first orphanage and nursery

2 S. Kieniewicz, Czartoryski Jerzy Konstanty ks. (1828–1912) in Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. IV, Kraków 1938, p. 278. 294 | Lucyna Kudła in Krasiczyn. Jadwiga Sapieha, née Zamoyska brought Servant Sisters of Stara Wieś to Krasiczyn who, with her support and financial help, led a nursery and educated poor children.3 The Servant Sisters had experience in establishing schools, because they ran an institution in Krzeczów (near Myślenice), where they benefited from the material help of Duchess Cecylia Lubomirska. The Servant Sisters also established a school in Borzęta (near Myślenice). In view of educational needs and in fear of employing a teacher with radical social views, as well as having good experience with educational work of the sis- ters, the owners of the estate entrusted them with running a school. Despite various difficulties and resistance coming from the authorities, the funders were persistent and successful (1906). The ongoing financial assistance of the Lubomirski family lasted until the Second World War. It resulted in an expansion of the school.4 It is worthwhile to mention the initiative of the in Prze- worsk, which was taken as a result of the declaration of the Lublin governor Antoni Lubomirski and his wife Zofia, née Krasińska. Their funds enabled the construction of a school and a hospital. The sisters, who came from , were responsible for nursing the sick, surrounding them with care and running a school for girls. The founders asked the sisters to pay particular attention to the children coming from their family. For this purpose, the Lubomirski family allocated sixty thousand Polish zlotys located in the Przeworsk estate. Over time, more children attended the school.5 The founder of the Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul was Franciszka Rzewuska, née Cetner. She entrusted the sisters with the task of nursing the sick in their homes and educating girls. Their activity was to be paid from interests on the sum of sixty thousand. She also provided the sisters with a residential building that was actually a school. Over time, Rzewuska’s contribution proved to be too modest to sustain the growing number of those in need, but benefactors also offered some support.6 The Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul

3 M. Syska, Działalność opiekuńczo-wychowawcza Zgromadzenia Sióstr Opatrzności Bożej w la- tach 1857–1905, Lublin 2004, p. 171. 4 M. Syska, Działalność wychowawczo-oświatowa Służebniczek Starowiejskich w archidiecezji kra- kowskiej w latach 1869–1992, “Nasza Przeszłość” 1999, vol. 92, p. 325–326. 5 B. Czajecka, Szkoły klasztorne żeńskie w Galicji w latach 1867–1914, “Nasza Przeszłość” 1984, vol. 61, p. 246. 6 A. Dzierżak, Powstanie i organizacja galicyjskiej prowincji Sióstr Miłosierdzia, “Nasza Przeszłość” 1996, vol. 86, p. 144. Founder of female religious schools… | 295

also received a building in Moszczany, whose founder was Maria Wurtem- berska, née Czartoryska. The aim was to take care of orphans that came from her estate. It was decided to establish an orphanage in old farm buildings. The founder offered a manor farm in Moszczany that was supposed to support their activities. Approximately thirty girls were cared for.7 Eleonora Jabłonowska, née Skarbek founded a charity institute in Bursztyn (Rohatyń County). Twenty thousand florins were designated for the found- ation, and sixty thousand for the support of Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul. Those funds were used to support the girls – orphans. The founders reserved the right to choose girls – orphans. Over time, the number of people in need increased.8 Helena Ponińska, née Górska brought the Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul to Czerwonogród (Zaleszczyki County). The sisters were to take care of six sick people and six orphans in an educational institution. The founder offered the sisters a building and twenty thousand guilders located in the Czerwonogród estate. The interests on those sums were to be paid to sisters in cash and in kind. The founder even asked the superior in Paris to teach some subjects in French. However, the mother superior thought that this was not considered appropriate. Nevertheless, the number of orphans increased.9 Sometimes sponsors gave their properties to the congregation in exchange for the possibility of deciding about the school’s activity. An example is the donation of the Poniatowski palace in Jazłowiec by the Błożowski family to the Sisters of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The building was a ruin and was put into eternal use of the order (1863). In exchange for the donation, the funders had the right to choose students from their family who would receive permanent scholarship.10 The superior of the Sisters of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary, mother Marcelina Darowska, had to devote her own funds, which she received from her parents, to the reconstruction of the property. The case was quite complicated, because M. Darowska was formally a subject of the Russians. If they had discovered that an order in Galicia was established, they would have confiscated the lands of M. Darowska. She also did not have a permission to open the school, and the

7 Ibidem, p. 147. 8 Ibidem, p. 148. 9 Ibidem, p. 150. 10 E. Jabłońska, Zarys działalności Matki Marceliny Darowskiej na polu organizacji szkolnictwa żeńskiego 1863–1911, “Nasza Przeszłość” 1958, vol. 7, p. 221–233. 296 | Lucyna Kudła

congregation did not have an approval of the Austrian government. Formally, the new school of the Sisters of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Jazłowiec was established as a parish school for the parish priest of Jazłowiec, Jan Kalinowicz.11 Therefore, educational and religious activities required a lot of effort and determination, sometimes against the law. Court, communal and individual subsidies were sometimes “to be or not to be” for religious congregations. They could rarely count on financial support from the state. Some of them evolved over time into teaching and educational facilities. Some of them ended their activity mainly due to the decrease of funds. In addition to primary and secondary schools, various initiatives were undertaken to prepare girls to perform a profession. Complementary courses were often organized at faculty schools. Under the changing economic con- ditions, girls from the families of intellectuals, middle class and even landed gentry had to get a job. Some of them decided to choose the teaching profession or administrative work, and others saw their future in crafts. The schools of lace-making, embroidery and weaving were also very popular. Religious congregations introduced classes in artistic embroidery and lace-making as a complementary course of their learning program. They also created separate schools of lace-making and embroidery. An example might be the school run by the Benedictine nuns in Przemyśl or the school of lace-making run by the Sisters of Mercy in Przeworsk. A similar school was created by the Sisters of St. Clare in Stary Sącz. It was moved from Muszyna and started its activity in 1895. The carer and benefactor was Countess Helena Stadnicka. Despite material support, the school survived only three years.12 The Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul were traditionally involved in nursing. They fulfilled their duties well, but they lacked the assist- ance of specialist nurses. The Daughters of Charity ran their own outpatient clinic in Cracow at Warszawska Street. It was supported by the Association of the of Saint Vincent de Paul and partially by the Asso- ciation of Financier Sisters. Its head, Maria Epstein, initiated the creation of a school for nurses and then became its director. She was a born nurse, she helped the wounded during the First World War, and after it ended, she cared for the wounded participants of the Silesian Uprisings. She joined the

11 Ibidem, p. 223. 12 B. Czajecka, op. cit., p. 247. Founder of female religious schools… | 297

Dominican Order.13 The initiative was endorsed by the professors of the Fac- ulty of Medicine of the Jagiellonian University and heads of hospitals in Cra- cow. The Sisters of Charity became founders, because they selflessly donated the estate at Filipa 15 Street for the needs of the school. For this purpose, Maria Popiel (the financier of the congregation) donated seven thousand Rhine goldens. Architect Wacław Krzyżanowski made sure that the building was rebuilt, and the Sisters of Charity ran the school’s business department free of charge. However, the nursing school struggled with financial difficulties, which made it impossible to transform it from a philanthropic initiative into an independent institution that would have the chance to stay in business. Thus, philanthropy allowed to maintain the activity of such a school.14 Galicia needed a school for rural housewives. The Diet of the Kingdom of Galicia commissioned (1890) the National Department to conduct negotiations with female orders, private persons and institutions regarding the organization of such schools.15 The establishment and maintenance of schools by religious congregations was practiced in all European countries. In Galicia, the mis- sion of establishing schools was carried out by the Handmaids of the Sacred Heart of Jesus (in Korczyn), and the Sisters of Mercy built a business school in Biały Kamień with a boarding house for housewives. The Servant Sisters of Stara Wieś held gardening and apiculture courses in Stara Wieś (Brzozów County). Such initiatives required assistance and financial support from local landowners. An example can be the Skarbek foundation in Drohowyż, where children were educated and trained in crafts at the expense of the landowner.16 Religious congregations also took the trouble of running boarding houses for non-local students. They were established by Ursuline Sisters, Sisters of the Holy Family of Nazareth, Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul or Sisters of the Holy Family. The poorest students received scholarships, and their amount was recorded in school records. They usually came from donations, testaments and interests from sums under the management of charitable insti- tutions. In the school of the Sisters of St. Clare in Cracow, the superior mother once a year chose poor, but moral, pious and diligent students. The chosen

13 S. Ryłko, Magdalena Maria Epstein OP (1875–1947), kspipp.pl/o–nas/nasze–publikacje/19–maria– magdalena–epstein–op–1875–1947–cz–2 [access: 16.06.2018]. 14 B. Czajecka, op. cit., p. 249. 15 Sprawozdanie Wydziału Krajowego w przedmiocie wykształcenia kobiet w zakresie gospodarstwa wiejskiego i domowego, 1906, p. 4. 16 B. Czajecka, op. cit., p. 251. 298 | Lucyna Kudła

students were from poor and large families, especially orphans, daughters of widows or unemployed. The scholarships amounted to one hundred and fifty zlotys and were given to six students. The amount was not large, but it helped the poorer students. The founder was Father Franciszek Serafin Piątkowski. The scholarships were taken from the interests on the sum of ten thousand Rhine goldens under the management of the Archconfraternity of Mercy and the Pious Bank in Cracow. The candidates selected by the abbess were subjected to an examination and the best ones received the scholarship. Over time, the number of scholarship recipients and the amount of the scholarship were changed. The scholarship was enough for a month of modest living.17 The activity of religious congregations in the field of education in the nineteenth-century Galicia was thriving. They used the foundation to support various social groups in territories and environments that did not receive state aid. They took care of children and sick who faced hard living condi- tions. They were precursors of the education of girls at various levels. They enabled them to get a profession. They developed their religious houses and expanded their estates. They introduced new management patterns without neglecting their own education.

Summary

Founder of female religious schools in the nineteenth-century Galicia In the latter half of the nineteenth century Galicia became an autonomous province within the Dual Monarchy. In addition to political reforms, changes in education were proposed. Polish language and teaching history of were introduced to schools. Also, some private schools for girls were founded, with an objectives to raise their level of education and prepare them for studies at universities. Schools run by religious congregations played a significant role among them. These were mainly Catholic orders. Schools and children’s bodies were founded with the help of funders. They were landowners who accepted nuns in their estates. Vocational schools for girls were created, they were taught the profession and they were given the opportunity to maintain themselves. The nuns cared for the Catholic upbringing and development of patriotism.

Keywords: private schools, Galician autonomy, education, church in Poland

DOI 10.24917/9788380842717.18

17 Ibidem, p. 279–280.