東京家政学院筑波女子大学紀要第１集 215～225ページ 1997年

What Influences Language Change?

－in Australian Words and Usages－

Hiroyuki Yokose

Abstract

This paper reports recent results from a research study in Australian and English. After investigating a few examples of other language first, I show the chart of other languages like (1). And next, (1) Linguistics as a cause for semantic change. Also I divide the types of semantic change into three meanings: (1) Extension of meaning, (2) Narrowing of meaning, (3) Transfer of meaning. Next, as (1) metaphorical idioms are literal English; this is evident when phrases are connected with specific activities which are often part of the the cultural or historical background of the country come to be used in everyday speech. Next, (2) Compoundings are different in N.Z. in metaphor as a source of semantic change. And there are three points concerning identifiable words and phrases: A. borrowing from the Maori language B. coinage C. semantic change. I think that semantic change is probably the most common source of words of local origin.

1. Introduction

The main purpose of this paper is to report recent results from a research study in the . The results indicate language change with references to Australian words and usages. After investigating some examples of other language, I find that native speakers of Australians tend to take short cuts in their use of language. "Vocabulary is the least closely structured part of the language and so most subject to change" (The in and New Zealand G.W.Turner) There are several different types of questions and responses in Australian language. In the types of semantic change, this is obviously when a words increases its range and association: This is evident when phrases connected with specific activities which are often part of the cultural or historical background of the country come to be used in everyday speech. Sometimes the original meaning will be lost or lost sight of and the metaphor will be quite unconsciously accepted as literal English.

－ 215 － 東京家政筑波女子大紀要１ 1997

Examples are: The first is the characteristic Australian greetings. G'daymate. (Hello, mate.) Owyagowin? (How are you going?) The standard response to this; NO bad. (Not so bad.) Wanna dog's eye? (Do you want a meat pie?) Jeez, it's brass monkey. (It's very cold.) She is top sort. (She is a good looking girl.) It's feeding time at the zoo. (It's time to have a meal in a hurry.) If something is okay, She is sweet. or, She is apples. (It'll be all right.)

It is difficult at times to decide what is true coinage and what is merely some form of semantic change. When it comes to compounding, when the concept is a new one rather than just the intensification of an old meaning, it will be deemed a coinage. Semantic change is probably the common source of words with their flavour.

What influences language change?

1. Other languages => (most of their vocabulary)

"dinkum" "pass the buck" Australian English =Is that true? =to shift responsibility New Zealand English

"half-pie" "taboo" "veranda" =imperfect =forbidden =a large porch

Maori Pacific Languages Other (polynesian) (Indian, Chinese)

Causes For Semantic Change

1. Linguistic Native speakers of Australian and NZ English tend to take short cuts, especially in spoken language. This shortening of words or set phrases in common practice in many languages. Examples are: comfy - omfortable kindy - kindergarten compo - worker's compensation nasho - national service footy - Australian Rules football smoko - break for a smoke etc, rest from work garbo - garbage collector Yammy - Yamaha motorcycle

－ 216 － Hiroyuki Yokose：What Influences Language Change?

Australians are fond of putting "ie" on the ends of the words and converting their language into baby talk, but the fact remains that Australian language has been abbreviated to form shortened words that are now structures in their own right. They go to the greengrocers for vegies, You take the kids to kindies, If you a tart you wear lippies, You get bitten by mozzies, Come to our barbie party. Did you bring your sammie and bikkies? etc. Examples are: vegies - vegetable Aussie - Australian kindies - kindergarten chappies - chap, fellow lippies - lipstick cossie - swimming costume mozzies - mosquito goodie - ethical, good person barbie - barbecue hollies - holidays sammie - sandwich hotties - hot-water bottle bikkies - biscuits sickie - a day absent from work Brissie - Brisbane sunnies - sunglass

If an "ie" ending doesn't seem appropriate for the shortened form of a word, then an "o" is added instead. If we have an oil fire we buy kero for it, when you're off working you might be doing a bit of bizzo, unless you're in the army when you are doing nashos. Other common shortened forms are, a kangaroo is a roo, Australia itself is OZ. Let me give you a demo you want some info on the lingo.

kero - kerosine dero - derelict bizzo - business garbo - garbage collector nashos - national service hippo - hippopotamus demo - demonstration intro - introduction info - information lesso - lesbian lingo - language limmo - limousine Abo - Aborigine milko - milk vendor aggro - aggressive mo - moment arvo - afternoon muso - musician condo - conominium rego - vehicle registration

Types of Semantic Change

1. Extension of meaning 2. Narrowing of meaning 3. Transfer of meaning

－ 217 － 東京家政筑波女子大紀要１ 1997

1. Extension of Meaning This is obviously when a word increases its range and association. Examples are: Bush - It means native forest with dense undergrowth-in fact all "wild" areas of vegetation. "Forest" which normally implies exotic plantings, usually pine; sometimes the collocation "native forest" appears, usually in formal language only. A "bush" has quite different and more traditional meaning. Mob - Originally applied to people, especially in urban areas; now in Australia and NZ applied to :unruly" groups of sheep. Paddock - Originally a small field near the house for keeping horses in. In New Zealand English it has come to mean all "field" no matter their size or function. Pine - This has been applied to describe many native trees which are neither related to pine trees nor to each other, red pine, black pine, white pine. Because of this liberality the true pine trees are often called by their Latin name "pinus". Plains - Used to refer to grasslands not necessarily flat, Eg. Awwarua Plains in NZ. Station - From Australian English-a convict settlemen term. Used in relation to large farms, particularly in the country.

2. Narrowing of Meaning This is when a word loses something from its range of associations; it could be that it loses one specific meaning or a whole rage of meanings. Some words become so narrowed in connotation that they ultimately dissappear from the language. Examples are: Field - In English this means any enclosed agricultural area. It implies a whole range of purposes: wheat field, hay field, corn field, field for sheep etc. It has been supplanted by "paddock" and its usage narrowed to the register of sports: rugby field, hockey field, baseball field, sports field etc. Flock - In English this refers to a group of sheep, stationary or moving but in NZ it only refers to the sheep owned by the farmer. Bushranger - Although an Australian word this is an interesting example of language change through the narrow of meaning. Originally it meant anyone who lived in the bush but over a period of time it became the world to describe the Australian equivalent of the British "highwayman".

3. Transfer of Meaning Bail up - Which means to hold up (bail up a coach, bail up a person) is derived from "bailing up a cow in a cow bail".

－ 218 － Hiroyuki Yokose：What Influences Language Change?

Metaphor as a Source of Semantic Change

1. Metaphorical Idiom This is evident when phrases connected with specific activities often part of the cultural or historical background of the country come to be used in everyday speech. Sometimes the original meaning will be lost or lost sight of and the metaphor will be quite unconsciously accepted as "literal" English. Examples are: Yea, we're gettin creamed. -We're getting annihilated. That bastard not worth feedin. -He is not good enough for the team. Avago ya mug! -Don't just stand there you fool! Givim a go. -Give that person a fair chance. There's a big blue started on the hill. -There's a big fight started on the hill. Wanna shoot through? -Do you want to leave now? No way. -I don't want to go (leave). I'm staying to the death. -I'm staying till the end of the game He'll start it in a mo, no worries. -He'll start it in a moment, it's O.K. It's freezing, so they get rugged up and hit the -It's freezing, so they dressed up in warm road. clothes and left the road. As soon as they get there, he cracks the tinnies -As soon as they get there, he opens cans of while they sit down and start flapping their beer while they sit down and start talking. gums. Wanna dog's eye? -Do you want a meat pie? Yeah, orright. Remember the tom sauce this -Yes, all right. I need a tomato ketchup this time. time. Orright, save me pozzie. -Will you save my seat? Doan go crook at me! -Don't ge upset with me.! Ben decides to nick off. -Ben decides to go away. He gets in the Kingswodd, chucks a u-ey and -He makes a u-turn and heads back towards the heads back towards the main drag. main road. I want to buy my pre-loved car. -I want to buy my second hand car. These things suck up the juice, mate. -These things consume large quantities of petrol. Sounds a bit shonky ter me. -Sounds a bit of dubious quality. It's in good nick. -It's in good condition. Check the duco. -Check the paintwork. It's vactus. -It's of no further value. Yer got rocks in yer ed! -You got to be unwise. In Australian, the days of the week are Mundy, -They are Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Chewsdy, Wensdy, Thersdy, Fridy, Saddy, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, and Sunday.

－ 219 － 東京家政筑波女子大紀要１ 1997

and Sundy. At Chrissie you get pressies and get pissed to -At Christmas you get presents and get drunk. the eyeballs. In Australia the weather varies little. Emphasis is added with the the prefix "Jeez": Jeez, it's frigginot today. -It's very hot. Jeez, it's brass monkey. -It's very cold. Jeez, it's pissin down. -It's raining. She has decided to visit his oldies. -She has decided to visit his parents. He gets on the blower and tells them he's -He gets on the telephone and tells them he's coming over Sundy. coming over Sunday. I din't know ewas lobbin sarvo. -I didn't know he was to arrive unexpectedly this afternoon. I told ya yesterdie. -I told you yesterday. Musta knocked it off from somewhere. -You must steal it from somewhere. Woddid that set ya back? -How much did that cost you? We're not all on the bones of our arse. -We are not all destitute. If that's paid for, I'll stand the season. -I'll pay for the sum of hundred dollars. Sticks out like dog's ball. Jeez, somethin's on -It is quite obvious. Jeez, something is smelly. the nose. I'm jacka this. I'm tired of this. Bastard never comes to see us, anwenny does -This man never comes to see us, and then e only stays five minutes. where he does he only stays five minutes. Some kids will ask for googie boiled, fried -Some kids will ask for eggs-boiled, fried, scrambled for breakfast. scrambled for breakfast. He's been busier than a brickies in Beirut. -He is very busy. What appened to the dead cert? -What happened to a sure thing? He gets snakey with me. Thought I was doin -He gets irritable with me. Thought I was the right thing. acting in the correct manner. I'm right in the noo-er when the missus fines out.-I'm right in trouble when my wife finds out. Ain't got a cracker for the resta the week. -I haven't got a money for the rest of the week. Doan perform. I'll shout yer a beer. -Don't make a fuss. I'll buy a beer. Ya know what they say: Life wasn't menda be -You know what they say: Life is a challenge. easy. He is beside himself. -He is extremely agitated. You arsey bastard. Yer gunna be quids in. -You are a very fortunate person. You are going to be prosperous. He decides it's time to choof off. -He decides it's time to depart. A friend of Ben's having a show. -A friend of Ben's having a party. He is really bunging on an act and sucking -He is really feigning a personality superior to up to all the trendies. his own.

－ 220 － Hiroyuki Yokose：What Influences Language Change?

Top show. Real range. -Top party. Real a good time. It's orright. Wodyer thinka the decor. Really -It's all right. What do you think of the internal kitsch, eh? decorations. Really in poor taste? Cop the tart over there with the red air. Watch the woman over there with the red hair. Wait'll she opens er mouth. Rough as guts. -Wait until she opens her mouth. She is a Anyway, the moll's on with some bloke oo vulgar. Anyway, she with her boyfriend runs a runs a porno shop. porno shop. Woss the mail on the joker with the leather -What's the information about the fellow with pants? Looks like a bit of a bit of a bumjumper the leather pants. Looks like a bit of a ter me. homesexual to me. Jeez, you're really passe sometimes Shane. -You are really behind the time Shane. Ben is Ben gay's all the go these days. a fashionable these days. Suit yourself. I'm gunna go over an ava mag -Do as you please. I'm going to go over and with im. talk to him. Shane goes over to him and starts pissing in -Shane goes over to him and start ingratiating his pocket. Shane ges absolutely full, tries to himself. Shane is extremely drunk, tries to get con up his boss's wife, and shits in his own nest. on to his boss's wife, and to earn a bad reputation for himself. Shane and Aaron have crashed at Aaron's -They have bed down at Aaron's mate's pad. mate's pad. Shane is not feeling too clever Shane feels terrible when he wakes up. when he wakes up. He has a mouth like an abo's armpit. Aaron is -He has bad breath. Aaron is eating breakfast. having brekkie. Cop the eyes on it. They're like pissholes in the -Have a look at. They look like to have a snow. hangover. I must knocked back a few. -I must have imbibed large quantities of alcohol. Ya were paraletic. -You were drunk. Well ya better go an ava tub. We're meeting -You had better go and have a shower. We'll this joker at 10. meet a person at 10. That's a bit of a worry. We don't know the -That is something perturbing. We don't know bloke from a bara soap. that fellow is a complete strange to us. We're both shorta the readies. -We are both short of money. Ardunno. Think I'll take a rain check. -I don't know. I'll postpone it indefinitely. That's the shot. -That's the spirit. She is pretty toey about the whole bizzo. He -She is very nervous about business. He is is wearing his shades so no one will recognise wearing sunglasses so ne one will recognise him. him. Doan stan there like a stunned mullet. -Don't stand there with an unintelligent expression on the face. She is off like a bride's nighttie. -She is off with all possible speed.

－ 221 － 東京家政筑波女子大紀要１ 1997

She is as happy as a pig in shit. -She is extremely happy. He's down the pub chewing the fat with her. -He is down the pub having a long leisurely chat. Bloody oath. It's beaut. -That is absolutely correct. It is very good. They are not rapt. -They aren't excited. He is top of the wozzer at some oil company. -He is number one man at some oil company. He has his buck's night the night before the -He has a stag party the night before the wedding. wedding. He can't even crack it for a smile. -He is unable to see the humor in a situation. He is sweating on her old man behaving himself.-He is anxious about her old man. He is already half-cut. -He is already drunk.

2. Compounding Possibly the most common form of word formation and therefore it straddles the areas of semantic change and coinage. It derives from Germanic or more relevantly, Anglo-Saxon "habits of language" where two concepts are linked together. Frequently these concepts are both nouns (Australian "woolshed" and the process of compounding often has a metaphorical element.) Examples: "ratbag" meaning "an eccentric" "half-pie" meaning "mediocre" "pie" meaning "good" "no-hoper" meaning "a fool" "off-sider" meaning "friend or partner" According to G.W.Turner "when a word or expression can be fairly fully documented, we often find that there is no precise moment at which the word or expression is born. There is often competition between alternative forms for a time, or a word may compete with a longer, less set description." Let us take the case of the compound "herd-testing", a concept that originated in NewZealand. In 1910 both the terms herd-testing and cow-testing could be found in use (in the relevant literature). By 1950 "cow-testing" had disappeared and "herdtesting" had lost its hyphen. Finally, "herd testing" (without hyphen) seemed to be quite established. "New Zealand English differs from British English not only in its New Zealandisms, since settlers from Australia brought with them all that had been achieved linguistically there and passed on much of it, so that it is Australian element in New Zealand English." (G.W.Turner: The English Language in Australia and New Zealand) It is interesting how we have not coined a suitable adjective to describe things with a New Zealand flavour. The identifiable words and phrases come from the following sources: A. Borrowing from Maori B. Coinage C. Semantic Change A. Borrowing from Maori (N.Z.) Actual loan words are more often found in placenames and in words for the natural environment. Examples of words borrowed to describe the natural environment are: Animals (in the widest sense): kea, kiwi, mana, pa, pakeha, puku, tiki, etc.

－ 222 － Hiroyuki Yokose：What Influences Language Change?

Plantlife: kauri, kumara, manuka, raupo. toi-toi. (This list is by no means exhaustive.) Interesting too are words that have become manlgicised: kokupu------cockabully tumatakuru------matagowrie B. Coinage It is difficult at times decide what is a true coinage and what is merely some form of semantic change. When it comes to compounding, when the concept is a new one rather than just the intensification of an old meaning, it will be deemed a coinage. Examples: bell-bird mutton-bird fantail greenstone layby treefern gumboot tarsealed waxeye Though not coinage, some specifically Australians collocations could be added here. Examples: aerial top dressing cutty grass feeding out lamb's fry supple jack jet boat milk tokens home dew the Old country storm water channels freezingworks C. Semantic Change This is probably the most common source of words with their flavour. Some examples have already been given in the section dealing with semantic change but three examples of transfer of meaning which have not been convered are worthy of interest: "bach" Originally from bachelor as in bachelor establishment has come to mean a holiday home (rather than just a hut out in the middle of the bush for the male of the species.) "domes" Though still found on people's clothes (the British English "press-studs" with its built in reference to earlier fashions has been lost NZE.) "pavlova" Has dropped the capital "p" and refers not to a great ballet dancer but to a favourite Australians dish made with the beaten whites of eggs. Words discared from British English: brook copse delled dingle downs glen (sometimes used in place names) marsh (replaced by swam) spinney thicket woods Slang terms with an Australian Flovour: bash (as to go out on the bush) chutty (for chewing gum) comp (compensation payment for injury received at work) crook (unwell) (go) crook (to hgo mad at someone) gutzer (to come a gutzer)

－ 223 － 東京家政筑波女子大紀要１ 1997

sheila (for girl) shikker (to get drunk) spell (a breather) togs (sports gear or swimming costumes) Established words that have gathered new and different associations: creek (replaces stream in most instances) field (largely replaces "pitch") forest (refers to introduced trees usually pines) paddock (largely replaces "field") shout (to buy a drink for someone else) bush lawyer (bramble) bush carpenter (rough-and-ready tradesman) bush machanic (more often encountered far from the cities) bush whacker (a person living in the bush) bush Bapitist (a person of no organised religion) bush telegraph (grapevine)

3. Australian Pronunciation After World War II increasing numbers came from other parts of Europe and, to some extent, from Asia. The population has always contained a large number of people, at present numbering several million, who are not born in Australia but who came to it speaking one of the many variants of British English or one of the many variants of foreign-accented English. J.R.L.Bernard says that Broad Australian is marked by the most extreme expression of the local speech habits. With the possible exception of the vowel/I/, as in hill, all the vowels and, all the diphthongs are given characteristic pronunciations which cause them to stand apart from their counterparts in other forms of English. The consonants are not remarkable, being much the same as the great majority of English consonants elsewhere, at least when fully articulated. Cultivated Australian is a minority form spoken by perhaps a tenth of the population, and it is general Australian, which lies in all things between broad and cultivated, which the greatest number of speakers adopt. It seems very likely that a distinctive Australian pronunciation arose very early in the country's history during the decades which followed the sttlement of 1788. The ‘mixing-bowl’ theory is widely accepted and has been used to explain the emergence of one dialect from a mixture of gialects in other countries, for example, that of Stage German in Germany, and indeed that of the precursors of Received Pronunciation in Britain. Within their countries neither of these is anymore a regional dialect than is Australian English within Australia.

4. Australian English It began as the English of the first settlers. These were of British origin, their speech that of the region or social class from which they came, their attitudes to language those peculiar to eighteen- century England.

－ 224 － Hiroyuki Yokose：What Influences Language Change?

Since World WarII, Australia has received a substantial number of immigrants from Italy, Greece and central Europe. But the Australian policy has always been one of assimilation, and though in the cities, notably Sydney and Melbourne, Greek and Italian groups particularly maintain the familial and communal ties of their past and retain a degree of bilingualism and something of the character of their former life, they are unlikely to have a significant impact on it. The languages of the Aborigines have provided Australian English with a good number of words, in particular with words which, because they are peculiarly Australian in their reference, help to establish its separate identity; but they are words which are very restricted in character, reflecting the course of relations between the two people. Australians speak their own brand of the language, developed during their years of isolation from other English-speaking peoples. There are three kinds of Australians to be considered:

1. Original Australians. Known as Aborigines. 2. Old Australians. The narive-born, locality educated majority of the country's citizens. 3. New Australians. Born in other countries, and speaking their own brand of English or other language, to the annoyance and embarrassment of their Australian-born children.

There are other types of substitution equally available. One of the most productive is metaphor, when one refers to something by the name of something else. Thus an old motor car is called a bomb, a kookaburra is the bushman's clock. Sometimes the substitution is by translation: thus for go away! or buzz off! Yum-yum is an expression of delight at the thought of eating Yummy foods. Australians whose mother-tongue is Australian English may otherwise be left in the dark by the talk of another generation or another locality of just of another individual.

Refererences

The English Language in Australia and New Zealand: G.W.Turner (1981) A dictionary of Australian Slang: Sidney J.Baker (1982) A dictionary of New Zealand (1982) A dictionary of Australian colloquialisms: G.A.Wilkes (1982) The Dikum Aussie Dictionary: Backett Richard (1987) The Dinkum Dictionary: Lenie Johansen (1988) G'day! Teach yourself Australian: Colin Bowles (1991)

－ 225 －