Researcher Published by CQ Press, a division of SAGE Publications CQ www.cqresearcher.com America’s Fence Will it stem the flow of illegal immigrants?

merica is rushing to build 670 miles of fencing along the U.S.-Mexican border by the end of the year. The fence — or , as critics along the border call it — is to include 370 miles of fencing intendedA to stop illegal immigrants on foot and 300 miles of vehicle barriers. To speed construction, the Bush administration is using unprecedented authority granted by Congress to waive environ- mental-, historic- and cultural-protection laws. No one claims that physical barriers along roughly a third of America’s 2,000- mile Southern border will stem illegal by itself, but

U.S. Army personnel install sections of the fence near supporters believe it is an essential first step in “securing the Puerto Palomas, Mexico. U.S. officials expect to complete 670 miles of pedestrian and border,” providing a critical line of defense against illegal migration, vehicle barriers by year’s end. drug smugglers and even terrorists. Opponents see it as a multi- I billion-dollar waste that will only shift illegal immigrants toward N THIS REPORT more dangerous and difficult routes into the country, while doing S THE ISSUES ...... 747 environmental, cultural and economic damage. I BACKGROUND ...... 754 D CHRONOLOGY ...... 755 E CURRENT SITUATION ...... 760 CQ Researcher • Sept. 19, 2008 • www.cqresearcher.com AT ISSUE ...... 761 Volume 18, Number 32 • Pages 745-768 OUTLOOK ...... 763 RECIPIENT OF SOCIETY OF PROFESSIONAL JOURNALISTS AWARD FOR EXCELLENCE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION SILVER GAVEL AWARD BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 766 THE NEXT STEP ...... 767 AMERICA’S BORDER FENCE CQ Researcher

Sept. 19, 2008 THE ISSUES SIDEBARS AND GRAPHICS Volume 18, Number 32 MANAGING EDITOR: Thomas J. Colin • Can a border fence stop Border Fence Affects Four [email protected] 747 illegal immigrants? 748 States ASSISTANT MANAGING EDITOR: Kathy Koch • Would blocking all illegal The fence will span 670 miles. [email protected] immigrants hurt or benefit the U.S. economy? 749 Undocumented Population ASSOCIATE EDITOR: Kenneth Jost • Does the fence harm Rose STAFF WRITERS: Thomas J. Billitteri, U.S. relations with Mexico? increased Marcia Clemmitt, Peter Katel by 33 percent. CONTRIBUTING WRITERS: Rachel S. Cox, BACKGROUND Sarah Glazer, Alan Greenblatt, Does the Border Fence Barbara Mantel, Patrick Marshall, Building 750 Deter Would-be Terrorists? Tom Price, Jennifer Weeks 754 Some say terrorists would Most walls have been built DESIGN/PRODUCTION EDITOR: Olu B. Davis to keep foreigners out. avoid the Southern border. ASSISTANT EDITOR: Darrell Dela Rosa Arrests Shift Dramatically FACT-CHECKER/PROOFREADER: Eugene J. Gabler 757 752 After Fence Upgrades The welcomes Apprehensions fell in San EDITORIAL INTERNS: Alexis Irvin, Vyomika Jairam Mexicans during labor short- Diego but rose in Tucson. ages and then deports them. Chronology ‘Tortilla Curtain’ Rises 755 Key events since 1882. 758 The first border wall was A Division of a chain-link fence in 1978. Border-town Life Becomes SAGE Publications 756 More Difficult Facing the Fence Cross-border exchanges are PRESIDENT AND PUBLISHER: 759 Women and children begin disrupted. John A. Jenkins crossing the border. EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, Critics Say Fence Disrupts REFERENCE INFORMATION GROUP: 758 Wildlife Migration Alix B. Vance Lawsuits have been filed. CURRENT SITUATION DIRECTOR, ONLINE PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT: Jennifer Q. Ryan Local Blowback At Issue 760 Local resistance to the 761 Is a border fence the answer Copyright © 2008 CQ Press, a division of SAGE Pub- fence is growing. to the illegal immigration lications. SAGE reserves all copyright and other rights problem? herein, unless previously specified in writing. No part Legal Challenges of this publication may be reproduced electronical- 762 ly or otherwise, without prior written permission. Un- Activists challenge the FOR FURTHER RESEARCH authorized reproduction or transmission of SAGE copy- waiving of environmental- righted material is a violation of federal law carrying protection laws. For More Information civil fines of up to $100,000. 765 Organizations to contact. Straddling the Fence CQ Press is a registered trademark of Congressional 762 The presidential candidates 766 Bibliography Quarterly Inc. have straddled the issue. Selected sources used. CQ Researcher (ISSN 1056-2036) is printed on acid- free paper. Published weekly, except; (March wk. 4) The Next Step (May wk. 3) (July wk. 1) (July wk. 2) (Aug. wk. 2) 767 Additional articles. OUTLOOK (Aug. wk. 3) (Nov. wk. 4) and (Dec. wk. 4), by CQ Press, a division of SAGE Publications. Annual full- Citing CQ Researcher service subscriptions start at $803. For pricing, call 1- Demographic Solution 767 Sample bibliography formats. 763 Falling Mexican birth rates 800-834-9020, ext. 1906. To purchase a CQ Researcher could affect the U.S. report in print or electronic format (PDF), visit www. cqpress.com or call 866-427-7737. Single reports start at $15. Bulk purchase discounts and electronic-rights licensing are also available. Periodicals postage paid at , D.C., and additional mailing offices. Cover: AFP/Getty Images/Guadalupe Williams POSTMASTER: Send address changes to CQ Research- er, 2300 N St., N.W., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20037.

746 CQ Researcher America’s Border Fence BY REED KARAIM

cent opposing it. But only 44 percent believe it will make THE ISSUES a difference, while 55 percent n the arid landscape near do not. 1 Naco, Ariz., America’s That sentiment may part- I new border fence already ly reflect skepticism about looks timeworn. A rusted the effectiveness of the ef- brown the color of the dis- fort. The “fence” is really a tant Huachuca Mountains, melange of barriers — built spray-painted here and there along several different stretch- with directions for mainte- es of the border — designed nance crews, it snakes up to hamper immigrants cross- and down rugged hills, dis- ing illegally on foot and in appearing into the distance. vehicles. Some of the earli- Besides its length, the most est portions are solid metal, surprising thing about the consisting of corrugated steel fence is how unimpressive it once used in Vietnam-era air- appears. Our nation’s highly craft landing mats. More re- publicized first line of de- cent sections are often made fense against illegal entry, of wire mesh reinforced by now being built up and down concrete-filled poles or taller the U.S.-Mexican border, concrete-filled poles planted looks in some places like six inches apart. The height something that might guard ranges from 12 to 18 feet. a construction site. Vehicle barriers are lower

But to Border Patrol AFP/Getty Images/Chip Somodevilla and often resemble the Agent Mike Scioli the fence The fence blocks illegal border crossings near Ciudad crossed metal defenses erect- Juarez (right side of fence) and El Paso, . The marks a new day. “It’s a planned 670-mile fence along the U.S.-Mexican border ed by the Germans on the huge improvement,” he said includes a mix of pedestrian and vehicle barriers. beaches of Normandy dur- recently, while showing a re- Supporters call the fence a vital first step in securing the ing World War II. porter the 14-foot-high fenc- U.S. border; opponents say it is a waste of money that The longest continuous ing near Naco and the ac- threatens wildlife and forces undocumented immigrants segment is 22.5 miles, ac- to take more dangerous desert routes into the U.S. companying new roads, lights cording to Barry Morrissey, and other improvements. “It makes a driveway. “It’s the perfect govern- a Bureau of Customs and Border Pro- huge difference in our ability to do ment project.” tection (CBP) spokesman. The United our job. It changes the game.” The 670 miles of barriers the gov- States had constructed 338 miles of A few miles away, Bill Odle, a re- ernment plans to have in place along fencing as of Aug. 13, 2008. 2 Home- tired Marine whose house sits only a the U.S.-Mexican border by the end land Security Secretary Michael Chertoff hundred yards or so from a stretch of of the year does more than separate has said 670 miles will be in place by fence erected last fall, views the fence two nations: It sharply divides U.S. the end of 2008 — stretching across quite differently. Odle has lived on the opinion about how we should ap- about one-third of the 1,950-mile-long border since 1997 and is familiar with proach illegal immigration and border U.S.-Mexican border. Roughly 370 the evidence and even the sight of il- security. That division becomes evi- miles of the fence will be designed to legal immigrants stealing across. He dent even in what the barricade is stop pedestrians and 300 miles of it regularly picks up the trash they leave called. The government and support- to stop vehicular traffic. 3 At least 28 behind and fixes livestock fences ers of the structure call it a “fence”; miles of the fence will consist of high- they’ve damaged. But it’s the border opponents disparagingly call it a “wall.” tech sensors and cameras that will cre- fence itself that raises his ire. A March 2008 Associated Press poll ate a “virtual fence” in parts of the “It’s ugly. It doesn’t work. It costs found Americans almost evenly split Arizona desert. However, Homeland too much,” Odle said, contemplat- over the Secure Border Initiative, with Security recently sent that project back ing the steel-mesh barrier from his 49 percent favoring the fence and 48 per- to the drawing board after the initial

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Sept. 19, 2008 747 AMERICA’S BORDER FENCE

that advocates reducing both illegal Border Fence Affects Four States and legal immigration. The U.S.-Mexican border fence is slated to span 670 miles across Few think a fence alone will stem four states — Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California — by the the tide of illegal immigrants across the Southern border, estimated by the end of 2008. More than half of the barricade will be designed to stop Pew Hispanic Center at about 850,000 pedestrians, and the rest will block vehicular traffic. Nearly half of people annually between 2000 to the fence will be located in Arizona. 2006. 7 But supporters believe prop- erly placed fencing, backed by more Length of Border Fence surveillance equipment and an ex- (in miles, by state) panded Border Patrol (projected to 200 reach 18,319 agents by the end of Total Mileage: 187 2008) can largely halt the flow of il- 150 370 300 legal human traffic. 8 149 The history of the economic, de- 130 100 mographic and cultural forces that fi- 101 nally led America to fence off more 78 50 than a third of its border with Mex- 12 13 ico is nearly as long and serpentine 0 0 as the fence itself. In fact, the fence California New Mexico Texas Arizona can be viewed as the physical man- ifestation of two powerful political cur- Anti-pedestrian fencing rents: heightened U.S. attention to na- tional security after the terrorist Anti-vehicle fencing Source: Bureau of Customs and Border Protection attacks of Sept. 11, 2001, and a rapidly integrating global economy that has effort proved neither high-tech nor par- of civic leaders from 19 Texas border left many Americans vulnerable to ticularly effective. 4 communities has sued to halt construc- competition from foreign workers, both But even as National Guard engi- tion, claiming the federal government here and abroad. neering units and private contractors has improperly seized land for the fence. The forerunner of the fence build- work to meet Chertoff’s ambitious com- The Defenders of Wildlife and the Sierra ing now under way began in a far pletion timetable, everything about the Club are trying to halt the fence because more limited fashion near San Diego fencing — from design to location to of concern over what it will to do in the 1990s. Congress adopted the the very notion itself — has proven wildlife and environmentally sensitive idea as a national approach to the bor- controversial. Some prefer a double layer habitat. der when it passed the Secure Fence of more formidable fencing along near- “This thing might not be very effec- Act of 2006, which called for double- ly the entire length of the border. 5 tive at stopping people, but it’s stop- layer fencing along specific sections Others object to the wall on humani- ping wildlife in its tracks,” says Matt of the border. The law was subse- tarian grounds, believing it only forces Clark, the Southwestern representative quently modified to give Chertoff wide illegal migrants to try crossing in more of Defenders of Wildlife. (See sidebar, discretion in where and when to in- dangerous or remote desert areas or p. 758, and “Current Situation,” p. 762.) stall fencing. along the Pacific and Gulf of Mexico While critics attack from all direc- Work is under way in all four states coasts. In both cases, they say, the tions, supporters concentrate their de- along the border — California, Arizona, death toll — which has been climbing fense of the fence along two fronts: its New Mexico and Texas. But two states for years — is likely to rise further. 6 important role in halting illegal immi- will get most of the barrier: Texas will “The fence doesn’t stop migration gration and bolstering border security at get 149 miles of pedestrian fencing by along the border, it simply displaces a time of increased threats from terror- the end of 2008, according to the CBP, migration,” says Nestor Rodriguez, co- ists and drug smugglers. while Arizona will end up with 317 director of the Center for Immigration “It sends a message we are finally miles (130 miles of pedestrian fencing Research at the University of Houston. getting serious about our ,” says and 187 miles of vehicular barriers), The fence has attracted a widely dis- Rosemary Jenks, director of govern- covering 84 percent of the state’s 377- parate group of opponents. A coalition mental affairs for NumbersUSA, a group mile border with Mexico.

748 CQ Researcher The CBP estimates that pedestrian fencing costs about $4 million to $5 mil- Undocumented Population Rose lion per mile, depending on the terrain, The nation’s unauthorized migrant population increased by more while vehicle fencing costs $2 million than 3 million between 2000 and 2005 — a jump of nearly 33 per- to $3 million. But the Government Ac- countability Office (GAO) says the final cent, according to the 2005 Current Population Survey. The increas- costs will be higher. 9 Although the es were among immigrants from every region in the world except the long-term price tag is difficult to esti- Caribbean. Mexico led the way with more than 6.2 million immi- mate, the U.S. Army Corps of Engi- grants in 2005, more than all other regions combined. neers predicts the 25-year cost could range from $16.4 million to $70 mil- Number Unauthorized Migrant Population by lion per mile, depending on the (In thousands) Birth Region, 2000 and 2005 amount of damage done to the fence 8,000 by illegal border crossers and the ele- 7,000 10 ments. Thus the quarter-century cost 6,000 2000 Census to taxpayers for 670 miles of fence 5,000 2005 Current Population Survey could reach as high as $46.9 billion, 4,000 or nearly seven times the size of the 3,000 annual budget of the Environmental Protection Agency. 2,000 Moreover, if Chertoff’s goal is to be 1,000 met, construction will have to average 0 Mexico Central Caribbean South Middle South Other more than a mile a day for the rest America America and East and of this year. Many supporters and op- Canada Eastern Asia ponents are skeptical, but government officials are confident they’ll meet the Source: Jeffrey S. Passel, “The Size and Characteristics of the Unauthorized Migrant self-imposed deadline. Population in the U.S.,” Pew Hispanic Center, March 2006 “We are on track to complete this project by the end of the year,” says explosion, apprehensions plummeted as the fencing. But Deputy Commis- Jason Ahern, CBP deputy commis- from 294,740 people in 1994 to 19,035 sioner Ahern says the fence was al- sioner, “and then we’ll assess where in 2004. 11 (See graph, p. 752.) Appre- ways intended to work in conjunction we need to consider putting additional hensions are considered one of the best with other resources. “We have what miles of fence.” measures of the overall number of mi- we call the three legs of our stool: Meanwhile, as the fence rises, here grants trying to cross illegally, and sup- tactical infrastructure [the fence], tech- are some of the questions being asked: porters of the fence cite these statistics, nology and personnel,” he says. “It’s along with similar ones in the Border that combination that’s effective.” Can a border fence stem the flow Patrol’s Yuma, Ariz., sector. Agent Scioli believes the fence will of illegal immigrants? “A fence is a clearly proven tech- deter some migrants and smugglers, The border below San Diego was nology that, when deployed properly but he says it makes his job easier being overwhelmed by illegal immi- and used in conjunction with other even if illegal migrants make it over grants in the early 1990s when the U.S. enforcement strategies, clearly works,” the top, because catching border government began building pedestrian says Dan Stein, president of the Fed- crossers is an equation involving time fencing in the area. The initial fence did eration for American Immigration Re- and distance. Agents are trained in not have the impact supporters had form (FAIR), which supports even “cutting sign” — following the foot- hoped, but when it was backed up with stronger measures to stop illegal im- prints and other pieces of evidence a second and third layer of fencing, migrants. “The Yuma fence is triple migrants leave as they pass through along with surveillance equipment and fencing, and nobody gets over it. You the desert. If agents are late to the an increased Border Patrol presence, the can build a fence that’s essentially im- trail, their chances of success drop results were dramatic. penetrable.” dramatically. At the Border Patrol’s Imperial Beach Skeptics point out the increases in “Yes, I’ve heard what people say. and Chula Vista stations, which had personnel and equipment may have ‘Show me a 14-foot fence, and I’ll show been ground zero of the illegal migrant had as much to do with the success you someone with a 15-foot ladder,’ ”

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Does the Border Fence Deter Would-be Terrorists? Some believe terrorists are more likely to enter legally.

he Border Patrol annually rounds up a smattering of il- security,” he says. “And when you look at how many people legal entrants from nearly every country in the world, cross that border every week, and the evidence of Islamists they’ve T including Middle Eastern countries considered hotbeds found there, then I think you’ve got to consider it a threat.” of terrorist activity. Indeed, the Internet buzzes with reports of Cutler is concerned that Hezbollah and other terrorist groups Korans and prayer rugs found along the U.S.-Mexican border. may have a presence in the “tri-border region” in South America But so far, no one in the U.S. government has tied any ter- — the area where Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil meet, which rorist act to anyone who crossed the border illegally. The 9/11 hi- includes an immigrant population from the Middle East. He jackers all entered the United States on temporary visas, arriving believes the region could provide a Latin American base for through regular ports of entry. Other foreign terrorists or would- Islamic terrorists who could use the Southwestern border to be terrorists apprehended in the United States have followed sim- enter the United States. However, the credibility of such a threat ilar routes into the country. is debated in security circles. Many immigration and security experts believe the South- Rey Koslowski, director of the Research Program on Bor- western border remains an unattractive option for terrorists plot- der Control and Homeland Security at the University at Albany, ting their path into the United States. “We have lots of data on in , says U.S. efforts to tighten security at ports of terrorist travel. They like to travel the way everybody else trav- entry — particularly a new system intended to make it more els. They like predictability. They like to know what they’re going difficult for those on the government’s terrorist “watch list” to to face,” says James Jay Carafano, a senior defense and coun- board airplanes bound for the United States — could make terterrorism analyst for the conservative Heritage Foundation. the Southwestern border more attractive to “established terrorists.” “That’s not to say a terrorist can’t try to use a smuggler to get If they did end up contemplating that route, then the border across the border, but they’re far more likely to use the legal fence might help deter them, Koslowski adds, since it would ports of entry.” make their capture — and identification — more likely. Carafano believes a border fence makes sense for immi- Still, he believes al Qaeda and other terrorist organizations gration control in limited areas but that the cost and effort nec- would probably choose a different strategy: sending individu- essary to build nearly 700 miles of fence is diverting resources als who don’t have a criminal record and thus would be less that could be better used to improve infrastructure and screen- likely to generate a “watch list” hit. “Such individuals would ing procedures at ports of entry. “Fixating myopically on the be in a better position to enter through ports of entry, at lower wall is just bad public policy,” he says. “Looking for terrorists levels of risk,” Koslowski says. by standing watch on the border is stupid. It’s looking for a But Ira Mehlman, a spokesman for the Federation for Amer- needle in a haystack.” ican Immigration Reform (FAIR), which favors less immigration But Michael Cutler, a former Immigration and Naturalization — legal or illegal — says the “general sense of chaos” along Service special agent and now a fellow at the Center for Immi- the U.S.-Mexican border created by the large number of illegal gration Studies, thinks the danger of terrorists sneaking across the migrants makes it an attractive target for terrorists. U.S.-Mexican border shouldn’t be discounted. “If you’re doing risk “The fact that it hasn’t happened yet doesn’t mean it isn’t going analysis, any place where somebody could reasonably expect to to happen,” he says. “The presumption ought to be that if we leave enter the United States is a place where you want to shore up any areas unguarded, our enemies will take advantage of them.”

Scioli says. “But even if they do get over cameras and motion sensors that have the fence went up. “I’ve seen women this fence, it takes time. Now, when I’m been in the desert for some time don’t and kids as well as guys climbing over on their trail, maybe it only takes min- seem particularly effective, he says, and it,” he says. “I could put up with the utes to catch them, rather than hours.” his stretch of the border is still only damn thing if it worked, but it doesn’t.” The Border Patrol’s comprehensive lightly patrolled. “The Border Patrol, Criticism of the fence grows even approach sounds impregnable. But to their presence has lessened consider- stronger when its effectiveness is mea- Odle, the ex-Marine who lives along ably since they built the wall,” he says. sured on a national scale. “It can slow the border, the reality is different. Al- Odle does credit the vehicle barriers down or deter migration in some areas most all of the new fencing around with stopping smugglers from driving that are very popular for border cross- Naco, as along most of the border, is across the desert the way they once did. ing, as it did in San Diego, but that a single layer that largely stands alone But the rest fails to impress him. If any- doesn’t mean it stops migration along — a one-legged stool he sees doing thing, he believes illegal migration may the whole border,” notes Rodriguez of little good. The remote-controlled have increased slightly in the area since the Center for Immigration Research.

750 CQ Researcher National statistics back this assertion. says. Besides, he continues, a contin- found that 91 percent of the villagers The Border Patrol made 1.2 million uous border would only create added interviewed in San Miguel Tlacotepec, apprehensions in 1992 along the entire pressure at the maritime borders, which a city in Southern Mexico, believed it Southern border and about the same is already happening. “We’ve had about is “very dangerous” to cross the border number in 2004, suggesting that in- two dozen boats washing up or in- without documents. And nearly a quar- creased enforcement in the San Diego terdicted in San Diego County since ter of the interviewees knew someone sector and other areas made little dif- last August. And those were only the who had died trying to get into the ference in the overall number of im- boats that were found.” United States. migrants trying to cross illegally. 12 Moreover, Canada does not require Yet such awareness didn’t make a The more recent squeeze in Yuma Mexicans to produce a visa when en- difference. 15 “Being aware of the also has been met with increased ac- tering Canada. 13 For a continuous physical risks, being aware of some- tivity elsewhere. Fence supporters Southern-border fence to work, says one who actually died in the cross- counter that’s because much of the Rey Koslowski, director of the Re- ing, knowing about the Border Pa- new fencing is still inadequate. They search Program on Border Control trol’s increased efforts to interdict note that before the people — none of Secure Fence Act of these things discouraged 2006 was revised them,” says Cornelius. last year, it required In fact, Cornelius says, double layers of the interviews revealed fencing along spec- that increased border ified parts of the enforcement has ended border. “They took up discouraging illegal out that language,” immigrants from return- says NumbersUSA’s ing home because of the Jenks, “which would danger now involved. have made a big “The undocumented difference.” population has tripled dur- Fencing and ing the period of con- stepped-up patrolling centrated border enforce- are effective, say ment,” he says. “We were fence supporters, at 3.9 million in 1995, and

when the govern- Getty Images/David McNew now we’re over 12 mil- ment is willing to A vehicle barrier lines the south side of Interstate 8 at the Imperial lion. To me, that’s the most commit sufficient re- Dunes, just north of the U.S.-Mexican border near Winterhaven, Calif. significant evidence that sources to the task. Some 300 miles of border fencing are designed to stop vehicles. this approach has failed.” “We don’t argue that the fence alone is the solution,” says and Homeland Security at the Uni- Would blocking all illegal immi- Jenks. “The fence is one part of the versity at Albany in New York, “The grants hurt or benefit the U.S. solution. But there are vast amounts of U.S. would have to build another fence economy? land . . . where fencing is feasible and on the much longer 5,525-mile U.S.- Both supporters and critics of the where it would do a tremendous amount Canadian border or persuade the Cana- border fence agree that as long as U.S. of good. We need more fence along dian government to end free travel businesses continue to hire illegal im- the border.” from Mexico.” migrants for higher salaries than they But stepped-up border enforcement But even that wouldn’t complete- can earn at home, workers will con- alone is bound to fail, says Wayne ly solve the problem, because 45 per- tinue to risk their lives to enter the Cornelius, director of the Center for cent of all illegal immigrants entered United States. Comparative Immigration Studies at the the United States legally but did not But a divide quickly reemerges in University of California, San Diego, leave in accordance with the terms discussions about the impact those im- which favors lower U.S. immigration of their visas, according to the Pew migrants have on the U.S. economy. levels. “A continuous barrier is im- Hispanic Center. 14 Some see illegal immigrants doing work possible because of the terrain; even The most recent study by the Cen- that U.S. citizens spurn, filling a host of the government recognizes that,” he ter for Comparative Immigration Studies hard, low-paying, but essential service

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Kathleen Staudt, a political science Arrests Shift After Border Improvements professor at the University of Texas, El Paso, says immigrants make a con- After the U.S.-Mexican border was strengthened in San Diego in the venient target during tough econom- early 1990s, arrests of illegal immigrants in the region — which ic times. But she believes overheat- includes Imperial Beach and Chula Vista — dropped dramatically. ed rhetoric has kept many Americans At the same time, however, apprehensions in Tucson skyrocketed to from seeing the role illegal immi- 491,000 in 2004. Because of the shift of illegal immigration to grants play in the economy. “If we Tucson, the overall number of illegal migrants — 630,000 — were forced to do without this labor, apprehended in the San Diego and Tucson border regions I think the economies of many bor- remained about the same in 2004 as in 1992. der towns would begin to die,” she says, “and the price of many main- Apprehensions of Illegal Immigrants in stream goods and services would go Tucson and San Diego up dramatically.” 800,000 However, Stein, at the Federation for American Immigration Reform, says 700,000 the laws of supply and demand would 600,000 bring clear rewards to U.S. workers. “If the people here illegally had to 500,000 leave, wages would rise, and employers 400,000 would suddenly have incentives to provide things like health care again,” 300,000 he says. “It would be a great windfall 200,000 for the rising tide of less-skilled work- ers in the country, who would have 100,000 a chance to reestablish their role in 0 the middle class.” 1992 1993 1994 2002 2003 2004 But would Americans really take jobs in meatpacking plants, janitorial services, yard care, food service, con- Source: Blas Nuñez-Neto and Yule Kim, Tucson struction and other trades now de- “Border Security: Barriers Along the U.S. Imperial Beach (San Diego) International Border,” Congressional pendent on illegal labor? Staudt doubts Chula Vista (San Diego) Research Service, May 2008 it. “I think the chamber of commerce Other San Diego in many cities would begin to lobby very hard for relaxed [immigration] and trade jobs that allow the rest of are strong enough to have trans- rules allowing more people in to fill us to live comfortably. That view was formed CNN anchor Lou Dobbs — these jobs,” she says. encapsulated in the 2004 movie “A who proudly waves the anti-illegals That has already happened in Ari- Day Without a Mexican,” a comedy flag — into a populist hero to mil- zona, which passed a law last year that shows the California economy lions of Americans. Dobbs ties the il- imposing stiff, new sanctions against grinding to a halt when the state’s im- legal immigrant surge to larger eco- employers who hire illegal immigrants. migrants mysteriously disappear. (The nomic forces, chiefly globalization, Since then, the hospitality and agri- film attracted almost no attention in and the “sellout” by U.S. policymak- culture industries have reported work- the United States but was a hit and ers to powerful business interests, er . 16 Some business groups won several awards in Mexico.) which are all part of what he calls a have sued to overturn the law, and Others, however, believe illegal im- “war on the middle class.” Dobbs par- some of the original sponsors are even migrants are driving down U.S. wages, ticularly claims that the North Ameri- calling for reducing penalties on busi- draining state and federal treasuries by can Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), nesses that violate the law. 17 collecting government payments to which lowered trade barriers between Opponents of illegal immigrants say which they’re not entitled and con- the United States, Mexico and Cana- businesses’ economic distress is just tributing to rising health-care and law- da, has sent U.S. jobs to Mexico and the result of the economic system ad- enforcement costs. These sentiments lowered American wages. justing to new realities. “It’s not a

752 CQ Researcher crime for employers to have to raise zens and because their children are Does the fence harm U.S relations wages to get people to do certain more likely to need special assistance with Mexico and other countries? jobs,” says Stein. in school. With average incomes sig- About a century ago, Mexican strong- But Gordon Hanson, an economist nificantly below the national average, man Porfirio Diaz surveyed his nation’s at the University of California, San most studies indicate illegal workers already long and troubled relationship Diego, who has studied the impact pay less in state and local taxes than with its neighbor to the north and ob- of immigrant labor on the workforce, they collect in services. 20 served, “Poor Mexico, so far from God says, “The United States has done a However, the impact appears lim- and so close to the United States.” pretty good job of educating itself out ited. The Congressional Budget Office Much has changed in both countries of low-end work. Only 8 percent of estimates that public spending for il- since Diaz’s dictatorial reign. Mexico’s pol- the U.S. labor force lacks a high-school legal immigrants generally accounts itics are far more vibrant, peaceful and education. You don’t graduate from for less than 5 percent of state and democratic. America no longer interferes high school to go to work in a poul- local spending on law enforcement, as bluntly as it once did in its neighbor’s try plant.” education and health care. 21 affairs, and NAFTA ties the two coun- America also has one of the high- The impact on the federal budget tries together economically with Canada. est incarceration rates in the devel- is less clear. A Center for Immigra- But in more than one sense, Diaz’s oped world, Hanson adds, further re- tion Studies report put the net cost melancholy observation feels as time- ducing the low-end labor supply. 18 to the federal government for ser- less as ever. “Mexico has never been If illegal immigrant labor is cut off, vices provided to illegal immigrants the actor that drives the relationship,” “you’re not going to fill all those jobs — such as Medicare, food stamps, says Tony Payan, an assistant profes- with native workers,” he says. “In in- subsidized school lunches, federal aid sor of international relations and for- dustries where work can be export- to public schools and increased costs eign policy at the University of Texas, ed, you’re going to lose jobs.” to the federal court and prison sys- El Paso. “It’s always been unilateral Wages will rise in the service in- tems — at about $10 billion annu- action by the United States, and then dustries where jobs can’t be exported ally. 22 But other analysts say illegal Mexico is left to react.” — such as maids, dishwashers, gar- immigrants pay more into the feder- Mexico made its unhappiness with deners, waiters and 7-11 clerks — but al treasury in taxes and Social Secu- the border fence clear from the begin- so will the costs to consumers, Han- rity taxes — since they usually have ning. In 2005, then-Mexican President son says. While illegal labor hurts low- fake Social Security cards — than Vicente Fox called the idea “shameful” skilled U.S. workers, it helps higher- they receive in benefits. A study by when it began gaining traction in Con- skilled workers by providing them Standard & Poor’s, a credit-rating and gress. “It’s not possible that in the 21st with cheaper goods and services, such research firm, noted the U.S. Social Se- century we’re building walls between as home and child care. “In families curity Administration places $6 bil- two nations that are neighbors, be- with two educated workers,” Hanson lion to $7 billion in a special account tween two nations that are brothers,” says, “it allows whoever would be the for unclaimed benefits annually — Fox said at an event for migrants in stay-at-home spouse to stay in the an amount analysts believe mostly his home state of Guanajuato. 24 workforce at lower cost.” comes from illegal immigrants who Mexican officials already were dis- The question of how much illegal pay Social Security taxes but cannot tressed by the rising death toll among immigration costs taxpayers also is hotly legally claim Social Security or illegal migrants, which began after U.S. disputed. The Federation for Ameri- Medicare benefits. 23 border enforcement activities were can Immigration Reform estimates that When all the economic pluses stepped up in the mid-1990s. By seal- in just three areas — schooling, med- and minuses are taken into account, ing off the areas of heaviest illegal ical care and incarceration — illegal Hanson says, “You get something crossing, the Border Patrol drove bor- immigrants cost local governments that’s close to a wash. There are dis- der crossers into more remote and dead- $36 billion a year. 19 Other estimates tributional shifts within the econo- ly terrain, particularly the Arizona desert. are lower, but most economists agree my — some employers and con- Illegal immigrant deaths along the illegal workers are a net cost to local sumers who will be hurt, some border have climbed steadily, accord- governments, especially in communities workers and state and local gov- ing to the U.S. Border Patrol and Mex- with large illegal populations. ernments that will benefit. But our ican consular offices, rising to 472 in The costs are incurred, in part, be- best sense is that the net economic 2005, compared to an average of about cause illegal workers are less likely to impact isn’t huge.” 200 in the early 1990s. 25 The totals have health insurance than U.S. citi- are widely believed to be undercounted,

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Sept. 19, 2008 753 AMERICA’S BORDER FENCE however, because they reflect only and its Southern neighbor has been bodies recovered by the U.S. and Mexi- damaged, but they blame Mexican at- can border patrols. In the rugged ex- titudes. “U.S.-Mexico relations are BACKGROUND panses of the Southwestern desert, many headed for hard times because they in- are likely never found. 26 sist on respect, but what we want is Mexico has officially complained a mutuality of respect,” says FAIR’s Stein, Building Walls about the expansion of fencing. “We “and for some reason they seem to certainly recognize that they would think it’s a one-way street. They want prefer not to have a fence between a special policy for Mexican nationals.” ations have been building walls our two countries,” says Customs Americans often take their neigh- N or fences along their borders Deputy Commissioner Ahern. “But they bors — both to the north and south more or less since nations began. acknowledge that we need to secure — for granted, even though the Mex- Consider Hadrian’s Wall, built in the our country, that it’s our responsibility icans and Canadians are more impor- second century AD along Roman and our sovereign right.” tant to the U.S. economy than is gen- Britain’s frontier. The wall was made The two countries continue to co- erally realized. Canada and Mexico are of turf and stone instead of steel and operate along the border, with Mexican America’s top two trading partners as concrete, but its commonly accepted officials working with their U.S. coun- well as, respectively, the largest and purpose sounds familiar: to keep the terparts on the International Boundary third-largest suppliers of crude oil to poorer “barbarians” of ancient Scot- Waters Commission to ensure that fence the United States. land from invading the civilized and construction along the Rio Grande River Williams believes dismay over U.S. more prosperous empire. does not impede water flow or border policies extends to Canada, too. The Great Wall of China built over drainage. The two countries also con- “The policy elites in both Canada and several hundred years was a similar, tinue to work together to battle violent Mexico are increasingly exasperated even more expansive effort. Much like crime and drug smuggling along the with the United States, and therefore the U.S. border fence, it wasn’t one border. “We’ve had a great relationship a whole host of relationships are jeop- structure but a series of walls totaling with them there,” Ahern says. ardized by a feeling of ill will that char- about 4,000 miles along strategic stretch- His comments dovetail with public acterizes the current situation,” he says. es of the border, designed to keep out statements offered by President George At the end of the Louisiana summit, the Mongols and other nomadic tribes W. Bush and Mexican President Felipe Bush and Calderon, along with Canadi- from Central Asia. Calderon during the North American an Prime Minister Stephen Harper, issued More recently, the ap- Leaders Summit in Louisiana last April. a joint communiqué pledging, among pears to have been built for the op- Both said the relationship between the other things, to coordinate long-term posite reason: to keep residents inside two countries remains strong and col- infrastructure plans along their borders communist East Berlin. However, as laborative, despite Mexican concerns and to “deepen cooperation on the former University of Arizona political over U.S. immigration policy. 27 development and application of tech- science Professor Williams points out, But some observers are skeptical. “I nology to make our borders both smarter East Germany claimed the wall was think there’s almost total disillusionment and more secure.” 28 designed to protect East Berliners from right now among Mexico’s ruling elites,” Although the communiqué painted the “alien influences of capitalism.” says Ed Williams, a retired political sci- a picture of three partners marching American history is replete with its ence professor from the University of together into the future, Payan at the own examples of walls, notes Arizona. “They’ve recognized that this University of Texas believes the real Williams, who edited an upcoming spe- is the reality and that haranguing isn’t picture is different. “What you have is cial issue of the university’s Journal going to change anything, but there’s an elephant in the middle with two of the Southwest entitled, “Fences.” 29 enormous disappointment.” mice sleeping on either side. Canada The Jamestown settlers and the Pil- The disappointment is particularly pro- and Mexico are always going to have grims built — fences of point- found, he adds, because Mexico initially to move in such a way that the ele- ed wooden stakes — around their believed Bush’s time as governor of Texas phant doesn’t squash them,” he says. small communities to keep out the Na- and his close relationship with Fox sig- “But the image is a little more com- tive Americans and wild animals. naled an era of closer ties between the plicated than it first seems because the Through the centuries, barriers two countries once he was elected. elephant is afraid of mice. And, right have been erected along borders “to Some fence proponents acknowledge now, the U.S. is viewing its neighbors protect ‘us’ from ‘them,’ ” Williams says. the bond between the United States as potential threats.” Continued on p. 756

754 CQ Researcher Chronology

1964 construct barriers along the border Pre-1950s The Congress ends Bracero Program. and authorizes a secondary layer U.S. restricts immigration based of fencing in San Diego. on race and national origin. 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act of • 1882 1965 abolishes immigration quotas suspends based on national origin but gives immigration of Chinese laborers preference to relatives of U.S. citi- 2000-Present for 10 years — the first law in zens, permanent resident aliens, Congress sweeps aside legal U.S. history to restrict immigration scientists and workers with skills restrictions and directs the based on nationality. in short supply. administration to build fencing.

1921 • 2002 A rising tide of isolationism prompts Congress allows Immigration and the , which Naturalization Service (INS) funds to limits annual immigration from any 1970s-1990s be used to buy land for border one country to 3 percent of existing America offers amnesty to illegal fencing and to construct the fences. U.S. population from that country. It aliens and begins to consider a sharply reduces immigration from border fence. 2003 Eastern and . The INS is abolished, and its func- 1986 tions are transferred to the newly 1924 President Ronald Reagan signs created Department of Homeland Congress enacts the Johnson-Reed Immigration Reform and Control Security. Act, further tightening quotas for Act of 1986 giving amnesty, under Europeans and excluding immi- certain circumstances, to illegal 2005 grants from Asia altogether. . . . immigrants who have been in the Congress passes the REAL ID Act The Labor Appropriation Act estab- United States since 1982. authorizing the Homeland Security lishes the Border Patrol, with 450 of- secretary to waive all legal re- ficers responsible for guarding both 1990 quirements in order to expedite borders with Mexico and Canada. The Border Patrol begins erecting the construction of border barriers. a 14-mile fence to deter illegal 1942 entries and drug smuggling near 2006 Facing labor shortages during San Diego. Border Patrol apprehends 1.2 mil- World War II, the United States lion illegal migrants along U.S.- initiates the Bracero Program, 1993 Mexican border. . . . Secure Fence which imports Mexican workers A Sandia Laboratory study says a Act authorizes construction of a for farm labor and other jobs. three-tiered fence along parts of total of 850 miles of fencing along the border would discourage or the border. • delay border crossers and channel others into areas the Border Patrol 2007 could more easily control. Consolidated Appropriations Act 1950s-1960s gives the secretary of Homeland America begins to deal with 1994 Security greater freedom to decide large-scale illegal immigration. increases the how much fencing to build along number of Border Patrol agents near the Southern border and where 1954 San Diego. and when to build it. Facing growing illegal immigration from Mexico, the government initi- 1996 2008 ates “.” Authorities Congress passes the Illegal Immi- Homeland Security Secretary sweep through Mexican-American gration Reform and Immigrant Re- Michael Chertoff reaffirms 670 barrios, and thousands of immigrants sponsibility Act, which gives the miles of fencing will be in place are returned to Mexico. government broad authority to by the end of the year.

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Sept. 19, 2008 755 AMERICA’S BORDER FENCE

Border-town Life Becomes More Difficult Cross-border exchanges may be in jeopardy.

n clear afternoons, Tony Zavaleta sometimes stands The border between the United States and Mexico remains on the porch of his home outside Brownsville, Texas, the busiest in the world, with more than 220 million legal cross- O gazes across the Rio Grande and watches one of his ings a year. But casual interchange between the two nations, cousins working his farm on the other side of the river. the lifeblood of border culture, has been growing more diffi- “I’ve got all kinds of family across the river,” says Zavaleta, vice cult in recent years, particularly with the beefed-up border president for external affairs at the University of Texas, Brownsville. security since the Sept. 11 terrorist attacks. Now, many fear a “In fact, at 3 o’clock today I’m going to the bridge to pick up a further stifling of the relationship. cousin, and we’re going to Starbucks to have coffee.” “You wouldn’t think it would affect everyday, legal crossing,” The U.S.-Mexico border looks like a clearly drawn line on a says Zavaleta, “but it has already done that.” map, but up close the delineation is blurred. The two nations are Foster says the fence sends a signal: “You’re not welcome.” connected by history, economy and, most significantly, a border When combined with longer waits at the legal ports of entry population with extensive and often deep roots in both nations. due to tighter security and inadequate staffing, they say, the “We have family business, family dealings, intermarriages, fence creates the sense that crossing the border is best avoided social events on both sides of the border, and that is the case — a feeling that could have serious economic implications for for literally hundreds of thousands of people,” says Zavaleta, border communities. whose family traces its heritage on both sides of the river back Tom Fullerton, an economics professor at the University of to the 18th century. Texas, El Paso, has studied the financial relationships between These strong relationships have created what many describe cities located across from each other on the border. In El Paso, as a unique border culture — one they believe is threatened he attributes an average of $900 million annually in retail sales by the new border fence. “We’re one community, and we’ve to Mexicans crossing the border to shop in the United States. historically operated as one community,” says Chad Foster, Business also travels the other way. “I don’t know the mayor of Eagle Pass, Texas, about his city’s relationship with number of people I’ve met who routinely go to the dentist Piedras Negras, immediately across the border. “We have indi- in Nogales [Mexico] because it’s cheaper,” says folklorist viduals who live in Piedras Negras but pay tuition so their kids Maribel Alvarez, an assistant professor at the University of can go to school in Eagle Pass. We have people who live in Arizona’s Southwest Center. Eagle Pass and run plants in Piedras Negras. We’ve always gone Betty Perez, who operates a small ranch a couple of back and forth.” miles from the border near Roma, Texas, says many ranchers

Continued from p. 754 In his book about the Roman Empire, knowledge needs to impose an order “The same things are always said historian Derek Williams says after that is lacking.” about the people on the other side of Hadrian’s Wall was built, “Decades Some of the rhetoric from Wash- the fence — they’re barbarians or sav- passed without emergency.” The Berlin ington concerning the Southwestern ages or an alien force.” Wall fulfilled its function for more than border certainly fits Alvarez’s descrip- The question is whether they work. 40 years, he adds, and the Great Wall tion. Rep. Tom Tancredo, R-Colo., a After all, the Berlin Wall fell, the Ro- of China for much longer. 30 strong opponent of illegal immigration, mans eventually abandoned Hadrian’s “It would be very comfortable for summed up the view in an article for Wall, the Manchu finally conquered my liberal consciousness to say these Human Events magazine, titled “Mexi- China and even the massive fortifica- things don’t work,” says Williams. “But co’s Lawless Border Poses Huge Test tions of the French Maginot Line, built that’s not the case. They do work.” for Washington.” 31 between the world wars, were ren- But even if walls and fences work, But history may provide an un- dered ineffectual when the Germans says Maribel Alvarez, a folklorist at the expected lesson, says Mary Beard, a simply went around them — an ap- University of Arizona’s Southwest Cen- classics scholar at Cambridge Uni- proach critics of the U.S. border fence ter, the U.S. barriers still create a sim- versity in England. The Romans’ view say illegal migrants already are taking. plistic view of the border. “It’s a view of frontiers was more complex than But such unequivocal dismissal, pop- locked in an either/or perspective,” those who cite Hadrian’s Wall as a ular with critics of the U.S. fence, ig- she says. “The border is treated as an forerunner of the U.S. fence would nores the long periods during which untamed badlands. It assumes that in have it. The Romans did not see bor- certain fortifications proved effective. this badlands someone with higher ders as clear divisions, Beard wrote

756 CQ Researcher go across the border “to But Alvarez, who edits the buy a good bull or sell a center’s “Borderlore” blog, notes good bull or a horse. the breadth of the population There’s a lot of horse busi- whose lives have been lived on ness down there.” both sides of the border. “You Fullerton says it’s difficult have the ranchers. You have the to estimate the economic Native Americans. You have the

consequences of the border AFP/Getty Images/Omar Torres bohemians that come to the fence, but with trade liber- Patricia Escobar, left, of Los Angeles, visits through the fence desert to write and paint,” she alization, Mexicans now can with her daughter Rosa, who lives in Tijuana, Mexico. says. “You have a very ground- find almost anything they ed working class that crosses might buy in the United back and forth almost daily.” States at home. “It’s possible they’ll say, ‘We’ll just stay here Border towns even have shared fire departments and other and not worry about going into this country where we’re not civic institutions. “Laredo and Nuevo Laredo, prior to the 1980s, really welcome,’ ” he notes. was essentially like a spot on the Canadian border or between That would be just fine for many fence supporters, includ- two Scandinavian countries,” says Fullerton. “That’s how close- ing those living along the border. Ed Williams, a retired Uni- ly intertwined they were. They even shared a minor league versity of Arizona political science professor, points out the ex- baseball team.” istence of a border culture does not imply universal mutual But when people living on the border reminisce about ear- appreciation. “While many borderlands people have been sym- lier, less-security-conscious days, they most often cite the per- pathetic to their brethren across the line, others have always sonal exchanges that built a sense of a shared land. “I re- been suspicious,” he says. “There are people in the border member when my grandfather decided he wanted to give me communities who say, ‘Build that damn wall.’ ” a horse as a gift,” says Zavaleta. “He just had a ranch hand But opinion does not necessarily divide strictly along racial ride it across the river. I was 14, and I remember standing on lines. “You can find a lot of people with Spanish surnames the riverbank and watching that horse come across from my who will say, ‘Keep those Mexicans out,’ ” says Zavaleta. “And grandfather. You wouldn’t do that today.” a lot of Anglos feel that’s bad for business.” in The Times of London, but rather when it hired 450 agents. In some as “frontier zones” where the empire Bracero Program border towns, the two countries were gradually disappeared into foreign no more than a street apart. territory. 32 People from both countries moved Contacted by e-mail, Beard notes ntil the 1990s, most of Ameri- back and forth with little government that one connection between Hadrian’s U ca’s border with Mexico was attention until created a Wall and “Bush’s wall” is that both are largely invisible. The Rio Grande pro- significant of labor in the Unit- partly symbolic in intent. Critics of the vided a natural border in Texas. In ed States. Congress created a program U.S. fence have argued it is primarily the deserts of Arizona, New Mexi- allowing the temporary admission of a political gesture intended to appease co and inland California, an occa- nearly 77,000 Mexican “guest work- anti-immigration sentiment. Similarly, sional stone obelisk or a few strings ers.” The legislation began a pattern Hadrian’s Wall was clearly designed as of were often all that of “recruitment in times of labor short- much to impress the Romans behind signified the transition from one na- age followed by massive restrictions it as those on the other side, notes tion to another. and deportations,” writes Katherine historian Williams. 33 Sparsely populated and little trav- Fennelly, a member of the League of But Beard’s description of the eled for most of its history, the Sono- Women Voters’ Immigration Study fluid nature of Roman borders, which ran Desert in Arizona and New Mex- Committee. 34 were largely unfortified, describes ico seemed to need little more than When joblessness rose during the the U.S.-Mexican border for much of that. The United States did not even Depression in the late 1920s, thou- its history. establish the Border Patrol until 1924, sands of Mexican immigrants were

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Sept. 19, 2008 757 AMERICA’S BORDER FENCE

Critics Say Fence Disrupts Wildlife Border fence is ‘stopping wildlife in their tracks.’

he San Pedro River in Arizona — one of only two planned near Big Bend National Park and on the Lower Rio major rivers that flow north from Mexico into the Unit- Grande Valley National Wildlife Refuge. In California, the fed- T ed States — provides habitat to an astonishing variety eral government is even filling in a canyon, Smuggler’s Gulch, of birds and small mammals. It also serves as a watering hole with more than 2 million cubic yards of dirt so it can run a for deer, mountain lions, bobcats and possibly even jaguars as fence across it. they range across the arid Sonoran Desert in Mexico and the Environmental concerns differ by area, but in general the United States. fence divides the breeding and hunting territories of many The U.S. government recognized the importance of the San species, separating animals from food, water or potential mates, Pedro and the surrounding landscape when it created the San according to wildlife advocates. Sometimes the animals have Pedro Riparian National Conservation Area — a 57,000-acre already had their habitat reduced or disrupted by development, refuge for the animals and plants of the region’s fragile desert and their populations cannot afford to be split in two. riparian ecosystem, one of the few remaining in the American “With isolation comes a lack of genetic exchange — a lack Southwest. of genetic diversity, which makes these populations less fit to But today the area is also home to a section of the new bor- survive,” says Clark. der fence, slicing the desert landscape in half as it stretches east The impact of new border barriers could be particularly from the riverbank. Much of America’s new fencing is being built acute in the Lower Rio Grande Valley refuge, according to Scott on environmentally sensitive public lands, which critics fear could Nicol, a member of the Texas-based No Border Wall citizens’ have disastrous consequences, especially for wildlife. coalition. “You can call this a fence, but to animals it’s an impenetrable The 90,000-acre refuge consists of 115 separate plots along barrier,” says Matt Clark, Southwest representative for Defenders the Rio Grande River, designed so wildlife can use the river of Wildlife, an organization dedicated to the preservation of wild as a corridor to move from one plot to another. But they would animals and native plants. “It’s between 14 and 18 feet tall; it goes be blocked if the government builds new barriers along the on for miles; it’s not something they can jump over or circum- river levees as now planned, Nicol says. “You put a wall there vent. It might not be very effective at stopping people, but it’s that keeps animals from getting to the river,” he explains, “and stopping wildlife in their tracks.” the individual plots are not large enough to support them.” Border barriers are being built or are planned for portions Among the rare or endangered species threatened by the of Arizona’s Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge and the fence, says Clark, are jaguars, Sonoran pronghorn antelopes, Organ Pipe National Monument. In Texas, new fencing is ocelots, jaguarundi, flat-tailed horned lizards and the Cactus deported. But when World War II left American barrios looking for illegal im- — the “Tortilla Curtain” — along the the United States with another labor migrants. Thousands were deported. 36 border. The Border Patrol has expanded shortage, the country reversed course When the Bracero Program ended infrastructure along the border since, and created the Bracero Program — in 1965, legal entry became more with lighting and more agents on the Spanish for “laborer” — to bring in difficult for Mexican farmworkers. But ground, but the fence remains in Mexicans, mainly to work in agricul- work in U.S. fields and orchards re- place, says Tom Fullerton, an econo- ture and on the railroads. mained plentiful, so many Mexicans mist at the University of Texas, El Paso. The program brought in more than began to travel into the United States “You can’t go more than 30 feet with- 400,000 workers a year during its 22- seasonally without legal documents. out finding spots where either holes year history. 35 But illegal immigration have been cut or repaired,” he says. grew at the same time, particularly in Some see the Tortilla Curtain as the the late-1940s and ’50s as Mexicans ‘Tortilla Curtain’ Rises primitive forerunner of today’s fence. came north to take advantage of Amer- Before the U.S. government embraced ica’s postwar economic boom. In re- s illegal immigration grew, cer- the idea, however, policy would once action, Immigration and Naturaliza- A tain border cities became the fa- again veer in a different direction. Dur- tion Commissioner Gen. Joseph Swing vorites for border crossers. By 1978 ing the Reagan administration, “Con- initiated “Operation Wetback” in the problem had become bad enough gress allowed people who had been 1954, with federal and local author- in El Paso, Texas, that the government in the United States illegally for a num- ities sweeping through Mexican- erected 12.5 miles of chain-link fence ber of years to apply for citizenship,”

758 CQ Researcher Ferruginous Pygmy Owl. A The border fence is being bird may seem an unlikely built in several different styles. victim of a 14-foot fence, Some of the most recent, de- but wildlife advocates say scribed as “bollard” fencing, is the fence threatens the made of round, concrete-filled habitat for many birds. “You poles spaced six inches apart in have barriers that can catch a staggered pattern. In Arizona, debris and sediment, create bollard fencing is being con- artificial dams, shifting water structed in the washes, which

flows, impacting the vege- AFP/Getty Images/Elmer Martinez run with water in the rainy sea- tation,” Clark says. “All of The ability of the jaguar and other animals to range son. Border Patrol officials be- between Mexico’s Sonoran Desert and the Southwestern this does damage.” lieve bollard fences are more United States may be blocked by the border fence. Department of Homeland eco-friendly, because water can Security Secretary Michael flow around the poles and be- Chertoff has used authority granted by Congress to waive com- cause small animals and reptiles can pass between them. But pliance with environmental laws in several areas as he pro- environmentalists doubt this will be enough to prevent erosion ceeds with the fence, a move that upset local officials and led and habitat damage. to a lawsuit by Defenders of Wildlife and the Sierra Club. (See The fence’s advocates point out that illegal immigrants are “Current Situation,” p. 762.) already damaging fragile desert lands. “When hundreds of thou- Customs and Border Protection officials say they are still sands of people are hiking through pristine ecosystems, set- working to protect native plants and animals. “Even though ting fires, dumping trash and abandoning vehicles, building a the secretary used his waiver authority to keep moving this fence that can drastically reduce that destruction is a good process forward, we’re not disregarding environmental consid- thing,” says Rosemary Jenks, governmental affairs director for erations at all,” says Jason Ahern, Customs and Border Pro- NumbersUSA, which supports reducing both legal and illegal tection deputy commissioner. “We’re looking at what we need immigration. to do to mitigate risk to the environment. Our goal is to make But trails and trash can be cleaned up, Clark says. “The wall sure we leave the environment in better condition than we has significantly more impact,” he adds, “because of its magnitude found it.” and because it’s permanent.” says Staudt, of the University of Texas, gress seemed to judge the approach a El Paso. 37 success. A series of bills then expand- Facing the Fence But the Immigration Reform and ed the Border Patrol, increased money Control Act of 1986 — what some call for security measures and, after 9/11, the “amnesty bill” — did little to stem gave the new Homeland Security sec- n 2006, more than 90 percent of the flow of illegal immigrants, so anti- retary the authority to ignore laws that I the 1.2 million illegal migrants immigration sentiment continued to might slow fence construction. apprehended by the Border Patrol grow in Border States. The Clinton ad- Although President Bush pushed for were caught along the border with ministration reacted with operations a comprehensive immigration-reform Mexico — nearly 88 percent of them “Hold the Line” in El Paso in 1993 package that would have included Mexicans. But U.S. authorities also and “Gatekeeper” in San Diego the guest-worker and limited-amnesty pro- picked up nearly 150,000 people following year. Border Patrol agents grams, Congress remained focused on from 197 other countries. (See graph- and technology were concentrated in enforcement. The Secure Fence Act of ic, p. 749.) these areas, and fencing was either 2006 mandated double-layer security The largest number, after Mexicans, built or reinforced. 38 fencing along significant parts of the came from Central America. In 2006, Both operations dramatically reduced border. That requirement was later there were 46,329 illegal immigrants illegal immigration in the targeted lo- modified to give Secretary Chertoff more from El Salvador, 33,365 from Hon- cations, although illegal crossings did latitude, but the message was clear: Amer- duras and 25,135 from Guatemala. not fall significantly overall. But Con- ica was building a border fence. Many were twice illegal, having first

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Sept. 19, 2008 759 AMERICA’S BORDER FENCE entered Mexico without papers and don’t think they counted on anybody then the United States. standing up to them,” says Eloisa Tamez, The arduous and dangerous effort CURRENT who lives on a three-acre plot along to enter the United States is a sign the Rio Grande that has been in her of border-crossers’ determination. In SITUATION family for nearly 250 years. “We’re not Enrique’s Journey, The Story of a big, powerful people here. We respect Boy’s Dangerous Odyssey to Reunite our government. But we’re not just with His Mother, journalist Sonia going to lay down and let the bull- Nazario traced the 1,600-mile cross- Local Blowback dozer roll over us.” Mexico migration made by thousands In January, a federal judge ordered of Central American children follow- 10 property owners along the border ing their mothers to the United States. merica’s new border fence may — including Tamez — to permit the Many were turned back repeatedly A represent a national commitment surveying, but only after denying the but refused to quit. Enrique, the boy by the Bush administration, but it’s government the right to take the land she followed, finally succeeded in also a matter of local politics. For without a hearing. 43 The govern- making it all the way into the United many who live on the border, the ment’s actions against individual States on his eighth attempt. 39 fence isn’t being built along some ab- landowners, however, are not the only Nazario’s book also illuminated a stract line, it’s going through their ones provoking indignation. little-noticed trend: An increasing community, or neighborhood or even In Eagle Pass, for example, the City number of women have been mak- . Council met with Homeland Security ing the journey alone, followed by an In the Rio Grande Valley in Texas, in 2006 over the department’s plans increasing number of their children. in particular, local concerns are to leave a city park and golf course Nazario estimates about 48,000 chil- sparking a battle that pits communi- south of the proposed barrier. “They dren a year enter the United States il- ties in President Bush’s home state were going to cede our municipal golf legally. Mexican railroad workers re- against his administration. The Texas course and a city park to Mexico,” he port children as young as 7 trying to Border Coalition, made up of may- says. “We had a resolution to oppose cross their country alone traveling to ors, economists and business leaders it, and they said they would allow us the United States. 40 from 19 municipalities and 10 coun- to delete the fence. But they came With little or no knowledge of what ties in the valley, in May sued the back a year later and sued us. We they are facing, these illegal migrants Department of Homeland Security, al- can’t trust them.” seem unlikely to give up their jour- leging it is ignoring due process and Because the fence is being located ney because of the fence. The Center abusing private property rights in its on or outside of flood control levees, for Comparative Immigration Studies rush to put up the fence. in several Texas locations the prelim- found similar determination. Briseida, “We didn’t want to file this lawsuit, inary site is inside the U.S. border. In a 24-year-old woman from Oaxaca, re- but we felt we had no choice,” says the small town of Granjeno, for in- counted being caught six times in a coalition Chairman Chad Foster, the stance, about 35 landowners found single month before making it into the mayor of Eagle Pass, a border town they might end up on the wrong side United States. 41 of about 22,000. “We just want the of the border fence. 44 In Brownsville, Research also indicates that most government to follow the law.” the proposed fence will run through illegal immigrants had jobs in Mexi- The anti-fence blowback has been the University of Texas campus, leav- co but thought the United States of- triggered by tactics adopted by the ing some facilities south of the barri- fered greater opportunity. “Ninety- Department of Homeland Security to er. Campus officials say they are work- three percent of undocumented speed construction. When some prop- ing with Homeland Security to resolve Mexican immigrants left jobs in Mex- erty owners refused to give the Corps the situation. 45 ico,” says Robert Pastor, director of of Engineers permission to survey for Homeland Security said it places the Center for North American Stud- the fence on their land, the Corps a high priority on feedback from ies at American University in Wash- sent landowners letters threatening a local residents. Since May 2007, the ington. “They’re not coming to the lawsuit and raising the possibility of agency has held 100 meetings with United States for jobs. They’re com- seizing their property through emi- local officials and 600 with individ- ing because they can earn six to 10 nent domain. 42 ual property holders along the South- times more.” Landowners responded by chal- west border. 46 lenging the government in court. “I Continued on p. 762

760 CQ Researcher At Issue:

Is aYes border fence the answer to the illegal immigration problem?

REP. DUNCAN HUNTER, R-CALIF. REP. SILVESTRE REYES, D-TEXAS FORMER EL PASO SECTOR CHIEF, WRITTEN FOR CQ RESEARCHER, SEPTEMBER 2008 U.S. BORDER PATROL WRITTEN FOR CQ RESEARCHER, SEPTEMBER 2008

battle is being waged for control of the U.S.-Mexican border between the U.S. Border Patrol and criminals am acutely aware of the challenges of securing our bor- who utilize this largely unprotected land corridor to ders, having served for more than 26 years with the U.S. a Border Patrol. I have not only patrolled the U.S.-Mexican carry narcotics and other contraband into the United States. i Citizens on both sides of the border, whose safety is seriously border but also supervised thousands of hard-working, dedicated threatened by escalating violence, are caught in the middle. Border Patrol agents and initiated a successful deterrence strategy Last year drug-war violence claimed least 2,500 lives in called Operation Hold the Line. I also supported fencing certain Mexico, and numerous U.S. citizens reportedly have been strategic areas to augment enforcement. I strongly feel, however, kidnapped and murdered by Mexican criminals linked to the that erecting nearly 700 miles of fencing on our Southern border drug trade. The local sheriff in the Laredo, Texas, border is wasteful, irresponsible and unnecessary, and I voted against community compared conditions there to a “war zone” and the Secure Fence Act. said his officers appear “outgunned” by the drug cartels. Hundreds of miles of fencing will do little to curb the Border Patrol agents are also at risk, because they often flow of undocumented immigrants and could even increase are the first to encounter these criminals. Since 2001, assaults demand for human smuggling. It will only provide a false against agentsyes have nearly tripled, from 335 to 987 in 2007. sense of securityno for supporters of a hard line on immigration Four agents and three other border security officials were reform. With construction expected to exceed $1.2 billion and killed last year, and two agents have been killed so far in lifetime maintenance of up to $50 billion, the exorbitant cost 2008. of this border fence would be better invested in additional The land corridor between Tijuana, Mexico, and San Diego, Border Patrol agents, equipment and technology. Calif., has been overrun by smugglers and criminals. It wasn’t As the only member of Congress with a background in until my legislation mandating construction of the San Diego border control, I have worked to educate my colleagues that border fence that the armed gangs and drug cartels lost con- existing policies and the border fence will do little to honor trol of this smuggling route. Since then, conditions on both our legacy as a nation of immigrants and will threaten our sides of the border have improved. nation’s security. I have worked with the Department of Since construction of the border fence began in 1996, Homeland Security (DHS), hosted many leaders at annual San Diego County has become one of the most secure and border conferences and have emphasized that border commu- responsibly enforced border regions. Smuggling of people and nities must be consulted in fencing decisions. narcotics in this area has decreased by more than 90 percent, Unfortunately, DHS Secretary Michael Chertoff recently made and violent crime has declined by 53 percent. the troubling announcement that he intends to waive more Such a high level of effectiveness illustrates that fencing — than 30 federal environmental laws to expedite construction of supported with the right mix of personnel and technology — the fence. This approach continues DHS’s continued disregard is an excellent border enforcement tool. for border communities and undermines decades-old policies The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is accelerating that have preserved many of our region’s most valuable envi- fence construction in several areas along the border, rightly ronmental assets, cultural sites and endangered wildlife. utilizing its broad waiver authority to expedite completion in After Secretary Chertoff’s decision, I joined 13 of my col- locations subject to unnecessary delays and litigation. DHS ex- leagues in submitting an amicus brief to the U.S. Supreme pects to meet its goal of 670 miles of new fence by the end Court, asking the justices to hear an appeal challenging the of this year, but overall a lot of work remains in creating an secretary’s waiver authority. enforceable border. Our nation needs comprehensive immigration reform with Moving forward, it would be wise to extend this infrastructure three main components: strengthened border security; an earned to other smuggling routes and heavily transited areas of the U.S.- path to legalization along with tough, strictly enforced sanctions Mexican border. Not only is it the quickest and easiest way to against employers who hire undocumented immigrants; and a . Hundreds of miles of border fencing is controlNo the border, but it’s also proven to be the most effective. not the answer.

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Sept. 19, 2008 761 AMERICA’S BORDER FENCE

Continued from p. 760 tracted litigation,” Chertoff said in the as better use of surveillance technolo- CBP Deputy Commissioner Ahern statement announcing the decision. 47 gy in environmentally sensitive areas. says siting the fence has been a The Sierra Club and Defenders of “One of the basic problems is the com- painstaking process. “We looked at en- Wildlife already had sued Homeland plete lack of transparency in the way forcement data,” he says. “We looked Security over an earlier, more limited the Department of Homeland Security at geography. We looked at landscape. waiver allowing fence construction to has carried out this entire process,” says We looked at alternatives. This was a continue in the San Pedro Riparian Kahn. “They’ve completely ignored not thoughtful and detailed analysis by National Conservation Area in Arizona, just communities and other public part- both local and national Border Patrol home to many rare and endangered ners but even other federal agencies leadership.” species of plants and animals. The en- in their deliberations.” But some Texans believe politics vironmental groups feared that the fence Cindy Alvarez, who oversaw an en- plays a role. The Texas Border Coali- would block migratory patterns and vironmental assessment of the fence tion lawsuit asserts that Homeland Se- access to water and habitat for sever- in the San Pedro conservation area, curity is violating the Fifth Amendment’s al endangered animals and that con- defends the agencies building the fence. Equal Protection provision by “giving struction could harm certain rare plants. “Once the waiver came into play, it certain politically well-connected prop- (See sidebar, p. 758.) took it out of our hands,” says Al- erty owners a pass on having the bor- A federal judge ruled against their varez, assistant field manager of the der fence built on their property,” ac- claim, which challenged the constitu- U.S. Bureau of Land Management’s cording to the coalition’s Web site. tionality of the secretary’s waiver au- Tucson office. “But that said, the Bor- Specifically, the coalition refers to thority. The fence is now up in the der Patrol and the Corps of Engineers media reports the fence is being built conservation area. After Chertoff ex- are continuing to try to be good land through city and county-owned land panded his use of waivers to cover stewards while meeting the nature of while bypassing land owned by Dal- construction of the entire fence, the their missions. They are continuing to las billionaire Ray Hunt, a close friend environmental groups asked the work with us.” of President Bush who recently do- Supreme Court to hear their case; in Homeland Security’s critics are skep- nated $35 million to help build the July the court refused to take the case. tical. “The only reason you waive the George W. Bush Memorial Library at Before the court’s decision, how- laws is because you’re planning on Southern Methodist University. ever, the lawsuit had been joined by breaking them,” says Scott Nicol, a The coalition’s allegations brought a 14 Democratic House members, including member of the No Border Wall Coali- sharp response from Ahern. “I reject the Mississippi Rep. Bennie Thompson, chair- tion, a citizens’ group in Texas. idea out of hand,” he says. “Our analy- man of the Homeland Security Com- The Tohono O’odham Indian Na- sis of where to locate the fence was mittee, and several lawmakers from tion, which straddles the border, has based on the operational and tactical border districts. Their friend-of-the-court also been concerned about Chertoff’s requirements in a given area, not on briefs argued that Congress overstepped use of waivers. The tribe has so far who owned the land or whether they its constitutional bounds when it al- agreed to allow vehicle barriers, but were influential individuals.” lowed the secretary to ignore laws. not pedestrian fencing, on tribal lands On the other side, Rep. Peter King, but is weighing its options concern- R-N.Y., ranking minority member of ing the waivers, says Pete Delgado, a Legal Challenges the House Homeland Security Com- tribal spokesman. With more fencing mittee, backed Chertoff’s use of waivers. planned for environmentally and cul- ven as construction continues, “He’s acting entirely within the law, turally sensitive areas in both Texas E however, Chertoff faces another and any attempts to impede the and California, further legal challenges challenge that has the active support fence’s progress through frivolous lit- to Chertoff’s authority and the fence’s of several members of Congress. Last igation will only serve to lessen the route seem almost inevitable. spring Chertoff used the broad au- security of our country,” King said. 48 thority granted him by Congress to Noah Kahn, an expert on federal waive more than 30 environmental-, lands at Defenders of Wildlife, says historical- and cultural-protection laws Chertoff’s decision to bypass laws in- Straddling the Fence and regulations to enable fence con- tended to provide a thorough review struction to proceed. of environmental and cultural impacts othing illustrates the complicated “Criminal activity at the border does makes it impossible to determine N political fault lines that run not stop for endless debate or pro- whether there were other options, such through the border fence debate better

762 CQ Researcher than the way the presidential nomi- gration reform package, which in- changing patterns of immigration nees have straddled the issue. cluded a path for many illegal immi- more easily.” By voting for the Secure Fence Act grants in the United States to gain cit- Customs and Border Protection of 2006, both GOP candidate Sen. izenship. The sensitive nature of the Deputy Commissioner Ahern says the John McCain, R-Ariz., and Democratic issue in Republican circles was clear agency will continue using sensors, contender Sen. Barack Obama, D-Ill., at a town meeting in Texas, when remote-controlled cameras, unmanned voted to authorize the dramatic expan- McCain was asked how he would bal- surveillance planes and other high- sion of border fencing now under way. ance individual property rights with tech hardware. But he believes there A year later, presumably busy cam- border security. will always be a need for fencing. paigning, they missed the key votes on “This meeting is adjourned,” McCain “No matter how good our technol- the Consolidated Appropriations Act, joked, before saying he would look ogy is, in some of these areas of the which gave the Homeland Security sec- into the issue. 50 Earlier, he said he border [illegal crossings are] going to retary more latitude on when and where hoped federal and local officials could be too easy,” he says. “So, especially in to locate the fencing. work together to resolve their differ- urban environments, we’re always going Since then, McCain and Obama ences over the fence. to need that tactical infrastructure, some have sent conflicting messages about Neither candidate’s campaign press kind of physical barrier.” what they think now that the fence is office responded to requests for further But illegal immigration is about more actually being built. Obama’s campaign information clarifying their candidate’s than the border. It also reflects eco- Web site calls for preserving “the in- position. nomic and political conditions in two tegrity of our borders” and says the countries, and that’s where some ex- candidate supports “additional person- perts believe the most significant nel, infrastructure and technology on changes will be seen, Payan suggests. the border and at our ports of entry.” OUTLOOK Rodriguez, at the University of Hous- But when a question about the bor- ton’s Center for Immigration Research, der fence came up during a primary notes that the rapidly growing U.S. campaign debate with Sen. Hillary Rod- Latino population is likely to make ham Clinton, D-N.Y., in Texas, Obama Demographic Solution anti-immigrant political posturing less struck a skeptical note about the fence acceptable in the future. 51 now being built. After Clinton criticized hat goes up can always come At the same, he says, a little no- the Bush administration’s approach and W down — even if it is 670 miles ticed demographic trend within Mex- called for more personnel and better long and built by the U.S. government ico could also shift the equation. The technology instead of a physical barri- of double-layered steel. And many crit- Mexican birthrate has been falling for er, Obama agreed. “There may be areas ics of the border fence say that’s just decades and, Rodriguez says, is ex- where it makes sense to have some what will happen. pected to decline to the replacement fencing,” Obama said. “But for the most “The United States eventually will rate by 2050. 52 Then, the country will part, having [the] border patrolled, have to tear down the wall they built no longer have the surplus labor it surveillance, deploying effective tech- because the forces of globalization now exports to the United States. “If nology, that’s going to be the better drawing us together are much stronger you think there are too many Mexi- approach.” 49 than the forces trying to tear us apart,” cans,” he says, “the problem eventu- McCain’s campaign Web site calls for says Payan, at the University of Texas, ally is that there’s not going to be “securing the border through physical El Paso. enough Mexicans to do the dirty work.” and virtual barriers.” But the word “fence” Others, particularly those concerned Other analysts believe further eco- can’t be found on McCain’s Border with the fence’s impact on the envi- nomic integration between the two na- Security Web page. In interviews, how- ronment, place their faith in technol- tions will regularize the labor flow. “I ever, McCain has said he supports ogy. “Ultimately, we’re going to be a can’t help but think that in the future building a border fence in areas where lot less dependent on physical infra- there will be a time when the North it’s necessary, while he believes tech- structure,” says Bob Barnes, a senior American continent will resemble the nology can more effectively do the job policy adviser at the Nature Conser- European Union,” says Staudt, at the in others. vancy. “Particularly in open country, University of Texas. Anti-immigrant groups have criti- virtual fencing — sensors, cameras Meanwhile, what happens to the cized McCain for supporting President and other surveillance technology — border fence? Back in Eagle Pass, Texas, Bush’s failed comprehensive immi- is a lot more mobile and can react to Mayor Foster had the most cynical

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Sept. 19, 2008 763 AMERICA’S BORDER FENCE view. Given the estimates of up to border crossers and the total illegal popula- thorized Immigration from Mexico: The Fail- $47 billion to maintain it over the next tion vary widely. But an analysis of Census ure of Prevention through Deterrence and 25 years, he believes it will simply be Bureau data by the Pew Hispanic Center in the Need for Comprehensive Reform,” Cen- abandoned. “I think it gets turned into March 2006 seems to provide the best, im- ter for Comprehensive Immigration Studies, barbecue grills on both sides of the partial estimate of annual illegal migration. June 10, 2008, pp. 2-3. The report, “The Size and Characteristics of 16 Becky Pallack and Mariana Alvarado Avalos, border,” Foster says. the Unauthorized Migrant Population in the “Employer-sanctions law starting to have the United States,” also estimated the total illegal intended effect,” Arizona Daily Star, Dec. 23, immigrant population in the United States at 2007. Notes 11.5 million to 12 million. 17 Howard Fischer, “Some who voted for 8 “Homeland Security — DHS Has Taken Ac- sanctions seek rollback,” Arizona Daily Star, tions to Strengthen Border Security Programs Jan. 18, 2008, p. A1. 1 The Associated Press poll, conducted by and Operations, but Challenges Remain,” tes- 18 For background, see Peter Katel, “Prison Ipsos Public Affairs, of 1,103 adults on March timony before the Subcommittee on Home- Reform,” CQ Researcher, April 6, 2007, pp. 3-5, 2008. The poll had a margin of error of land Security, House Committee on Appro- 289-312, and Charles S. Clark, “Prison Over- +/- 3.1 percent. priations, Government Accountability Office, crowding,” CQ Researcher, Feb. 4, 1994, pp. 2 From the Department of Homeland Security pp. 16, March 6, 2008. 97-120. Web site, border fence update page, 9 “Secure Border Initiative, The Importance 19 “The Cost to Local Taxpayers for Illegal www.dhs.gov/xprevprot/programs/border-fence- of Applying Lessons Learned to Future Pro- or ‘Guest’ Workers,” Federation for American southwest.shtm. jects,” Government Accountability Office, tes- Immigration Reform, 2006, www.fairus.org. 3 Testimony of Department of Homeland Se- timony before House Homeland Security 20 Melissa Merrell, “The Impact of Unautho- curity Secretary Michael Chertoff before the Subcommittees on Management, Investiga- rized Immigrants on the Budgets of State and House Subcommittee on Homeland Security tions and Oversight and Border, Maritime and Local Governments,” Congressional Budget Appropriations, April 10, 2008. The text is Global Counterterrorism, Feb. 27, 2008, p. 2. Office, December 2007, p. 3. available at www.dhs.gov/xnews/testimony/ 10 Blas Nuñez-Neto and Yule Kim, “Border 21 Ibid., p. 3. testimony_1207933887848.shtm. Security: Barriers along the U.S. International 22 Steven Camarota, “The High Cost of Cheap 4 See Arthur H. Rotstein, “US scraps $20 mil- Border, Congressional Research Service, May 13, Labor, Illegal Immigration and the Federal lion prototype of virtual fence,” The Associ- 2008, p. 33. Budget,” Center for Immigration Studies, Au- ated Press, April 23, 2008, www.cbsnews.com/ 11 Ibid., pp. 14-15. gust 2004, p. 1. stories/2008/04/23/tech/main4037342.shtml? 12 Ibid., p. 2. 23 Robert McNatt and Frank Benassi, Standard source=related_story. Also see Brady McCombs, 13 Ray Koslowski, “Immigration Reforms and & Poor’s Ratings Direct, as cited in Business “ ‘Virtual fence’ work is halted,” Arizona Border Security Technologies,” Social Science Week, “Econ 101 on Illegal Immigrants,” April Daily Star, Aug. 19, 2008, www.azstarnet.com/ Research Council, July 31, 2006. For back- 2006, www.businessweek.com/investor/con- metro/253456. ground, see Mary H. Cooper, “Rethinking tent/apr2006/pi20060407_072803.htm. 5 See the Border Fence Project Web site, NAFTA,” CQ Researcher, June 7, 1996, pp. 481- 24 “US border fence plan ‘shameful’ ” BBC www.borderfenceproject.com/index.shtml, one 504, and David Masci, “U.S.-Mexico Relations,” News (online), Dec. 19, 2995, http://news.bbc. of several citizens’ groups that propose fenc- CQ Researcher, Nov. 9, 2001, pp. 921-944. co.uk/2/hi/americas/4541606.stm. ing the entire border. 14 “Modes of Entry for the Unauthorized Mi- 25 Nuñez-Neto and Kim, op. cit., p. 40. 6 See the Humane Borders Web site, grant Population,” Pew Hispanic Center, Fact 26 Wayne Cornelius, “Death at the Border: www.humaneborders.org/, one of several or- Sheet, May 22, 2006, http://pewhispanic.org/ The Efficacy and ‘Unintended’ Consequences ganizations that object to the fence. files/factsheets/19.pdf. of U.S. Immigration Control Policy 1993-2000,” 7 Estimates of the annual number of illegal 15 Wayne Cornelius, et al., “Controlling Unau- Center for Comparative Immigration Studies, Working Paper 27, December 2001. 27 “President Bush Meets with President Calderon About the Author of Mexico,” White House press release, April 21, 2008, www.whitehouse.gov/news/releas- Reed Karaim, a freelance writer living in Tucson, Arizona, es/2008/04/20080421-6.html. has written for The Washington Post, U.S. News and World 28 “Joint Statement by President Bush, Pres- Report, Smithsonian, American Scholar, USA Weekend and ident Calderon, Prime Minister Harper,” White other publications. He is the author of the novel, If Men House press release, April 22, 2008, Were Angels, which was selected for the Barnes and Noble www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2008/04/ Discover Great New Writers series. He is also the winner 20080422-4.html. 29 Journal of the Southwest, Vol. 50, No. 3, of the Robin Goldstein Award for Outstanding Regional Re- University of Arizona, autumn 2008. porting and other journalism awards. Karaim is a graduate 30 Derek Williams, The Reach of Rome, A of North Dakota State University in Fargo, North Dakota. History of the Roman Imperial Frontier, 1st- 5th Centuries AD (1996), p. 111.

764 CQ Researcher 31 Tom Tancredo, “Mexico’s Lawless Border Poses Huge Test for Washington,” Human Events, Feb. 6, 2006. FOR MORE INFORMATION 32 Mary Beard, “Don’t Blame Hadrian for Bush’s Border Region Modeling Project, http://academics.utep.edu/Default.aspx?tabid=2883. Wall,” Times Literary Supplement, April 30, 2007, A research program in the Economics Department at the University of Texas, El Paso, http://timesonline.typepad.com/dons_life/2007/04 that analyzes the economies of four urban areas that have communities that straddle /dont_blame_hadr.html. both sides of the border. 33 Williams, op. cit., p. 108. 34 Katherine Fennelly, “U.S. Immigration, A The Center for Comparative Immigration Studies, www.ccis-ucsd.org. An academic Historical Perspective,” The National Voter, institute at the University of California, San Diego, devoted to the comparative analysis February 2007, p. 5. of the causes and effects of immigration and flows throughout the world. 35 Andorra Bruno, “Immigration: Policy Con- siderations Related to Guest Worker Programs,” Center for Immigration Studies, 1522 K St., N.W., Suite 820, Washington, DC 20005- Congressional Research Service, June 27, 2007, 1202; (202) 466-8185; www.cis.org. A think tank that publishes research on immigra- p. 1. tion issues; strives for “fewer immigrants but a warmer welcome for those admitted.” 36 PBS Interactive Border Timeline, www.pbs. org/kpbs/theborder/history/timeline/20.html. Defenders of Wildlife, 1130 17th St., N.W., Washington, DC 20036; (202) 682-9400; 37 For background, see Hank Donnelly, “Im- www.defenders.org. National nonprofit organization dedicated to the protection of all native animals and plants in their natural communities. migration,” Editorial Research Reports, June 13, 1986, available at CQ Researcher Plus Archive. Federation for American Immigration Reform, 25 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Also see Kenneth Jost, “Cracking Down on Im- Suite 330, Washington, DC 20001; (202) 328-7004; www.fairus.org. Nonprofit citizens migration,” CQ Researcher, Feb. 3, 1995, pp. group that supports improved border security to stop illegal immigration and reduce 97-120; and Alan Greenblatt, “Immigration De- legal immigration to about 300,000 people a year. bate,” CQ Researcher, Feb. 1, 2008, pp. 97-120. 38 “Border Patrol History,” U.S. Customs and Humane Borders, 740 E. Speedway Blvd., Tucson, AZ 85719; (520) 628-7753; Border Protection, www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/bor- www.humaneborders.org. A faith-based citizens group that operates more than der_security/border_patrol/border_patrol_ohs/ 80 emergency water stations along the border as part of an effort to offer hu- history.xml. manitarian assistance to those in distress in the desert. 39 Sonia Nazario, Enrique’s Journey, The Story of a Boy’s Dangerous Odyssey to Reunite With National Immigration Law Center, 3435 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 2850, Los Angeles, his Mother (2006). CA 90010; (213) 639-3900; www.nilc.org. Protects and promotes the rights of low- 40 Ibid., pp. 5-6. income immigrants and their families; analyzes immigration policies. 41 Cornelius, et al., op. cit., June 10, 2008, p. 2. 42 Ralph Blumenthal, “In Texas, Weighing Life NumbersUSA, 1601 N. Kent St., Suite 1100, Arlington, VA 22209; (703) 816-8820; with a Border Fence,” The New York Times, www..com. A nonprofit, activist organization that supports reducing Jan. 13, 2008. For background, see Kenneth immigration, both legal and illegal. Jost, “Property Rights,” CQ Researcher, March 4, 2005, pp. 197-220. Pew Hispanic Center, 1615 L St., N.W., Suite 700, Washington, DC 20036-5610; (202) 419-3600; http://pewhispanic.org. A nonpartisan research organization supported 43 “Opponents of Border Fence Lose Round by the Pew Charitable Trusts, dedicated to improving understanding of the U.S. His- in Court,” The Associated Press, The New panic population; a leading repository of statistics and studies on illegal immigration. York Times, Jan. 29, 2008. 44 Alicia Caldwell, The Associated Press, “Bor- The Southwest Center, http://web.arizona.edu/~swctr/. A research center at the der Fence Could Cut through ,” University of Arizona that sponsors projects designed to enhance understanding USA Today, Nov. 11, 2007. of U.S.-Mexican trans-border culture and history. 45 See “Updated Border Fence Information,” University of Texas, Brownsville, www.utb.edu. Texas Border Coalition, www.texasbordercoalition.org. A coalition of mayors and 46 “DHS Exercises Waiver Authority to Expedite other civic leaders from communities along the U.S.-Mexican border; advocates for Advancement in Border Security,” Department individuals and communities unhappy with the Department of Homeland Security’s of Homeland Security press release, April 1, 2008. plans for the border fence. 47 Ibid. 48 “Key House Democrats Join Suit Against Use of Waivers for Border Fence,” Congres- 50 Michelle Roberts, “McCain sidesteps border 52 For past and projected Mexican birthrates sional Quarterly Today, April 16, 2008. fence, property rights question,” The Dallas by decade, see Statistical Yearbook for Latin 49 A transcript of the Feb. 21, 2008, debate Morning News, Feb. 27, 2008. America and the Caribbean, 2007, United in Austin, Texas, is available on the CNN 51 For background, see David Masci, “Latinos’ Nations Economic Commission for Latin Web site, www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/02/ Future,” CQ Researcher, Oct. 17, 2003, pp. America and the Caribbean. 21/debate.transcript/index.html. 869-892.

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Sept. 19, 2008 765 Bibliography Selected Sources

Books Pallack, Becky, and Mariana Alvarado Avalos, “Employer- sanctions law starting to have the intended effect,” Arizona Martinez, Ruben, Crossing Over, A Mexican Family on Daily Star, Dec. 23, 2007, www.eller.arizona.edu/docs/ the Migrant Trail, Picador, 2001. press/2007/12/ArizonaDailyStar_Employer-sanctions_law_ A writing teacher and award-winning journalist follows im- starting_to_have_intended_effect_Dec23_2007.pdf. migrants as they cross illegally into the United States. An Arizona law that includes stiff sanctions for employers hir- ing illegal immigrants leaves some employers short of workers. Nazario, Sonia, Enrique’s Journey: the Story of a Boy’s Dangerous Odyssey to Reunite with his Mother, Random Wood, Daniel B., “Where U.S.-Mexico Border Fence is Tall, House, 2006. Border Crossings Fall,” The Christian Science Monitor, A Los Angeles Times reporter won a Pulitzer prize for the ar- April 1, 2008, p. 1, www.csmonitor.com/2008/0401/p01s05- ticles that formed the basis for this book about a Honduran usgn.html. boy’s illegal journey to the United States. Beefing up border fencing in San Diego and Yuma has re- duced illegal crossings. Williams, Derek, The Reach of Rome, A History of the Roman Imperial Frontier 1st-5th Centuries AD, St. Martin’s Reports and Studies Press, 1996. An English writer spent 15 years researching and writing Cornelius, Wayne, et al., “Controlling Unauthorized Im- his study of Roman frontiers. Chapter 5 provides an ex- migration From Mexico: The Failure of ‘Prevention through haustive look at Hadrian’s Wall. Deterrence’ and the Need for Comprehensive Reform,” Center for Comparative Immigration Studies, June 10, Articles 2008, www.immigrationpolicy.org/images/File/misc/CCIS- briefing061008.pdf. Archibold, Randal C., and Julia Preston, “Despite Growing The study examines motivations and concerns of immi- Opposition, Homeland Security Stands by its Fence,” The grants as they cross the border, drawn from 3,000 interviews New York Times, May 21, 2008, p. A18, www.nytimes.com/ with villagers in Mexico. 2008/05/21/washington/21fence.html. An update on the progress of the border fence looks at Koslowski, Rey, “Immigration Reforms and Border Se- the unhappiness in the Texas Rio Grande Valley over the curity Technologies,” Social Science Research Council, way Homeland Security is routing the fence. July 31, 2006, http://borderbattles.ssrc.org/Koslowski/. An associate professor of political science and public policy Fennelly, Katherine, “U.S. Immigration, a Historical Per- at the Rockefeller College of Public Affairs in New York re- spective,” The National Voter, February 2007, p. 4, www.lwv. views the effectiveness of new technology along the U.S.- org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Immigration1&TEMPLATE=/ Mexican border. CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&CONTENTID=8708. This history of U.S. immigration laws and their consequences Nuñez-Neto, Blas, and Yule Kim, “Border Security: Bar- was published in a League of Women Voters periodical. riers Along the U.S. International Border,” Congressional Research Service, May 13, 2008, www.fas.org/sgp/crs/ Garreau, Joel, “The Walls Tumbled by Time,” The Washing- homesec/RL33659.pdf. ton Post, Oct. 27, 2006, p. C1, www.washingtonpost.com/wp- Congressional researchers examine the history of barriers dyn/content/article/2006/10/26/AR2006102601826.html. built by the United States along the Southwestern border, in- The reporter describes historic fences and walls and their cluding legislative action, construction, costs and effectiveness. fate, published the day after President George W. Bush signed the into law. Stana, Richard, et al., “Homeland Security: DHS Has Taken Actions to Strengthen Border Security Programs and Op- McNatt, Robert, and Frank Benassi, “Econ 101 on Illegal erations, but Challenges Remain,” U.S. Government Ac- Immigrants,” a special report from S&P rating services, countability Office, March 6, 2008, www.gao.gov/new. Business Week, April 7, 2006, www.businessweek.com/in- items/d08542t.pdf. vestor/content/apr2006/pi20060407_072803.htm. The report assesses security along the U.S. border, including Standard & Poor’s analyzes how illegal immigrants affect at ports of entry and between legal entry points. government revenues and expenditures.

766 CQ Researcher The Next Step: Additional Articles from Current Periodicals

Economic Impact of Immigration Many landowners in Texas agree that more border security is required to curb illegal immigration, but they would rather Durst, Illene, “Should Arizona Target Those Who Hire Ille- have more Border Patrol officers than a fence. gal Aliens?” Charlotte Observer, March 24, 2008, p. 13A. Arizona would be undermining its own economy if it cracks Krauthammer, Charles, “Want Reform? Build a Fence,” down on employers who hire undocumented workers. Chicago Tribune, June 18, 2007, p. A17. Building a fence along the border would be cheap and cost- Hansen, Ronald J., “Migrants Hurt Wages, Report Says,” effective and would easily stem the flow of illegal immigration. Arizona Republic, Jan. 10, 2008, p. 1. Illegal immigrants cost Arizona residents at least $1.4 billion Wood, Daniel B., “Where U.S.-Mexico Border Fence Is in lower wages in 2005, according to a prominent Harvard Tall, It Works,” The Christian Science Monitor, April 1, labor economist. 2008, p. 1. The border fence is most effective in Yuma, Ariz., when Irvin, David, “State Aliens Contribute More Than They Take, it comes to preventing illegal border crossings because of Study Finds,” Arkansas Democrat-Gazette, April 5, 2007. its triple-layer construction. Arkansas’ illegal immigrant population contributes $158 per person more to the state budget than it takes out from social U.S.-Mexico Relations services, according to a group of demographic researchers. “Fence Foolishness,” editorial, Fort-Worth Star Telegram Environment (Texas), Dec. 8, 2006, p. B8. Building a fence along the U.S.-Mexican border represents Berestein, Leslie, “$48.6 Million Border Fence Project, an undiplomatic and xenophobic affront to the neighbors Starting in June, Will Fill in Canyon,” San Diego Union- to the south as well as other countries. Tribune, May 7, 2008, p. A1. Environmentalists say disastrous environmental consequences “Keep Out,” editorial, San Diego Union-Tribune, Oct. 5, could occur if 2 million cubic yards of dirt fill up a San Diego 2006, p. B10. canyon in order to construct a stretch of the border fence. Mexico shouldn’t be advising the United States about border security given its failure to provide job opportunities for its Eilperin, Juliet, “Environmental Laws to Be Waived for own people. Fence,” The Washington Post, April 2, 2008, p. A4. The Bush administration says it will waive 30 environ- Tobar, Hector, “Mexicans See Good and Bad Side to Wall,” mental and land-management laws to finish the construction Los Angeles Times, Oct. 1, 2006, p. A27. of the border fence. Latin Americans see the construction of a border fence as a rejection of the cultural impact Latinos have had in the Kerasote, Ted, “Borders Without Fences,” The New York United States. Times, Feb. 24, 2007, p. A15. Few politicians have voiced any concerns about the pro- CITING CQ RESEARCHER found effects on wildlife brought about by building a 700- Sample formats for citing these reports in a bibliography mile-long border fence. include the ones listed below. Preferred styles and formats Ustinova, Anastasia, “An Ecosystem Runs Through It,” vary, so please check with your instructor or professor. San Antonio Express-News, June 19, 2007, p. 1A. Critics say a border fence would cut large swaths through MLA STYLE sensitive habitat and harm vulnerable species, crippling a Jost, Kenneth. “Rethinking the Death Penalty.” CQ Researcher large ecotourism market in the process. 16 Nov. 2001: 945-68.

Illegal Immigration APA STYLE Jost, K. (2001, November 16). Rethinking the death penalty. “From $2 Billion to $30 Billion in a Blink,” editorial, The Miami Herald, Nov. 21, 2006, p. A20. CQ Researcher, 11, 945-968. Costly border fences, whether real or virtual, are not an CHICAGO STYLE effective substitute for substantive immigration reforms. Jost, Kenneth. “Rethinking the Death Penalty.” CQ Researcher, Johnson, Kevin, “Fence Plan Alarms Landowners,” USA November 16, 2001, 945-968. Today, Nov. 28, 2006, p. 1A.

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Sept. 19, 2008 767 In-depth Reports on Issues in the News

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Civil Liberties Education Health/Safety Social Trends Immigration Debate, 2/08 Reading Crisis? 2/08 Heart Health, 9/08 Internet Accuracy, 8/08 Prison Reform, 4/07 Discipline in Schools, 2/08 Global Food Crisis, 6/08 Transition to Digital TV, 6/08 Voting Controversies, 9/06 Student Aid, 1/08 Preventing Memory Loss, 4/08 Financial Crisis, 5/08 Racial Diversity in Public Schools, 9/07 Cyberbullying, 5/08 Crime/Law Stress on Students, 7/07 International Affairs/Politics Gender Pay Gap, 3/08 Prostitution Debate, 5/08 Political Conventions, 8/08 Public Defenders, 4/08 Environment Human Rights in China, 7/08 Terrorism/Defense Gun Violence, 5/07 Buying Green, 2/08 Race and Politics, 7/08 Rise in Counterinsurgency, 9/08 Patent Disputes, 12/06 Future of Recycling, 12/07 Campaign Finance Reform, 6/08 Cost of the Iraq War, 4/08 Sex Offenders, 9/06 Disappearing Species, 11/07 The “New” , 6/08 Youth Treatment of Detainees, 8/06 Fish Farming, 7/07 Changing U.S. Electorate, 5/08 War on Drugs, 6/06 Debating Hip-Hop, 6/07 Upcoming Reports Gay Marriage, 9/26/08 Fannie/Freddie Rescue, 10/10/08 Protecting Wetlands, 10/24/08 Affirmative Action, 10/3/08 Credit Card Crisis, 10/17/08 Gun Rights, 10/31/08

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