Hydrological Heritage Overview: Gold in the Rand, Water from the Land Obtainable from: Disclaimer Design and layout: Water Research Commission The Water Research Commission (WRC) Dreamwave Design Solutions Private Bag X03 has approved this book for publication. Gezina Approval does not signify that the contents ISBN 978-1-4312-0710-7 0031 necessarily reflect the views and policies of Printed in the Republic of South the WRC, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement © Water Research Commission or recommendation for use.

© Gerrit Burger Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg

Gold in the Rand, Water from the Land

Matthys A. Dippenaar (with photographic contribution by Gerrit Burger)

A publication of the Water Research Commission of October 2015 SP91/15 Contents

Preface 4 CHAPTER 2: 13 CHAPTER 3: 30 Acknowledgements 5 A GLIMPSE THROUGH TIME: A GLIMPSE THROUGH TIME: ANCIENT HISTORY RECENT HISTORY CHAPTER 1: 7 INTRODUCTION The Origin of Water on Earth 14 Discovery of Gold 32 A Long and Intricate Geological History 15 The Gold Rush and the Founding Johannesburg: City of Gold 7 Greenstone 22 of Johannesburg 33 The Hydrological Heritage Johannesburg Dome 22 After the war 37 Overview Project 9 Supergroup 23 Urban Landscape 10 Ventersdorp Supergroup 25 Water Demands of the City Supergroup and Black of Johannesburg 11 Reef Formation 25 Diabase and Syenite 26 Karoo Supergroup 26 Landscape Development and Surface Drainage 26 The Rise of Man 29

2 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg CHAPTER 4: 38 CHAPTER 5: 50 CHAPTER 6: 58 A MATTER OF DEMAND VERSUS SUPPLY WATER SUPPLY AND WATER RESOURCE THE ROAD AHEAD

Johannesburg’s Initial Water Supply 42 Water Quality and Supply 50 Selected Bibliography 60 Establishment of the Board 43 Rural and Peri-urban Impacts on Damming the 43 the Water Cycle and Water Quality 54 Water for the Coalfields 44 Urban Impacts on the Water Cycle and Water Quality 54 Water from the Tugela River 45 Mining Impacts on the Water Cycle Water from the Senqu River in 47 and Water Quality 55 Establishment of Johannesburg Water 49 Water Treatment and Discharge to Development of Johannesburg’s other Catchments 57 Sanitation System 49

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 3 Preface

Johannesburg – More than a century from its industrial and mining activities. of water supply innovation From initial efforts to obtain water from meagre streams and groundwater sources The world is experiencing an unprecedented water is now imported from as far as the rate of urbanisation. According to the United Tugela River in KwaZulu-Natal and the Senqu Nations, half of humanity now lives in cities, River in Lesotho through some of the most and within two decades, nearly 60% of the sophisticated bulk water infrastructure in world’s people will be urban dwellers. the world. Urban growth is most rapid in the It is in celebration of these scientific developing world where cities gain an and engineering efforts that Johannesburg average 5 million residents every month. was selected as the topic of choice in this The exploding urban population growth the second of the Hydrological Heritage creates unprecedented challenges, among Overview series. The aim of this publication which provision for water and sanitation is to increase understanding and appreciation have been the most pressing and painfully for the sustained effort required to keep South felt when lacking. Africa’s economic powerhouse running. For Johannesburg, the constantly It is the hope of the Water Research increasing demand for water has been a Commission that this publication will potential impediment to socio-economic serve as more than a glimpse into the water Dhesigen Naidoo growth from its conception over a century ago. management challenges of South Africa’s As one of the few major cities in the world not largest city, but that it will be a useful tool to located on or near a significant water resource, garner awareness of the important role that Johannesburg has had to increasingly find each citizen has to play in ensuring a water new, innovative ways to supply its residents secure future for Johannesburg. with water, while stemming the pollution

4 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg Acknowledgements

Water is pivotal in development, and journalism and for making and similarly, the work published this project much easier, having here is a collation of numerous written the book on South Africa’s persons’ efforts, willingness, time large dams. and information. It is always hard The reference group of this to write acknowledgements, fearing project guided the research and omission of someone critical. contents throughout the project. Nonetheless, this work would not What I envisaged initially differed have been possible with some very from what is published here, and important contributions. it is their guidance that redirected First and foremost, sincere me to the critical aspects covered gratitude is expressed to the in this book. Thanks to Prof Kevin South African Water Research Wall (University of ), Prof Commission (WRC). Their Johann Tempelhoff (North West dedication to the promotion of University), Mr Jude Cobbing Matthys Dippenaar water awareness and research is (Independent Hydrogeologist), Mrs and access. It is not always easy world class. Thanks for funding Lani van Vuuren (Water Research to be the mediator between the this project and for continuing the Commission), Mrs Elanda Schaeffer public and the municipality and I Hydrological Heritage Overview (SEFSA), Mr James Boale (City of believe you’ve done an exceptional (H2O) campaign as established in Tshwane), Mr Arne Singels (City job in supplying me with valuable the preceding Pretoria projects. of Cape Town) and Mrs Nomvula information. In particular, thanks goes to Mofokane (City of Johannesburg) To Mr Joe Moreira, owner of Dr Shafick Adams of the WRC, for your input, comments, edits the valuable Facebook groups Lost research manager for this project, and peer review of this publication. Johannesburg and Lost Pretoria for his enthusiasm, guidance and I want to express a special – thank you for advocating our input. Also from the WRC, thanks word of thanks to Mrs Nomvula projects so openly on your sites to Mrs Lani van Vuuren for sharing Mofokane for all her contributions and for granting permission to use all her experience in science writing in the form of data, information graphics from the sites. It is not

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 5 Acknowledgements

always easy finding archive footage; To Ingrid Booysens and the GIS truly remarkable to see the story your input is highly appreciated. team at the , come to life so beautifuly. To my colleague and friend, who compiled the bulk of the maps Finally, to the people who had to Gerrit Burger of Rockhouse used: my sincere gratitude for your bear with me through this project Productions: thank you very much assistance in this regard. A picture – notably my colleagues Louis for the amazing photographic and does indeed say a thousand words van Rooy and Brendon Jones, and video footage. We spent many days and without all the maps, context my family Tharina and Femke – on the road, driving on dirt roads, would have been lost. I cannot thank you enough. Your running around in the rain, and To Nthabiseng Nooe, doing her support and help in this regard are walking up mountains and down masters dissertation on this project, greatly appreciated! rivers. I could not possibly ask for thank you for your accompaniment, Although this product supplies a a better filmmaker or photographer as well as your assistance with glimpse into a much longer story, it to convey the message in such a research and management of the is difficult to mention every aspect visually appealing manner. project administration. of Johannesburg’s water heritage. To Lizelle Olivier from Clear- Thank you to Drinie van The purpose of this booklet is to creative, thank you as well for the Rensburg who first did the layout become aware of water supply, and motion graphics used in the film of the Pretoria book, which served therefore a lot of content is omitted and for the bulk of the still graphics as inspiration for this one. Your or toned down. I nonetheless trust used in the book. Your capability work is exceptional and I thank that an understanding of the water of making history modern and you for conveying the message so supply of Johannesburg throughout making science interesting is a perfectly. To Elke Momberg, for the past will be insightful to some significant contribution in itself. doing the layout of this book, it is but hopefully motivational for most.

6 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg Chapter 1: Introduction

If a dedication as prequel ever value or agricultural soil. But as the too, that our mineral dependence “’But what’s had ground, this is it: to the people population increases, the pressures is hosted in the same Rand that worth more than of Johannesburg, who are worth on these natural resources also christened our currency and gave gold?’ ‘Practically more than gold; and to the precious increase. birth to our heritage of pollution. everything. You, water required for humanity’s People so easily complain about In the case of large cities, such survival and prosperity, also issues related to the supply of as Johannesburg, a remarkable for example. Your worth more than gold. The story energy, water, fresh produce and story awaits telling on how weight in gold is of Johannesburg is not about gold. It other consumables. Yet we easily water is imported from different not very much is a narrative of humanity’s growth forget that, in mega-cities and catchments for supply to South gold at all. Aren’t and the quest for clean water. metropolises, the local supplies Africa’s economic powerhouse. In you worth more Johannesburg: City of Gold are significantly outweighed by many instances, this water is stored the need of an overindulgent in a variety of dams and pumped than that?’ ” Throughout history people society. Energy is no longer a for treatment and reticulation from – Terry Pratchett, have been clustering together, privilege but a comfort that we other provinces and even other Making Money. building communities progressively are willing to pay dearly for while countries, such as Lesotho. Albeit increasing in size. We are herd complaining about it on social the significant minority, these water animals, easing our lives into a media (and we miss the irony of supply systems often act as pumped collective effort for sustenance, the energy requirements for the storage schemes where, in times of security and recreation until we manufacturing and maintenance peak electricity usage, they supply eventually become co-dependent of electronic devices). Water is energy to the national grid, which on each other. no longer for sustenance, but an includes the province of . apparently abundant resource These nodes around which Urbanisation is not intrinsically available for private swimming we cluster are generally governed bad. Nor is industrialisation. Despite pools and excessive landscaping. initially by security in times of significant pressure on the natural conflict, accessibility to transport As we improve our living environment, urbanisation and routes, or by the availability of standards to that of a booming city, industrialisation generate economy natural resources such as food, we use, abuse and misuse more of and currency, and are required for water, minerals with economical Nature. It is very interesting then, growth and a progressive society.

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 7 Chapter 1

Rapid urbanisation in the Gauteng sustainable use, mitigation against generation by their respective area established South Africa as pollution, and remediation adverse effects, but sadly no a major roleplayer in the African following mine closure. progressive society or development economy, resulted in the measure Johannesburg wasn’t initially exists without some compromise of foreign currency in a universal selected to become South to the environment. As a species, gold standard, and made South Africa’s biggest city. Pretoria was our strength lies in our ability Africa a leader in the exploitation established a few decades before to scientifically mitigate adverse of precious and rare metals. and the discovery of gold in such effects and to engineer solutions. We have all heard that South close proximity to Pretoria’s vast The evolution of mankind, Homo Africa is water-scarce and mineral- freshwater supply from springs sapiens, taught us that thought and rich. This is somewhat paradoxical was almost serendipity. With reason are our strengths. But it is given that extraction of our vast the discovery of gold in the also our weakness as compromise geological riches is dependent on Witwatersrand, South Africa’s becomes inevitable. water and can also easily affect powerhouse was born and has Yet, in these possible strengths of both the availability and quality since grown to a world-class thought and reason, lies our ability of water adversely. Mining with metropolis with more than ten to live in harmony with Nature and limited water while considering million inhabitants. to appreciate our most fundamental the protection of scarce water We so easily obscure the rich need: water. resources have, in South Africa, history of and the need for mining, almost become an art in combining water transfer schemes and power

Gold in the Witwatersrand is the reason for Johannesburg’s founding. Since, the gold from the Witwatersrand has resulted in gold being the international standard for currency and the naming of South Africa’s own currency, the Rand. (© Shutterstock).

8 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg The Hydrological Heritage The Hydrological Heritage Catchment, surface water is limited, Overview Project Overview series of projects aims and the need for water transfer to improve citizen science and the schemes and water boards in How does one communicate public’s appreciation of water in supplying adequate water for the science without compromising South Africa. Initiated through large population becomes clear. popular thought? We are so often the case of South Africa’s capital, Urbanisation, incorporating faced with scientific and industrial Pretoria in the City of Tshwane industry, commerce and dense horror stories in the mass and social Municipality (Dippenaar 2013), the development, influence both the media that we often think of science project continues with the metros quantity and quality of water in as the intrinsic evil. What pollutes of Johannesburg and Cape Town. these areas. Land use planning our water? What compromises The selection of Johannesburg or zoning therefore requires pre- the integrity of our environment? specifically addresses issues emptive solutions to anticipated Mining and industry, everybody related to water supply in densely adverse outcomes. The vast array shouts in unison. But these also populated areas where commercial of these in urban areas include govern our financial prosperity and and industrial needs significantly mining, agriculture, fuel storage, have an important role to play in increase the water demand. sanitation and sewage, burial South Africa’s economy. Coupled with the location at the practices and waste disposal, to So how does one communicate upper reaches of the Vaal River name a few. Coupled with this is this fine balance between catchment, supply to Johannesburg the obvious increase in per capita socioeconomic development and is dependent on water imports from water use, treatment to drinking environmental protection? The other downstream catchments, as water standards and protection of term sustainability aims to integrate well as the treatment of this water the remaining biodiversity. these into a cohesive management to potable standards. policy, but is it truly enforceable The broad theme for the without proper knowledge at all Johannesburg product is The spheres of involvement? Quest for Clean Water. Given the Communicating science with the neutrally and informally is frequently publicised issues related becoming increasingly important to acid mine drainage (AMD), the as the mass media and social media Johannesburg project supplies a make every citizen (rightfully so!) a perfect platform to address matters The H2O logo depicts a green urban setting encapsulated sceptic or a critic. But, through this, related to contamination of water. in water: urbanisation with a water-sensitive outlook, the language of communication Furthermore, being situated at urban development and water supply, and sensitivity requires standardisation. the upper reaches of the Vaal towards the environment (© Clearcreative).

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 9 Chapter 1

Urban Landscape

© Gerrit Burger © Gerrit Burger

The City of Johannesburg Municipality houses more than four million people. Now including all those municipalities developed historically as part of the gold rush (such as Ekurhuleni and the ), it is South Africa’s densest populated city, with a population of more than 12 million people. The skyline is characteristic with its skyscrapers where the money machine of South Africa is situated. Trees in the city were mostly planted during its development and now flourish in residential suburbs. Recent efforts to revitalise the central business district (CBD) through, for instance, the Maboneng Precinct housing, restaurants and shops, aim to make the inner city accessible as a tourist attraction once more.

10 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg Water Demands of the City of Johannesburg Million litres per day by region The water demand for the City of Johannesburg (with roughly 4.5 million people and excluding other municipalities such as Ekurhuleni), amount to 580 billion (580 000 million) litres per year Deep South (± 1 600 million litres per day). At present, the City of Johannesburg is actively pursuing alternative water supply options. Three main options 154 Joburg are under consideration, namely rainwater harvesting (collection 100 Central of rainwater), effluent reuse following treatment of wastewater, and 518 groundwater for certain uses. / 196 Shown in million litres per day, the average daily water supply for the City of Johannesburg for 2014 amounted to roughly 1 600 million litres per day. Six regions are supplied by the City of Johannesburg, namely 272 Johannesburg Central, , , Roodepoort/Diepsloot, Midrand, 357 and Deep South. The pie chart shows the approximate 2014 supplies to Sandton each of these regions, making up the total daily supply. Water is sourced from various supplies and excludes other municipalities. (Data courtesy of Soweto the City of Johannesburg)

The actual annual (yearly) water Supply data 1991–2015 in billion litres per year demand for each of the six regions for the past 25 years show a distinct 600 Joburg Central Roodepoort/Diepsloot increase in local and combined water Soweto Midrand demands. Note how some regions’ 500 Sandton Deep South supply remained fairly constant (e.g. Soweto and Sandton), whereas 400 others increased significantly (e.g. Roodepoort/ Diepsloot and Deep 300 South). All volumes are in million kilolitres (billion litres) per year. The 200 bottom axis shows 25 years, starting at 1990 on the left until present 100 (2015) on the right. Note how overall (million kilolitres per year) Cumulative supply per region supply per region Cumulative 0 water usage has almost doubled in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 the past 25 years. (Data courtesy of the City of Johannesburg)

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 11 Chapter 1

The water demands for the Water demand projections City of Johannesburg show a distinct increase. Water demand 670.0 5 Years WDM management measures as Actual demand envisaged by the City are likely to 620.0 High population No WDM 2009 reduce the demand as projected to the year 2018–19. In order to 570.0 achieve this, however, additional

/annum) interventions are necessary. 3 (Data courtesy of the City of 520.0 Johannesburg) Water demand Water

(million m 470.0

420.0 2004–05 2006–07 2008–09 2010–11 2012–13 2014–15 2016–17 2018–19

© Gerrit Burger

12 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg Chapter 2: A glimpse through time: Ancient history

Everything around us started in a single moment of 15 000 000 000 Universe Formed time. The Big Bang signalled the start of the formation of the Universe, granting opportunity for the development 13 700 000 000 BIG BANG of space, the Earth, its resources, water, and the 10 000 000 000 Hydrogen diversifying to other elements and initial compounds diversification of life. Geology governs our daily life. We build structures 4 670 000 000 Earth Formed on rock and soil, and use both of these as construction 3 500 000 000 Free Water on Earth materials. We are subjected to geological hazards in 3 340 000 000 Johannesburg Dome Granite the form of earthquakes, volcanoes, slope failures and subsidence. Mineral and energy resources dictate our 2 900 000 000 Witwatersrand Supergroup economic prosperity. Soil that forms from weathered 2 600 000 000 Black Reef Formation: Chuniespoort Group rock gives us fertile soils and groundwater is stored in void spaces and fissures in soil and rock below the land 2 224 000 000 Pretoria Group surface. The role of geology, often neglected, is vital in 2 020 000 000 Vredefort Meteorite Impact our daily lives. Hydrogeologists study the occurrence and movement 2 000 000 000 Diabase Dykes of water in the subsurface. Boreholes tap water from 1 310 000 000 Syenite Dykes rock or soil well below the land surface, supplying this precious resource to numerous communities, towns and 245 000 000 Karoo Supergroup cities worldwide. The thorough understanding of how 140 000 000 Gondwanaland Break-up Timeline, shown in the Earth’s crust behaves is therefore very important in years before the present 3 300 000 Sterkfontein Caves Drain understanding how much water is available at a given day, depicting ancient location, as well as to ensure its good quality. 3 000 000 A. Africanus to H. Habilus events which shaped the planet in the vicinity 1 000 000 H. Erectus to H. Sapiens of Johannesburg, from the formation of the “Alice: How long is forever? White Rabbit: 250 000 H. Sapiens Sapiens Sometimes, just one second.” Universe to the present Today Present Day (© Clearcreative). – Lewis Carroll, Alice in Wonderland

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 13 Chapter 2

The Origin of Water on Earth 298 degrees Celsius and is known The Universe was still young as absolute zero). This was coupled as expansion and cooling slowed The origin of water, as that of the with rapid expansion of this fiery down. Hydrogen and some helium liveable planet Earth and life itself, initial Universe. collected in denser clusters to form is so fascinating scientifically that As the temperature continued initial galaxies. Gravitational it is often inexplicable and results to drop, it is believed that all attraction between and within – to this day – in disagreement. matter and antimatter particles these galaxies, coupled with However, science is the how-to were annihilated, forming centrifugal rotation and magnetic manual of Nature, and its methods electromagnetic radiation in the fields, eventually resulted in the are not always understood. Much form of energetic gamma-ray formation of the first stars, of which like a recipe, scientists eventually photons. Somehow, during all of the Sun is likely one of the smaller unravel the story through trial this, protons and electrons managed and younger. and error, glimpsing into all to survive. Deep within such massive stars, the intricacies, and eventually hydrogen is eventually depleted due mastering the knowledge of a Roughly one hundred thousand to the nuclear reactions (contrary to certain unknown concept. years passed during which the temperature dropped yet further popular belief, the Sun, for instance, The Universe, according to and single protons and electrons does not burn under chemical science, likely started as a compact combined to form hydrogen (in oxidation reactions, but shines volume around 15 billion years ago. what is termed the Recombination due to nuclear fusion reactions). Although not addressing the origin Period). Hydrogen, containing Eventually with hydrogen depleted, of this compact state, the expanding one each proton and electron, is helium nuclei (called alpha- Universe is often used as motivation therefore the first element on the particles) become abundant and for this theory as this is measurable periodic table and the first to have fuse through triple-action reactions in present days. formed following the Big Bang. to form carbon (with six protons At some stage, this matter of and six neutrons). Further reactions Over time, some of these the initial Universe exploded in add another alpha-particle at each hydrogen nuclei fused (through what is now referred to as the Big stage to form oxygen (eight each nuclear fusion) into rare heavy Bang, followed by, in less than a protons and neutrons) and so forth. isotopes of deuterium (one proton second, the formation of a Universe and one neutron) and tritium (one Over time, more elements were of radiation, matter and antimatter. proton and two neutrons), both formed, and elements combined Very rapid cooling to tens of of which are still detected today. into compounds, most of which millions degrees Kelvin followed Eventually helium (two protons still exist today. Some of the most (where one degree Kelvin equals and two neutrons) formed. common initial compounds

14 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg included, for instance, hydrogen meteorites and comets alone could broke water molecules apart. From “What is harder (H2), water (H2O), methane (CH4), supply Earth’s 1.35 billion billion the first moments of the Universe, than rock, or ammonia (NH3) and more complex tons of water. water was already part of the design softer than water? organic alcohols and ethers. Many of Earth. And until today, it is still Initial minerals forming the Yet soft water scientists also describe these very proto-Earth (early-Earth) may also the most important molecule, early organic molecules as being have contained frozen water or without which no organism can hollows out hard the first potential building blocks hydrated minerals. Whatever the sustain life. rock. Persevere.” for later life, as all life on Earth is source or reason for its enrichment, A Long and Intricate – Ovid (Publius essentially carbon-based. water still makes up a very small Ovidius Naso) Geological History As molecules coalesced, planets percentage of the total planet, eventually formed, one of which and that initial water is in any When thinking about Johannes- is home to mankind: Earth. To case believed to have been lost or burg and geology, the first to come this day, Earth is seen as a fertile recycled into the Earth ages ago. to mind is very likely gold and woman or mother, with the name As Earth segregated into its the associated mining activities. of the Greek goddess Gaia echoed iron core, mantle and lithosphere, Although gold was the reason for as the prefix geo in geology and readily vapourised gases such Johannesburg’s founding, its place geography, and the name of the as water degassed together with in the geological history is often planet used colloquially to refer to volcanic eruptions. Being a very overlooked. fertile soil. In this context, Earth effective greenhouse gas, water An early Earth was very likely is the name of our planet, like the aided in heating Earth’s surface hot and molten. However, over others in the Universe, and deserves and the lower atmosphere, time since the formation of the capitalisation. resulting in increased humidity. planet around 4.6 billion years ago, Formed roughly 4.6 billion years As the humidity reached saturation, a solid crust eventually formed ago, Earth was initially still very hot water condensed in the form of through the first crystallisation of and any hope of an atmosphere was rain. The cycle likely continued molten rock into igneous rocks. burnt away by solar radiation. As with volcanoes releasing more Thus the first solid land surface with other planets, Earth was still water vapour until – as long as was formed, although still water- heavily bombarded by meteorites, three billion years ago – water was deprived, uninhabitable and heated many possibly containing water. available to deposit sediments to far above present-day climate due Comets also, for instance, are often form sedimentary rocks. to the absence of an atmosphere. dust covered by ice or water, these Whereas Mars was too cold to The first solid crust in the area forming the characteristic comas maintain global warming through now comprising bulk of the eastern or tails. But, according to scientific trapping greenhouse gases, Venus portions of South Africa is referred agreement, it seems unlikely that was too warm and solar radiation

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 15 Chapter 2

to as the Kaapvaal Craton, with the A planet such as Earth is PEDOGENIC MATERIALS term craton referring to that first subject to stages of development. P P rock basement on the Earth surface. In terms of its composition (or its Cratons refer to portions of the mineralogy), three major stages are SEDIMENT MW RESIDUAL SOIL Earth’s crust which have reached distinguished: (TRANSPORTED) D E Surface processes a stage of stability, as opposed 1. Older than 4.55 billion years W to mobile belts which is still represents the era of planetary susceptible to plate tectonics, or the accretion or ‘planet-building’ L motion of oceanic and continental 2. Until roughly 2.5 billion years crust relative to each other. is the crustal and mantle SEDIMENTARY ROCK IGNEOUS ROCK The Kaapvaal Craton hosts large reworking where igneous and outcrops of pristine rocks formed sedimentary deposits form M 3 100 billion years ago and comprises M C 3. Until present as the era of bio- granitic gneisses with remnants of

mediated mineralogy where Subsurface processes greenstone belts. It extends over a METAMORPHIC SOIL MAGMA the atmosphere contains free vast area, with Upington and Tshane A oxygen and biological processes in Botswana being near the western diversify. border, Polokwane in the north, C Crystalisation E Erosion L Lithification Swaziland in the east, and from It is within context of these W Weathering D Deposition M Metamorphism Richards Bay transecting Lesotho that we can see the formation in the south. In Johannesburg of the planet after the Big Bang, MW Mass Wasting P Pedogenesis A Anatexis specifically, this is represented by the crystallisation of magmas the Johannesburg Dome Granite. and deposits of old sedimentary rocks to form stable cratons, and As the planet cooled down after formation, the first rocks to form A variety of granites formed were igneous from crystallisation (or freezing) of magma. These since the deposit of those rocks through crystallisation of magma, first rocks were later weathered and eroded, or metamorphosed, in an oxygen-rich environment. coupled with metamorphic rocks giving rise to sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Sometimes These have very specific formation referred to as greenstones due to rocks get buried very deep and melt again to form magma, or they conditions, resulting in different vast temperature and pressure are moved as sediment, progressively enriched by organic materials rock types of different ages and changes. or mineralised water, to form fertile soils or pedocretes. The rock properties. cycle is an active cycle, continuously – albeit very slow, over millions to billions of years – altering the crust of the Earth.

16 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg As geologists, we define and sentences become minerals. rock types typically based on Sentences finally are grouped its formation (or origin) and its together coherently, not randomly composition. The prior, formation, and not without a very specific set governs whether rocks formed from of rules, to make up paragraphs the cooling of lava or magma as that are rocks. volcanic or plutonic igneous rocks. Minerals (in geology) are Or were they formed through the intrinsically solid, inorganic and erosion and deposition of fine soil crystalline. In some instances, such and sediment by rivers, wind or as volcanic eruptions, lava cools ice? Did they precipitate out from so rapidly that it fails to become watery solutions, or did they form quite solid and organised. These – like coal – from buried peat? compounds then form glasses, such At later stages, did overburden as volcanic glass, pumice or the pressure, plate tectonics or elevated well-known gemstone obsidian. temperatures changes the rock into When crystallised, we see a metamorphic rock? minerals in very characteristic The origin also influences arrangements. Recall snowflakes specific structures and textures in – a beautiful hexagonal (six- rock, such as the very thin layers sided) asterisk where water (called laminations) in shale or molecules arrange themselves very slate, bedding and crossbeds The geometric beauty in nature is shown in quartz crystals grown in geometrically in a fixed pattern. a tight honeycomb pattern of hexagonal prisms. As with water, the in sandstones, or the polished Although each snowflake may look crystals are characteristically six-sided due to arrangement of the waviness (called schistosity) in different, the six-sided structure is silicon dioxide (SiO2) making up this stable mineral. The abundance schists. intrinsic in the mineral phase of of quartz and the strong resistance of the molecule to chemical Albeit very oversimplified, water we see in snow or in polar weathering give cause for beach sands being essentially this mineral. origin or formation tells us the story ice. Another common hexagonal Practically all else fails to survive the long erosion process from the of the rock, such as a biography crystal is seen in the mineral quartz: inland, ending up as contributions to the oceans’ salt content. As will inform you of the person you essentially a six-sided prism with one of the most abundant elements on the crust of the earth, few are meeting. pyramidal ends terminating in a people realise the uniqueness of the element silicon and the mineral quartz. Bottom: The mineral pyrite – commonly associated with gold, single point. The composition becomes and often in the past visually mistaken for gold given its dull golden another important aspect as it Minerals are then grouped colour – is characteristically cubic, meaning it has six square sides at relates to the building blocks of together based on the manner right angles. It therefore resembles the shape of a square box or a die. rocks. The simile has been used to in which they form to form Made up of iron sulphide (FeS2), this beautiful mineral is the cause of relate rocks to text where letters are characteristic rock types. acid mine drainage (AMD). elements, words are compounds Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 17 Chapter 2

Johannesburg is home to almost moved fast and clays when water was land surface in a distinct volcanic all major rock groups. The first almost stationary. This succession event. These volcanoes formed rocks comprise ancient greenstones was named Witwatersrand what is called the Ventersdorp contained in different types of (meaning ‘Ridge of White Water’) Lava, named after the proximate granite of the Johannesburg Dome. due to springs and waterfalls from town where a distinct exposure Almost three-and-a-half billion these rocks prior to development. was first noted. years in age, this enormous granite The terms have since also been History repeated itself, and the underlies bulk of the northern used to distinguish between the land surface once again subsided, suburbs and Midrand, resulting in geologically distinct West Rand forming a very large, shallow inland the very characteristic gently rolling and Central Rand, and to name the sea. Water was practically stationary topography one sees when driving official currency of South Africa in the central portions and rocks on the between Brakfontein and after the place of discovery of gold. were formed through precipitation Buccleugh. Rock types include mudrocks and of calcium and magnesium Under its own weight and due shales forming from fine clayey dissolved in the water around to tectonic processes, the granites deposits, sandstones from sandy algae colonies. With the growth subsided somewhat, creating a large sediments, and conglomerates from of these algae – cyanobacteria as the inland sea. This sea, under different stream pebbles. earliest life forms on the planet – tidal and river flow conditions, Shortly after, the solid crust rup- carbon dioxide was used to form the deposited pebbles when water tured, resulting in lava outflow onto mineral dolomite and oxygen was released through the photosynthesis process, eventually resulting in Quartz our oxygenated atmosphere. What remains are the dolomites Feldspar and cherts of the Chuniespoort Group, often still exhibiting the characteristic conical shape of the algae colonies. Following deposition of the

Mica Chuniespoort Group, the Pretoria Group sediments formed as conditions changed from the

Minerals group together to form rocks. This particular example shows the minerals quartz, feldspar and mica and how they assemble in a magnified thin section of granite under a polarized light microscope.

18 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg large inland sea to rivers and the movement of the glaciers, rock eventually beach deposits now below it was abraded and moved remnant as the Magaliesberg with the glaciers and eventually Mountains. A large magma depositing till. The Dwyka Tillite pluton intruded as the Bushveld Formation now forms the bottom Igneous Complex, resulting in the part of the Karoo Supergroup and Pretoria and Chuniespoort Groups represents a time lapse of roughly (collectively known as the Transvaal 65 million years. Supergroup) tilting towards the Climate reversed between the north in the Gauteng region around two hemispheres after deposition 2 billion years ago. of the Dwyka Group Tillite and, as Following the Bushveld event, Gondwanaland started breaking significant fault systems acted as apart, the climate gradually heated. conduits for magma migrating up Dinosaurs roamed around this through the Earth’s crust. These period starting 280 million years post-Bushveld and pre-Pilanesberg ago and organic humus from diabase and syenite dykes crosscut vegetation was buried beneath the sedimentary and igneous rocks sediment in swamps to form the already deposited. Ecca Group sedimentary rocks. A long period of erosion Also part of the Karoo Supergroup, followed, during which rocks the Ecca Group is renowned for its were weathered and removed abundant fossils and, also notably, from the continent by wind and coal deposits formed from these water action. By the time termed humic swamp deposits. the Carboniferous Period (when Following the complete break- Europe was covered by large forests up of Gondwanaland, lava erupted around 345 million years ago), the from the remaining fissures forming Southern Hemisphere was in a the Drakensburg Formation Basalt period of extreme glaciation, with of the Karoo Supergroup, named ice sheets covering the southern after the mountain of its most portions of Gondwanaland. With notable occurrence. The geology of Gauteng Province and, specifically, the City of Johannesburg.

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 19 Chapter 2

The cross-section shows the geology as one is driving from north near the Magaliesberg Mountains in Pretoria via Centurion, Midrand and Johannesburg southward. The section includes the rocks of the Pretoria Group, Chuniespoort Group, Johannesburg Dome, Witwatersrand Supergroup and Ventersdorp Supergroup.

20 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg GROUP SUPER -

Witwatersrand Ventersdorp Transvaal Karoo Pretoria GROUP Chu- West Rand Central Rand Platberg Ecca niespoort SUBGROUP

Hospital Govern- Jeppes Johannes- Turf- East Malmani Others Hill ment Town burg fontein Driefontein

Johannes- Marais- Allan- burg Dome Bonanza Afrikaner Booysens Edenville Rietgat Frisco Vryheid burg ridge

Granite To of Johannesburg the north

Lanseria Elands- Roode- Krugers- Venters- Brixton Elsburg Loraine Makwassie Bothaville Eccles Gneiss laagte poort dorp post

Linden Palmiet- Luipaards- Goed- FORMATION Crown Kimberley Jeannette Lyttleton Greiss fontein vlei genoeg

Bryanston Orange Rand- Kameel- Monte Tusschenin Babrosco Orkney Granodiorite Grove fontein doorns Christo

Honeydew Coronation Rietkuil Main Alberton Oaktree Granodiorite

Victory Park Koedoes- Bly- Black Promise Granodiorite laagte vooruitzicht Reef

The stratigraphic succession refers to the sequence of geological events and rock formation throughout history. The youngest rocks are shown at the top, and age increases towards the bottom of the column. Ages are approximate with Ma denoting million years before present, and Ga billion years before present. The major lithologies (rock types) and stratigraphic units (deposition environments coupled with the age of the rocks) relevant to the Johannesburg region are shown, with notably the Pretoria Group and Karoo Supergroup being shown incompletely where it does not occur in the Johannesburg region. The right-hand side of the column shows the igneous intrusions forming the Johannesburg Dome and the younger diabase and syenite dykes.

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 21 Chapter 2

Greenstone Johannesburg Dome

Remnants of greenstones occur scattered throughout The Johannesburg Dome Granite, previously the Johannesburg Dome, comprising amphibolites, referred to as the Halfway House Granite, formed gneisses and migmatites in the northern portions. through a series of magmatic events. As opposed to Travelling southwards, greenstones occur more as lava flowing out onto the surface, magma crystallises ultramafic xenoliths comprising dunite, harzburgite, slower in the subsurface, forming better developed serpentinite and minor gabbro. Outcrops of these mineral crystals and generally coarser-grained rocks. southern greenstones are noted in the The initial events are represented by greenstones area and towards Edenvale. Greenstones pre-date composed of mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks, as the Johannesburg Dome and are very likely linked to well as a full suite of tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite those of the Barberton region. (TTG) rocks intruded into the greenstones. The granitic rocks in the Johannesburg Dome were formed during Mesoarchean times and comprise five distinct varieties. The complete northern half of the dome is underlain by the trondhjemitic Lanseria Gneiss dated around 3340 Ma. The southern edge comprises hornblende-biotite-tonalitic gneiss (Linden Gneiss) dated at roughly 3 170 Ma. Apart from these, three granodioritic phases are found in the south, namely the Bryanston Granodiorite (southeast), Honeydew Granodiorite (southwest) and Victory Park Granodiorite, all dated around 3 120 Ma.

Vertical profiles of the Lanseria Gneiss appear distinctly different in Midrand (left) and Linbro Park (right). Weathering may be due to slightly different mineralogical compositions, but are likely more influenced by local climatic history. (© Matthys Dippenaar)

22 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg Witwatersrand Supergroup regressions resulted in alternating Overlying the Johannesburg deposits of conglomerates (often Subgroup, the Subgroup The Witwatersrand Supergroup pyritic) and shales in settings makes up the final deposits of comprises the West Rand and varying between marine, fluvial the Witwatersrand Supergroup. Central Rand Groups. The older and braided plains. Also formed mainly through West Rand Group is further Finally the Subgroup river systems, conglomerates and subdivided into three subgroups is composed of conglomerates to quartzites and alluvial fan deposits with roughly equal amounts of iron-formations through marine are characteristic of the Turffontein sandstone and shale. Whereas to fluvial brain-plain deposits. A Subgroup. the sandstones are mostly ascribed single basaltic andesite lava flow to shelf sand (shallow marine) occurs in the Crown Formation deposits, the shales are iron-rich to a maximum thickness of 250 m. (ferruginised). Lesser diamictite and andesite lavas occur in some The Central Rand Group areas. overlies the West Rand Group and differs significantly where The Hospital Hill Subgroup quartzite is more than 12 times forms the base of the West Rand more abundant than shale. The bulk Group and represents shallow- of the Witwatersrand gold occurs marine quartzites with lesser in the Central Rand group within siltstones, shales and iron- the Johannesburg and Turffontein formation. This subgroup was Subgroups. gradually graded through subtidal deposits as the ocean transgressed The older, Johannesburg Sub- into fluvial (river) deposits in group, mainly comprises quartzites the upper formations where the deposited in fluvial braid-plain shoreline migrated coupled with environments. These river systems major transgressions of sea-level. represent changing flow conditions and lesser changing ocean levels, Overlying the Hospital Hill A hand specimen of the Witwatersrand conglomerate in which resulting in the different formations Subgroup, the Government the gold occurs showing distinct quartz pebbles with a matrix making up the succession. A single Subgroup varies from very coarse metamorphosed to quartzite (top). The Witwatersrand quartzite lava eruption is preserved as part does not contain pebbles, but often shows ripple marks, which is an conglomerates to iron-formation of the Formation, indication of the flow direction of the old river systems (bottom). and diamictite. Rapid and multiple followed by some shales deposited (© Matthys Dippenaar) sea-level transgressions and as the Booysens Formation.

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 23 Chapter 2

The exposed and covered Central Rand and West Rand Groups of the Witwatersrand Supergroup and the major gold fields (adapted from SACS 2006).

24 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg Ventersdorp Supergroup This also happened in a fairly short time As the water level increased and water (geologically speaking), with the so-called became more stationary, microorganisms Following the Witwatersrand sedimen- Limpopo Mobile Belt forming the highly – still in an oxygen-deprived atmosphere – tation, the Kaapvaal Craton ruptured due to deformed contact between the two cratons. flourished and secreted the mineral dolomite intense uplift. Significant fracture systems Probably one of the most important aspects (CaMg(CO3)2) to form the rock dolomite of developed from which basaltic magma erupted of the Ventersdorp Supergroup is the basal the same composition. These are still evident as lava outflows. Almost all the river systems (bottom) Venterspost Formation comprising in some areas in the form of stromatolites, the of the Witwatersrand sedimentation were some gold-bearing conglomerates. Gold fields dome-shaped relics of ancient algae colonies. flooded by lava from 2 714 million years ago exploiting the Venterspost Formation include, Silica (SiO ) also precipitated out in these for a period of roughly 6 million years. The 2 for instance, those around Klerksdorp, inland sea environments, forming the mineral eventual lava deposit reached a maximum and some in the West Rand. chert. The Chuniespoort Group is subdivided thickness of 2 km and is exposed through based on the chert content and presence of the formations of the Klipriviersberg Group Transvaal Supergroup and Black Reef stromatolites. of the Ventersdorp Supergroup. Formation As climate changed and the sea levels The younger part of the Ventersdorp dropped, a marine system gradually became a Supergroup, namely the Platberg Group, The crust stabilised around 2 650 million fluvial system with the deposits of the followed the collision of the Kaapvaal Craton years ago, after the Ventersdorp lava extrusion, Pretoria Group. Alternating sandstones (often with the Zimbabwe Craton to the north. followed by thermal subsidence where the metamorphosed to quartzites) and shales Both of these formed separately, coming into Kaapvaal Craton subsided under its own (often metamorphosed to slates) occur to contact around 2 700 million years ago. With weight to below the sea level. A large inland the north of Centurion with limited exposure the collision, the Kaapvaal Craton fissured, sea, called the Transvaal Basin, formed where in the boundaries of the Johannesburg resulting in renewed lava outflows on surface. the Black Reef Formation was deposited under initial high-energy conditions. municipality.

The characteristic landscape of the Chuniespoort Dolomites is seen in this view towards the visitor’s centre for the Cradle of Humankind (left). Dolomite and calcite forming stalactites and stalagmites in the Sterkfontein caves depict the significant solution of dolomite in water and the precipitation of new minerals as the water evaporates (right). (© Matthys Dippenaar)

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 25 Chapter 2

Diabase and Syenite rocks throughout the province. in a final desert stage as preserved In the dolomite areas, these in the glacier deposit tillite at the A long time period elapsed after dykes form distinct dolomite base, followed by mudrocks and deposition of the Pretoria Group. compartments where underground sandstones. During this time, the Bushveld water is often not in contact with Igneous Complex intruded to the each other; in the other rock types, Landscape Development and north of present-day Pretoria. This it forms distinctly different soils Surface Drainage resulted in metamorphism of some and landforms. of the Pretoria Group rocks, but, At its characteristic position at more notably, has likely resulted in Karoo Supergroup the top of a water divide, surface significant intrusions into the older water in the Johannesburg region is rocks now underlying Gauteng. After the diabase and syenite limited to small rivers and streams. intrusions, an even longer time This water divide separates the city Dykes – magmatic bodies gap ensued for which the Kaapvaal into two catchments – the Jukskei representing the conduits for Craton has very little remaining River to the north and the Klip deep magma to the land surface – evidence. It was only around the River to the south – with smaller formed following the crystallisation Permian Era that the Ecca Group tributaries feeding these drainage of the Bushveld and preceding of the Karoo Supergroup was systems. the extrusion of the Pilanesberg deposited. Significant climate Complex. Diabase and syenite Johannesburg Water notes change at this stage depicts crystallised, cross-cutting the water quality issues in the Klip and conditions ranging from an Ice Age granites and Transvaal Supergroup Jukskei Catchments, notably due to to severe greenhouse conditions nutrient enrichment from sewage

The . (© Lani van Vuuren)

26 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg Johannesburg is situated on the divides between the Senqu-Orange Basin and the Limpopo Basin. Whereas the prior drains along the to the Atlantic Ocean, the latter eventually enters the Indian Ocean by means of the Limpopo River.

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 27 Chapter 2

and salinisation due to urban runoff. Contamination emanates from water runoff on roads, urban areas and informal settlements adjacent to rivers and streams, and discharges from wastewater treatment works. Most of the rivers are, at present, seriously to critically impaired. Key recommendations published by Johannesburg Water address impacts and mitigation measures for 16 sites. Although with slight variations, major impacts are described as removal of indigenous vegetation, encroachment of alien vegetation, erosion, barriers and weirs, bed and channel modification, sedimentation, and the numerous water quality impacts. Mitigation and management measures are in place for these 16 sites, incorporating the Modder- fonteinspruit, Upper Jukskei, Crocodile, Upper Klip, Lower Klip, Natalspruit, Lower Jukskei, Rietspruit, Braamfonteinspruit, Sandspruit (Sandton), Sandspruit (), Klein Jukskei, Wilge, Pampoenspruit, Bloubosspruit and Klipspruit Rivers. Notably in the instance of Johannesburg, significant volumes of water are imported from other catchments. Whereas Johannesburg itself falls mostly within the catchment of the Vaal River (draining towards the Orange River and eventually the Atlantic Ocean) and to some extent in that of the Crocodile River (draining towards the Limpopo River and eventually the Indian The City of Johannesburg has a number of wetlands in the form of dams, hillslope seeps, pans and valley bottoms. Wetlands are defined by the National Water Act as land that is Ocean), the importation of water significantly alters the transitional between aquatic and terrestrial, implying that it supplies habitat to plants regional catchments’ water balances. Additional water requiring periodical to permanent waterlogging of the roots. Wetland delineation is is imported from the Senqu River (in Lesotho, draining becoming increasingly important as it regulates water quality between the subsurface to the Orange River and eventually the Atlantic Ocean) and surface waters, promotes biodiversity, and supplies very specific habitats for certain and the Tugela River (in Kwazulu-Natal, eventually species of fauna and flora. draining towards the Indian Ocean).

28 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg The Rise of Man The influence of Homo sapiens is becoming increasingly evident in the geological record. What The evolution of Man – humankind, Homo sapiens – would a large underground mine cavity look like in recent geological times is well preserved in the fossil 100 000 years from now? What would a geologist record of Gauteng. Whereas the Karoo Supergroup describe it as, given the significant disruptions in sedimentary rocks preserve an abundance of fauna and natural state? What would the implications be on how flora, the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site that geological information is interpreted and applied? at the Sterkfontein Caves hosts some very important Many geologists debate that we are already in a new early hominid fossils. geological epoch. To incorporate the last few decades, The Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction (ca. 65 million the Anthropocene would follow on the Holocene, but years ago) resulted in the extinction of dinosaurs, include Man’s impact on the geological environment. granting mammals the opportunity to diversify. These impacts should inherently be significant enough Austalopithecus africanus first appeared in South Africa to be preserved in the geological record after millennia. 3 million years ago, followed by the first species of the Homo genus appearing in East Africa half a million years later, around the time of primitive stone tools. Evidence of A. africanus was found in Sterkfontein caves in the form of a near complete adult cranium known as Mrs Ples. Its discoverer, Robert Broom, is memorised in a street named after him in Krugersdorp (Mogale City), the town named after the president of the then Zuid Afrikaansche Republiek (ZAR) at the turn of the nineteenth century. Bone tools were used around 1.8 million years ago, around the time of Homo erectus. The genus Austalopithecus became extinct one million years ago, followed by the appearance of the first Homo sapiens 800 000 years ago and Homo sapies sapiens 200 000 years ago. A new hominoid species, Homo sebida, was more recently discovered in the same region.

The A. africanus skull, affectionately known as “Mrs Ples”.

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 29 Chapter 3: A glimpse through time: Recent history

Dependent on resources that formed billions of years ago, we – humankind – do not share the Johannesburg Then and Now history of our world. We merely represent the last milliseconds in time if the Earth’s lifespan is compressed into one day. And yet, our impact is significant through resource exploitation, contributions to climate change and disruption of the Earth’s equilibrium. THEN Nonetheless, technological advance and development are necessary and, for Johannesburg, it starts with the discovery of a specific geological commodity – gold – formed an immensity of time ago but used internationally for the standard valuation of currency to this day.

“Geology gave us the NOW immensity of time and taught us how little of it our own species has occupied.” – Steven Jay Gould, Ever Since Darwin: Reflections on Natural History.

30 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg Old imagery © Lost Johannesburg (Facebook) and individual authors.

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 31 Chapter 3

Discovery of Gold in the diamonds at Kimberley and to be a sensible starting point for looking into prospects of gold exploration. Following this, January mining in present-day Zimbabwe 1875 saw the founding of the Nil (previously Rhodesia, after his Desperandum Cooperative Quartz name), and the discovery of gold Company by Robert Green – the increased Europe’s ambition to first gold-mining company in colonise Africa and specifically the Witwatersrand region. Gold the ZAR. production was, however, very The history of Johannesburg low, resulting in the Blaauwbank itself, however, starts with the goldfield being practically discovery of gold. At this stage abandoned, Pretoria was expanding rapidly and David Wardrop discovered gold the discovery of gold in such close at Zwartkop north of Krugersdorp proximity was almost serendipity. in 1878, followed by Stephanus PJ Marais, official gold seeker Minnaar’s discovery of gold at of the ZAR, discovered gold in Kromdraai west of Zwartkop. With the Johannesburg Region in 1853. the rapid increases in discoveries, depopulation of the rural areas Prior to the discovery of Following this, gold discoveries ensued coupled with population significant gold-bearing reefs quickly expanded to the Olifants increase in the Witwatersrand area in the Witwatersrand, the Zuid River in present-day , as fortune seekers and hopefuls Afrikaansche Republiek (ZAR) Lydenburg (now Mashishing) in migrated to become part of the was annexed by Britain in 1877. 1869, the Letaba River in 1870, the gold rush. Between 1881 and 1884, By this time Pretoria was already farm Eersteling near Marabastad in a prospector named Jan Bantjes an established town near the well- 1871, Pilgrim’s Rest in 1873 and at together with Minnaar sank a shaft known springs at Groenkloof, and Sheba Reef near Barberton in 1884. near Kromdraai to the north of the tensions between the ZAR and December 1874 saw the Krugersdorp (Mogale City), which Britain have long been building. discovery of gold at Blaauwbank was declared a public digging in The First Anglo-Boer War ensued near the town of 1885. between 1880 and 1881 with Britain by an Australian digger named being defeated. However, Britain Henry Lewis. Given that gold haD January 1884 saw the Struben still retained some management already been discovered in the brothers Fred and Harry prospecting and foreign laws of the ZAR. Cecil dolomitic rocks around Pilgrim’s around the northern slopes of John Rhodes, Prime Minister of the Rest, the outcropping dolomites the Witwatersrand, eventually , was already interested of the present-day Gauteng proved discovering gold at Sterkfontein

32 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg and at Confidence Reef near pan’), Benoni, Krugersdorp and named Johannesburg, possibly after Roodepoort. Their first shaft was (‘ridge fountain’). Joubert and Rissik. sunk near the Wilgespruit (Willow The Gold Rush and the Randjeslaagte was originally Stream) in 1884, and they also owned by a syndicate ran by Founding of Johannesburg constructed the first crushing plant Julius Jeppe as it was unfit for for the region in December 1885. The rapid influx of prospectors, mining, and proved to be well- Jan Bantjes by this time had also miners and foreigners 30 km south positioned without compromising abandoned Kromdraai, bringing of Pretoria was not well appreciated mining activities to develop as a with him some gold-bearing reef by the then government. Johannes town (specifically the present- from Kromdraai. Bantjes and Meyer first attempted to bring order day suburbs of Jeppestown and Struben in 1886 discovered gold from by requiring prospectors to peg out Fordburg). The town centre was laid conglomerates at Vogelstruisfontein mine claims. out with wide streets intersecting (meaning ‘ostrich fountain’) to the each other perpendicularly. Market What is now Johannesburg was east of Roodepoort. Street Square formed the centre, founded during 1886, when the parallel to Commissioner Street, In the year 1885, George ZAR appointing Minister of Mines, the latter separating government Harrison and George Walker Christiaan Johannes Joubert, and land and Marshall’s Town. arrived on the farm Wilgespruit. Land Surveyor General, Johann Walker left Wilgespruit early in Rissik, to locate a locality for a During the same year, private 1886 to join Harrison who was in town for the thousands of fortune land including the farms Langlaagte, Langlaagte at the time, stumbling en seekers in the Witwatersrand. Randjeslaagte, Turffontein, Doorn- route on a rock in the Jukskei River. Joubert and Rissik held a public fontein, Elandsfontein, Driefontein, From his preceding gold digging gathering on the farm Turffontein Roodepoort, Paardekraal and history in Australia, he inspected to address the ZAR’s prospects Vogelstruisfontein was declared the rock in detail, discovering the for future gold diggings, followed public mining areas and was first major gold in what is today by Commissioner Carl von where opencast and surface mines referred to as the Main Reef. A Brandis reading President Paul developed. long and busy road in the south of Kruger’s declaration that the The following year mining Johannesburg is called Main Reef Witwatersrand is a public digging. spread to the East Rand areas of Road to this day. A small triangular portion of present-day , Benoni and Discoveries soon expanded land (uitvalgrond in ) Nigel. The gold rush was further throughout the West Rand and – Randjeslaagte – was selected stimulated by the discovery of coal East Rand to places such as Springs, between the farms of , near and (meaning ‘brackish and Turffontein and which helped to meet the energy

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 33 Chapter 3

requirements for the mining mine houses, including Rand Mines and Berlin, resulting eventually in operations. By 1885, South Africa Ltd (Alfred Beit, Hermann Eckstein the gold standard being established was the world’s biggest single gold and ), Consolidated in Britain. This gold standard producer, contributing 27.5% to the Gold Fields of South Africa (Cecil was accepted shortly thereafter global gold production. John Rhodes), Johannesburg by the majority of the world’s Around 1890, the first deep Consolidated Investment Company biggest trading countries, placing mining commenced, increasing (Barney Barnato) and Anglo- London, the Bank of England and labour requirements and cost. This, French (George Farrar Group). the British pound sterling centrally coupled with the change with depth Coupled with the prosperity of in international trade. Until this from banket to pyritic ore requiring gold mining in the region, poorer day, the monetary standard of any enhanced mining and extraction inhabitants were employed in the country’s currency is measured processes, eventually had 44 of the transport industry (prior to the against a fixed amount of fine or smaller mining house bankrupt. extensive railway development) pure gold, with one sterling pound The remaining mining houses and brick making. However, the equalling 113.0016 fine ounce pure merged into bigger companies Transvaal gold shares became gold at the end of the nineteenth known collectively as the Randlords. sought after in the international century. By 1893 there were ten such large stock exchanges of London, Paris

Off to the gold field, and diggers returning from the gold fields, in the late 1890s (estimated).

34 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg Given continuous increased from the Witbank (eMalahleni) and The British Colonial Secretary, development, many small farms Vereeniging coal fields. The first coal- Sir John Chamberlain, appointed turned into large-scale commercial fired electricity plant in the area was Sir Alfred Milner as High operations. Transport was improved, completed near Brakpan in 1897, Commissioner of South Africa notably railways such as those contributing additional energy to during May 1897. One year later connecting developed nodes such the booming town. was elected President of as Cape Town and Kimberley. The town continued to grow. the ZAR. His strong foreign citizen Railways from then Delagoabaai Only ten years after it was founded policies resulted in Chamberlain (Maputo), Durban and Cape its population exceeded 100 000 and Milner sending a petition to Town reached the Witwatersrand people. Johannesburg now included Queen Victoria in 1899. around the middle of the 1890s, workers’ suburbs such as , On 11 October 1899, the South and imports became cheaper as Jeppe, Malvern, Mayfair, Vrededorp, African War commenced and the transport improved through the Burgersdorp, , Turffontein, ZAR surrendered on 31 May 1902. new railway systems. Booysens and Langlaagte. Poorer Both the ZAR and the Orange Free Secondary industries were, at suburbs of this era included State were then incorporated as this stage in time, mostly granted to and Brickfields British colonies. monopolies, notably the coal supplied (Braamfontein).

Historical photographs showing mining-related explosions at Johannesburg.

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 35 Chapter 3

A glance at Johannesburg in 1897, compiled by B W Melville and printed by Grocott and Sherry Publishers. The population around this time was just over 10 000.

36 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg After the war History after the war followed a trajectory defined by gold mining Following the South African War, prosperity. The Union of South South Africa was under British rule. Africa was declared on 31 May The year 1909 saw the founding of 1910 during which Pretoria was Crown Mines Limited through the selected as the seat of government merging of seven mining properties. and administrative capital, and Cape As mining expanded and the Town as the legislative capital. population grew, the need for more Johannesburg received its city energy resulted in the establishment status a few years later, in 1928. The of a consortium known as the Republic of South Africa was born in Victoria Falls and Transvaal Power 1960, democratic elections followed Company (VFP), who established a in 1994, and, until this day, gold plant at Vereeniging around 1912. mining prevails as the reason for The VPF later became Eskom, which Johannesburg’s existence. still manages power generation in Now, in the twenty-first century, South Africa until this day. the population well exceeds 10 At this time, upper class suburbs million in the commercial and included Doornfontein, , industrial heart of South Africa. , Houghton and Berea. As water is imported, commodities Parktown was almost exclusively and currency are exported from inhabited by the Randlonds, and Johannesburg and the greater apparently named in honour of the Gauteng Province, stimulating the establishment of the first parks in the economy of the whole of South treeless dusty mining town. Africa.

Gauteng is presently subdivided into a number of separate municipalities. Population of the greater Johannesburg region exceeds 10 million with 4.5 million residing within the City of Johannesburg itself. The City of Tshwane to the north has a significantly lower population, but houses Pretoria, the administrative capital of South Africa

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 37 Chapter 4: A matter of demand versus supply

Gold is clearly a commodity with a very significant economic value. Major rivers and streams in Water is often not perceived as such Johannesburg include the Jukskei as it does not contribute directly to River and the Klip River. These are the economy. Nonetheless, water shown in context of some of the is a commodity like any other, major water schemes supplying with the fundamental difference water to the City of Johannesburg to this day. being that it is a basic human need. Costing reflects this. For Johannesburg, water indeed links us to our neighbours as water is sourced from numerous catchments and imported to the rapidly growing Gauteng Province. The world has marvelled at the scientific and engineering excellence that has gone into the development of Johannesburg’s water supply.

“Water links us to our neighbour in a way more profound and complex than any other.” – John Thorson, on receiving the 2008 Stockholm Water Prize for his “virtual water” concept.

38 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg Johannesburg Water Supply at a Glance

A number of dams within South Africa and Lesotho supply water to Gauteng. Forming part of the Sterkfontein-Vaal, Usuthu-Vaal and Lesotho Highlands Schemes, Pretoria Gauteng water eventually reaches the for treatment and distribution by Rand Water. Johannesburg Province Vaal Storage Vaal Dam Wall capacity Surface

Wilge maximum Wall length (million area at full Dam Dam type height (m) (m) m3) supply (ha)

Ash DRAKENSBERG PUMPED Concrete 518.6 LESOTHO HIGHLANDS STORAGE SCHEME gravity with (concrete); Vaal 63 2540 32300 WATER PROJECT earthfill 1890 Katse Tugela right flank (earthfill) Dam LESOTHO Sterkfontein Earthfill 93 3060 2656 6937 Caledon Senqu Durban Woodstock Earthfill 51 760 381 6700 Driekloof Rockfill 46.6 500 35.6 Orange Indian Ocean Kilburn Earthfill 51 825 36 Transfer & Delivery Tunnel Phase 1A Concrete gravity with Grootdraai 42 2180 364 5500 earthfill The Thukela-Vaal Transfer Scheme supplies water to Rand flanks Water from the Tugela River’s basin while the associated Heyshope Earthfill 26.5 1030 364 4500 Drakensberg Pumped Storage Scheme contribute electricity to the national grid on behalf of Eskom. Rand Water supply Double- curvature is further augmented by water from the Lesotho Highlands Katse 185 710 1950 3600 Water Project. Here water from the upper reaches of the concrete arch Senqu River in Lesotho’s Higlands are dammed, tunnelled to South Africa, and released to the Ash River. Water from both Concrete- schemes eventually reach the Wilge and Vaal Rivers and the Mohale faced 145 700 938 2200 rockfill Vaal Dam itself.

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 39 Chapter 4

Johannesburg Water Supply at a Glance

1855 Pretoria founded 1914 Vaal River Development Scheme

1880 First Anglo-Boer War 1920 Rand Water supply (90 Ml/d)

1886 Discovery of Gold in WWR 1924 completed

1886 Founding of Johannesburg 1928 Johannesburg received city status

1886 Fordburgspruit; Natalspruit (Park Town Spring) 1928 Pretoria incorporated into Rand Water supply

1887 Sievewright Concession 1938 Vaal Dam completed (add 354 Ml/d)

1889 Johannesburg Waterworks and Exploration Company 1949 Zuikerbosch Vaal River Schemes 1889 Vierfontien’s Klip River Scheme at Olifantsvlei 1960s (4100 Ml/d – complete Vaal; not just Rand Water) 1890 Deep mining commenced 1961 Republic of SA Braamfontein Water Company; 1893 1965–1970 Usuthu-Vaal scheme Vierfontein Syndicate (established) 5.86 Ml/d) 1896 Weltevreden; Zuurbekom dolomite aquifer 1970–1971 Spioenkop and Sterkfontein Dams

1897 First coal-fired electricity plant (Brakpan) 1980 Sterkfontein Dam raised; Kilburn and Driekloof Dams

1899 Second Anglo-Boer War 1981 Grootdraai Dam

1899 Zuurbekom pump station 1988 Heyshope Dam

1903 Rand Water Board 1998 Katse and Mohale Dams; Phase 1 of Lesotho Scheme Johannesburg Water established, 1906 Rand Water supply (11 Ml/d) 2000 managing five Waste Water Treatment Works 1910 Unification of SA 2015 Phase 2 of Lesotho Scheme at tender stage

1912 Victoria Falls Power Company 2015 Rand Water supply (3600 Ml/d)

40 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg Water demand and supply curves for Rand Water over the lifespan of the water supply utility

5000 Questionnaire 1992 4500 AIDS without DM 4000 Most likely ADDITIONAL WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES 1982 3500 AIDS with DM 1980 3000

1970

Ml/d 2500

2000 1965 1500

1000 1959 1950 500 1936 1937 1945 1949 1923

0 1905 1910 1915 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

Source: Data courtesy of Rand Water

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 41 Chapter 4

Johannesburg’s Initial Water developed the Klip River Valley’s Supply first pumping station in 1889, pumping from Olifantsvlei Farm Following the euphoria after (near Turffontein). This new Klip the discovery of gold on the River Scheme drained to the Vaal Witwatersrand in 1886 came an River and was later incorporated increasing concern over water. In into the Johannesburg Waterworks the early days of Johannesburg and Exploration Company. water was obtained from the In the years leading up to 1896, Fordburgspruit as well as a spring another source was identified on at the eastern end of present-day the farm Weltevreden north of the Commissioner Street. A second Barney Barnato Roodepoort mining operations, spring forming the Natalspruit, was but also ended up being insufficient also used. This spring was located at Given that roughly 2 000 litres of for the growing water demand. the present Johannesburg General water was required for processing Additional groundwater was later Hospital in Park Town. of one ton of reef and that later obtained from the dolomite aquifers The Sivewright Concession of extraction processes used cyanide on the farm Zuurbekom where a 1887 was the first significant grant to to increase the yield of recoverable pump station was erected in 1899, a private company for water supply gold, water overuse and potential which is still in use today. on the Witwatersrand. Sir James pollution increased rapidly. The For the most of the late nine- Sivewright headed the syndicate, need of water in the processing teenth century, water supply was utilising the Doornfontein springs of ore grew the water demand to problematic. However, following and eventually established the between 2.89 and 5.86 million the South African War, water Johannesburg Waterworks and litres per day by 1893, resulting in supply to the town of Johannesburg Exploration Company Ltd. The the establishment of small water metamorphosed through time. company was eventually taken supply companies such as the Directly following the war, over by Barney Barnato in 1889 at Braamfontein Water Company the Johannesburg Waterworks which time it supplied roughly 6.8 and the Vierfontein Syndicate. and Exploration Company, the million litres daily to the residents Whereas Braamfontein supplied Braamfontein Company and the of Johannesburg. Around this some 0.6 million litres per day to Vierfontein Syndicate supplied time, it is said that water was so the area around Parktown from water from the Zuurbekom expensive that people cooked their two wells, Vierfontein supplied dolomite, Doornfontein springs food in soda water, given that it water both for mining purposes (near Ellis Park stadium), springs was cheaper. and for potable use. Vierfontein in the Natalspruit, Berea and

42 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg Parktown, and the Klip River Valley In 1906 the board supplied to an Pumping Station. ever-growing demand of 11 million As water demand escalated so litres per day until, eventually, water did Johannesburg water-related restrictions came into effect while infrastructure, with highlights augmentation options of the supply being the establishment of the Rand commenced. Water Board in 1903, followed by a Severe droughts in the 1913s number of dams and water transfer were cause for concern and Rand schemes and later Johannesburg Water adopted the proposed Vaal Water’s wastewater treatment River Development Scheme in works. 1914. Establishment of the Rand The growing capital city, Pretoria, was incorporated into Water Board the Rand Water Board’s supply in © Lani van Vuuren Following the end of the 1928, with a total of 90 million litres per day required from the The Vaal Barrage, completed in 1928, was the first water storage South African War in 1902, the infrastructure constructed for Rand Water. ruling British realised the need board by 1920. for investigation of water supply At present, Rand Water’s home- and sanitation services. On 8 May page cites it network including 1903, the Rand Water Board was 3 056 km of large diameter pipeline established to supply water to the moving water to 58 service entire area (by the Rand Water reservoirs. The average daily supply Board Incorporation Ordinance No just exceeds 3 600 million litres 32 of May 1903). The Rand Water per day to metropolitan and local Board comprised members of the municipalities, mines and other Johannesburg Town Council, as industries. well as the Chamber of Mines and other relevant authorities within the Damming the Vaal River greater Witwatersrand region. One In the early 1910s and 1920s, year later, in 1904, Rand Water took the Vaal River Scheme, including over all endeavours supplying or the Barrage, supplied a total of © DWS with capability of supplying water 91 million litres of water per day. to the Witwatersrand, and in 1905 The decision to construct the The original Vaal Dam overflowing shortly after its construction Rand Water commenced with full- in 1938. barrage was made in terms of the fledged operation.

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 43 Chapter 4

Rand Water Board Supplementary Village Main Reef and elsewhere. and 1955. Water subsequently again Water Supply (Private) Act of 1914. The water demands continued became a concern for the Vaal and The locality proposed was at the to increase to more than 50 million catchments, resulting Lindeque’s site roughly 40 km litres (14.5 million gallons) per day in the first true endeavour for a downstream from Vereeniging. and the Vaal River Scheme was large-scale water transfer scheme. Construction of the 425 m-wide proposed. The Vaal Dam itself The Komati Water Transfer barrage, river intakes and plant at was completed in 1938 supplying Scheme taps water from an Vereeniging was postponed until a further 354 million litres per international river, the Komati, 1918 after the First World War. day. For further reticulation, the between South Africa and Swaziland The Vaal Barrage at Vereeniging Zuikerbosch pump station was and stores it in the Nooitgedacht was eventually completed in 1924 completed in 1949. Dam that was completed in 1962. for purification and pumping works. The year 1940 saw a dire water The dam supplied water to the Pipelines were also constructed to shortage in Pretoria given the Komati Power Station, but as power the Zwartkoppies Pumping Station, growing water demands of the stations expanded to Hendrina and capital city’s increasing population. Arnot, more water was required. As capital city, the Pretoria Town The Vygeboom Dam followed in Council and the Rand Water 1971 from which water is pumped Board reached agreement that the to the Nooitgedacht Dam. latter would increase its supply Energy requirements continued area to cater for the growing need. to grow and expand from Simultaneously, development Mpumalanga to the . With around Vereeniging required a the announcement of a new Sasol trustworthy supply of water, and oil-from-coal plant and associated both Pretoria and Vereeniging were infrastructure near Trichardt on incorporated with Witwatersrand the watershed between the Vaal (referred to as the PWV Triangle) River and the Olifants River, the in the water supply by Rand Water. Usutu-Vaal River Government © Lani van Vuuren Water Scheme was proposed. Water for the Coalfields Tapping water from the Usuthu The Vaal Dam wall was initially 54.2 m at the lowest foundation and River in the Olifants catchment, the With the rapid expansion is a gravity dam comprising a concrete gravity structure with an scheme comprises the Jericho Dam of coalfields in present-day earthfill section on the right flank. The height was increased to 60.3 m (constructed mid-1960s), Westoe in the 1950s, and again to 63.4 m in the 1980s. The dam presently Mpumalanga and the Highveld, Dam (late-1960s), Morgenstond stores roughly 2 600 million cubic metres of water with an additional Eskom saw a doubling in capacity Dam (± 1970) and a number of temporary flood safeguard just above 600 million cubic metres. of its power stations between 1954 reservoirs.

44 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg The Vaal River was dammed in the Vaal River eventually meets the m-long earth embankment with its upper reaches by means of the Orange River towards the Atlantic original height of 68 m and storage Grootdraai Dam near Standerton Ocean, the Tugela River exits capacity of 1.2 million cubic metres. (1977-1981). The Heyshope Dam through the eastern escarpment In 1980, a decision was made was constructed later – between into the Indian Ocean. Then to raise the dam wall of the 1982 and 1988 – in the Assegaai Minister of Water Affairs, Fanie Sterkfontein Dam to its current River, pumping 100 million cubic Botha, approved the Thukela-Vaal height of 93 m, as well as to construct metres of water annually into the Transfer Scheme in June 1970. a lower reservoir. Shortly following Vaal River system, supplementing Construction commenced with this, the 51 m-high Kilburn Dam the Grootvlei Dam. the Spioenkop Dam. Following and 46.6 m-high Driekloof Dam Water from the Tugela River exclusion of options for dams near were constructed downslope of Harrismith and Qwa-Qwa, the Sterkfontein. These three dams With growing water demands Sterkfontein Dam site was located are used for power generation (as coupled with significant droughts in the Nuwejaarspruit (a tributary part of the Drakensberg Pumped in the mid-1960s, additional water of the Liebenbergsvlei River flowing Storage Scheme) where water is was required in the then Pretoria- into the and the Vaal dropped from the Driekloof Dam Witwatersrand-Vereeniging (PWV) Dam). via an underground power station area. The storage of the existing To link Spioenkop Dam and to the Kilburn Dam. When excess schemes in the Vaal River was 4 100 Sterkfontein Dam and to decrease power exists in the grid, the process million cubic metres supplying a pumping energy, the Woodstock is reversed and water is pumped maximum of just over 1 500 million Dam was proposed at the confluence back upslope from Kilburn Dam cubic metres of water per year. of the Tugela and Mnweni Rivers. to Driekloof Dam. In instances that the Driekloof Dam is full, the The Vaal Dam had reached its The Woodstock Dam eventually water is simply released into the limits in terms of the height of its serves to store water for further Sterkfontein Dam. dam wall and high evaporation pumping via the Jagersrust further affected the prospects of pumpstation to Kilburn Dam and Water is presently released increasing the dam’s storage. Water eventually into the Sterkfontein from the Sterkfontein Dam into reuse was already implemented and Dam (and subsequently the Vaal the Nuwejaarspruit and eventually the proposed Lesotho Highlands River). The Spioenkop Dam, on the Wilge River and Vaal River. Water Project was still in early the other hand, regulates flow of Despite serious droughts between discussion and therefore not an the Tugela River for downstream 1983 and 1987 and again in 1995, immediate solution. demands. restricted but adequate water could be supplied by Rand Water thanks At this stage, attention was Construction of the Sterkfontein to the Thukela-Vaal scheme. shifted to the Tugela River. Whereas Dam commenced in 1971 as a 2 290

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 45 Chapter 4

Sterkfontein and the Thukela-Vaal Scheme

© Lani van Vuuren © Gerrit Burger © Lani van Vuuren

The Sterkfontein Dam stores water for release to the Vaal River. Water is sourced from the Tugela River and pumped upwards from the Woodhead Dam. The Vaal and Sterkfontein Dams are among the top five largest dams in South Africa at present.

The Woodhead Dam (in the foreground) and the Spioenkop Dam (in the back) was later constructed to pump water into the Sterkfontein Dam. Whereas the prior dams fall within the catchment of the Thukela (Tugela) River draining towards the Indian Ocean, it is pumped into the Sterkfontein Dam in the Vaal River draining towards the © Gerrit Burger Atlantic Ocean.

46 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg Water from the Senqu River in Lesotho Three phases comprising four dams were flow metres at the Muela Station and again proposed to dam water from the Senqu at a weir at the Ash River Outfall in South Rand Water presently gets bulk of its River in Lesotho. Water from the dams Africa. Here the water is released via the Ash, water supply from the Lesotho Highlands. completed during the first phase in 1998 – Liebenbergsvlei and Wilge Rivers for the final The Natural Resources Development Council the Katse and Mohale Dams – are diverted 200 km travel to the Vaal Dam. first proposed the scheme in 1954, aiming to via tunnels through the Maluti Mountains to Word has it that the Ash River, originally eventually supply 2.2 billion cubic metres of the Ash River in the near the town called the Asrivier in Afrikaans, resulted in water per year to South Africa. Negotiations of Clarens, from where it flows on surface some confusion as to whether the accurate between the two countries commenced in the ultimately to the Vaal Dam. translation is Ash or Axle River. It is told late 1970s with a treaty being formally signed Water is connected between the Mohale that wood was found in the river used to between the governments of South Africa, and Katse Dams by means of the Mohale make axles for ox wagons during the Great Lesotho, the European Union, the United Tunnel. From the Katse Dam, water enters Trek. Nevertheless, the river has significantly Nations and the World Bank in 1986. The initial the Delivery Tunnel South from Katse to the increased in flow due to the transfer from proposed cost was estimated at R5.5 billion, ‘Muela Power Station and Tailpond Dam, and Lesotho and is currently a renowned river but the figure was increased to R9.1 billion then enters the tunnel again to the Ash River rafting location. for the first phase in 1997. Outfall. Flow is measured using sensitive

Lesotho Highlands Water Project

The Katse (left) and Mohale (right) Dams supply water to the Vaal Dam through the Lesotho Highlands Water Project. They are the first two fully completed dams forming part of the project with Phase 2 presently being at tender stage. Water from these dams are transported 90 km from the Lesotho Highlands to the Ash River Outfall in Clarens, and then another 200 km in the Ash, Liebenbergsvlei and Wilge Rivers to the Vaal Dam (© Matthys Dippenaar 2012).

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 47 Chapter 4

Lesotho Highlands Water Project

The delivery tunnel was officially oped by Prof Kader Asmal, minister of Water Affairs and Forestry of the time, on 23 January 1998. The Delivery Tunnel North also achieved a South African Institution of Civil Engineering (SAICE) award for the most outstanding civil engineering achievement in the international category. The system is managed by the Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (South Africa) and the Lesotho Highlands Development Authority (Lesotho), releasing in the order of 35 million cubic metres per second. Every few years, for maintenance, flow is shut off and the tunnel is inspected. For the adventurous, river rafting is also offered at the Ash River Outfall near the town of Clarens.

48 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg Establishment of For the year 2011/12, 962 million The Johannesburg town Johannesburg Water litres of sewage was treated daily, engineer submitted reports entitled generating roughly 91 611 tonnes “Disposal of Sewage” and “Sewerage Johannesburg Water State of dry sludge for the year. Given and Stormwater Drainage” on Owned Company (SOC) Ltd the vast volumes of water treated, 9 December 1902. Further reports was incorporated in November notably in the northern areas, were subsequently submitted, 2000 and commenced business a significant amount of water proposing two alternative sites in January 2001. Mandated to is discharged into the northern for sewage farms. The first, on provide water and sanitation to Limpopo Water Management Klipspruit Farm, was constructed the Johannesburg residents in Area from the Driefontein Works, with its first sewage delivery in the area between in increasing downstream runoff November 1907. Public complaints the south, Midrand in the north, significantly. in 1908, however, resulted in a case Roodepoort in the west, and At present, approximately 750 000 in the High Court in June 1909 and Alexandra in the east. Whereas domestic, commercial and industrial the Council was allowed in 1910 to Rand Water is an organ of state customers are supplied an average of mitigate the issue. reporting to the Department of 1 522 million litres per day. With an During 1937, new works were Water and Sanitation, Johannesburg estimated 4.4 million people (census commissioned for combined sewage Water is a state-owned company 2011), this results in a per capita from Germiston and Boksburg. with the sole shareholder being the usage around 345 liters per person Regions around Springs, Benoni, City of Johannesburg Metropolitan per day. Brakpan and Krugersdorp quickly Municipality. followed with conventional sewage Johannesburg Water operates Development of Johannes- purification works. six regions, ten network deposits burg’s Sanitation System The promulgation of the first and six wastewater treatment plants Water Act (Act 54 of 1956) and the in Central Gauteng. A continental The history of sanitation in creation of the Department of Water divide separates the region into a Johannesburg follow that of the Affairs from the then Department northern and southern area. The water supply fairly closely. The first of Irrigation (now the Department northern area’s sewage is treated proper sewage treatment scheme of Water and Sanitation) resulted at the Northern or Driefontein was proposed for Wynberg (now in stricter legislation of wastewater Wastewater Treatment Works, in Cape Town) and the first such and separate standards were and the southern areas at the operational scheme was developed developed for wastewater quality Goudkoppie, Bushkoppie, in Bloemfontein. The inland towns in 1962. Olifantsvlei and Ennerdale became interested in improved Wastewater Treatment Works. sanitation systems and quickly followed suite.

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 49 Chapter 5: A glimpse through time: Recent history

“Water, water, It is not always the lack of Water Quality and Supply Concerning drinking water everywhere, water readily available creating quality, the term ‘potable water’ is According to the City of nor any drop problems in supply, but rather employed for water safe for human the compromised or inadequate Johannesburg, most of the rivers consumption. While we endeavour to drink.” quality thereof. Water for different may be considered seriously or to preserve water quality in natural – Samuel Taylor uses has very specific standards critically impaired and deviate environments, potable or drinking Coleridge, The Rime of to comply with, ensuring human from their good or natural state. water quality standards are strict to the Ancient Mariner. and environmental health. For Sewage, acid mine drainage from minimise health impacts on users. slimes dams, incompatible land use, this reason, some mention of the Maximum contaminant levels human activities, urban runoff and importance of water quality and (MCLs) define levels of a chemical increased development are noted as water treatment is well deserved. in drinking water according to a some influences on the river systems Given the heritage of mining given regulatory body (such as of the city with surface spills and and the associated contamination, the World Health Organisation, poor infrastructure maintenance the increased demands, and the US Environmental Protection regarded as the most significant position of Johannesburg at the Agency or Department of Water drivers of change in these systems. very top of a significant watershed and Sanitation) below which the Typical pollution sources include imply that Johannesburg probably water is considered potable for road runoff, urban and informal has more difficulty in acquiring prolonged periods. Water boards development adjacent to rivers, and sufficient amounts of water than and suppliers continuously monitor untreated discharge from some of most other cities in South Africa. the quality of their waters through the wastewater treatment works. From a scientific point-of-view, laboratory analyses to ensure that Increasing population growth, more than a century’s excellence in the quality is not compromised. microbial contamination due to science and engineering has helped inadequate sanitation, littering Drinking water quality in South in achieving this: supplying this and waste dumping are some of Africa is governed by South African city with water for its residential, the additional concerns requiring National Standard (SANS) 241 of commercial and industrial needs. attention. 2001.

50 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg Some minimum requirements often compromised and pristine and Sanitation introduced the Blue are as follows: water from Lesotho and the Tugela Drop and Green Drop Certification requires retreatment in Gauteng. Programmes. The Blue Drop is pH: 6.0-9.0 awarded to a municipality based TDS: < 450 mg/litre (ℓ) Scientists distinguish between contamination and pollution. on exceptional water supply and the EC: < 70 mS/m Contamination refers to elevated Green Drop based on exceptional Calcium: < 80 mg/ ℓ concentrations of some substance water treatment practices. As at Chloride: < 100 mg/ ℓ in water. Levels of contamination 15 April 2015, the City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Fluoride: < 0.7 mg/ ℓ resulting in adverse effects to health of humans or the environment Municipality is more than Magnesium: < 30 mg/ ℓ are then termed pollution. More 99.9% compliant in terms of Nitrogen: < 6.0 mg/ ℓ formally put, contamination is its microbiological (including Potassium: < 25 mg/ ℓ considered the degradation of bacteria), chemical (major Sodium: < 200 mg/ ℓ natural quality, typically due to cations, anions and metals), and physical and organoleptic (non- Sulphate: < 200 mg/ ℓ human intervention, whereas pollution refers to contaminant health affecting taste and odour) Coliform 0 organism per requirements. The Municipality bacteria: 100 ml in 95% of levels restricting the proposed use samples of the water. has been awarded Blue Drop status since the first report in 2009 Urbanisation results in distinctly Faecal 0 organisms per until 2011. With the 2012 report coliform 100 ml in 95% of varying land use with a dense pending, Johannesburg presently bacteria: samples concentration of potential sources has an overall Blue Drop score of E. coli: 0 organisms per of contamination. This, coupled 98.92%. (You can find out the water 100 ml in 95% of with mining, industrialisation samples quality of your area and access the and agriculture, create a need relevant Blue Drop reports on the for understanding the potential Internet at https://www.dwa.gov. Most of Gauteng’s water is of contamination and proper za/dir_ws/dwqr/.) sourced from other catchments. mitigation measures to, in the end, This water is released following preserve both water quality and In a press release by the then continuous damming, piping quantity. Department of Water Affairs, national non-revenue water is and pumping to the Vaal River’s In addressing municipal estimated at 36.7%, while for tributaries and flows vast distances performance in supplying good Johannesburg, this was around 35% as surface water. Given its direct quality drinking water and properly in 2010/11. A significant portion contact with human development managing waste water treatment of these water losses is accounted on the land surface, the quality is plants, the Department of Water

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 51 Chapter 5 for as physical leakages of water reticulation infrastructure such as pipelines. With more than a third Impacts on the Water Cycle and its Quality of supplied water being lost and unaccounted for, water scarcity is progressively becoming more of a concern. Key issues ascribed as contributing factors include poor planning, budget constraints, lack of technical solutions, lack of community support, lack of skills and poor metering and billing systems. Subsequently, in 2013, a new No Drop Certification Programme was introduced. This is awarded to municipalities with effective strategies in reducing water demand and water leakages within the municipal area. Water use efficiency is critical in ensuring water supply to the ever-growing demand and visible reductions in water losses and wastage are awarded through this incentive. This is closely related to the Department of Water and Sanitation’s Project 15% through The water cycle, also called the hydrological cycle, represents the interaction between water in the which water conservation and water atmosphere, on land surface, in the oceans, and in the subsurface. Water reaches the land surface demand management measures are through, for instance, rainfall or snowfall (the latter being notably relevant in the Lesotho Highlands). On the land surface, water can either flow as surface runoff in streams and rivers, or infiltrate into the implemented by municipalities to subsurface as groundwater. Both eventually drain towards the ocean. Water also evaporates back reduce the demand by 15%. into the atmosphere, or is released to the atmosphere through transpiration by plants as a product of photosynthesis. However, given the need for water at specific locations, the water cycle may be interrupted through water transfer schemes, pumped storage schemes and damming.

52 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg Man has distinct influences on the water cycle. Mining, agricultural and other water needs utilise surface water and lower then natural groundwater table. Pumping for these purposes aim to meet a water demand for the relevant land use, or to lower the water table for the purpose of safe underground mining. Industrial and mining activities contribute to possible groundwater and surface water quality deterioration through acid mine drainage, petroleum, effluent from land fill sites, and so forth, gradually seeping into the subsurface. Hard surfaces in urban settings furthermore load the stormwater system with excess water and reduce gradual infiltration of water into the subsurface. Coupled with sanitation, burial, fertilizers and other commercial and industrial practices, both surface water and groundwater progressively becomes at risk of contamination and, possibly, pollution.

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 53 Chapter 5

Rural and Peri-urban Impacts and herbicides that may adversely channelled to the stormwater on the Water Cycle and Water impact on water quality. As systems or downstream drainages Quality farms are mostly groundwater- that may result in significant dependent for domestic use, these erosion, concentrated inflow of Being the greatest user of chemicals can affect the health of water into the subsurface at discreet water in South Africa, irrigation the household occupants and farm positions, or permanently affecting for agricultural purposes places workers. surface drainage. a stress on the water resources of Peri-urban areas surrounding Streams in urban areas may the whole country. In its defence, cities and other rural developments easily become a series of isolated however, agriculture provides are also often dependent on ponds where flow is no longer nutrition through crop and groundwater for domestic supply. continuous and consistent, livestock to the people of South In these instances it becomes the resulting in loss of so-called green Africa and, given the low density of responsibility of the community corridors and biodiversity. Urban localised abstraction, is (if managed to ensure protection of the very development also infringes on properly) needed for survival. important water resources. the shallow subsurface hydrology However, coupled with farming Examples of contaminants in these forming the numerous hillslope practices is the use of fertilizers areas are numerous and include wetland systems common in cemeteries, on-site sanitation (such Midrand. Draining these systems as pit latrines) and using of surface reduces biodiversity and may result water for both sanitary (washing) in increased contamination of both and drinking purposes. surface water and groundwater. Urban Impacts on the Water Within the City of Johannesburg, five wetland management zones Cycle and Water Quality have been devised which are Despite the numerous impacts based on the underlying bedrock. on water quality in urban areas, Different bedrock conditions and additional stress is exerted on geology result in different types the hydrological regime through of wetlands, and are subdivided urban development. Wetlands and broadly as those underlain by © Drinie Janse van Rensburg channels are easily disturbed by Johannesburg Dome granite, development of hard surfaces (such Witwatersrand sedimentary Crop irrigation – despite using vast amounts of water – can also rocks, Ventersdorp andesite, mobilise fertilizers and herbicides into the ground. This can as roads and pavements), reducing Chuniespoort dolomite, and shales potentially affect the groundwater quality and subsequently the the infiltration of rainwater into health of those using this water for consumption. the ground. This water is typically and andesites combined.

54 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg Mining Impacts on the Water metamorphosed elemental carbon. Cycle and Water Quality In both these industries, pyrite is a commonly associated accessory Acid mine water or acid mine mineral and the acid generation drainage (AMD) refers to water from rock weathering is a concern. containing free sulphuric acid Apart from the possible resulting from the weathering of generation of acid mine water, pyrite. Weathering is exacerbated other impacts include lowering by the exposure of pyrite to of the groundwater table due to oxygen during mining, resulting dewatering for continuation of in water with acidic pH values.The mining and ground instabilities. In mineral pyrite (FeS ) is commonly 2 many instances, pumping continues associated with, for instance, gold in areas where deep development ore and oxidizes (in the presence of may be flooded if water tables O and water, H O) to free iron ions 2 2 rebound. All of these have affected (Fe2+) and sulphuric acid (H SO ). 2 4 and are affecting South Africa’s The pH is typically below 5 already limited water resources in and it can be host to a variety of the Witwatersrand area. heavy metals as soluble species Complaints about a decrease depending on the geology and in water for agricultural use were redox conditions. pH is a measure apparently noted around 1905 of acidity, specifically referring to already. The first true subvention temperatures of 25˚ and pressures – in the form of the 1960 Jordaan of 1 bar. With 7 indicating neutral Commission Report – however water (H O), values below become 2 proposed further dewatering of the progressively more acidic and those dolomite areas to the north in order above more alkaline or basic. to expand the mining operations. In the gold-mining industry, This would impact greatly on South Africa’s long and intensive gold-mining history resulted in a gold occurs as ore in native form, surface stability and water quality heritage often associated with pollution. Mine tailings like these meaning that it is not in a chemical in the subsequent decades, as no form characteristic anthropogenic topography associated with the compound with other elements. The distinct minimum requirements East Rand and West Rand. Even though some of these tailing dumps same applies to the coal industry, for mine closure was stipulated. are presently being reclaimed (in other words, mined again for lower supplying important energy to the grade ore that is economically feasible and technologically possible Mine tailings (dumps of waste goldfields, where coal occurs as with current technology), thedecant of acid mine drainage remains material) are numerous around a problem.

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 55 Chapter 5

the Witwatersrand. These tailings are typically not vegetated, resulting in additional threats of dust, erosion and leaching. These dumps are also enclosed by urban space such as residential and business areas, implying a closed pathway between the possible source of contamination and the receptors or users. It was only in the late 1990s that the South African Constitution changed together with Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act and the National Water Act, whereby ownership of mineral resources and water were transferred from the land owner. At present, these are owned by the public collectively and the state acts as custodian with Mining influences water in numerous ways. Dewatering for the safe continuation of respect to the allocation of mining activities results in regional lowering of the groundwater table, potentially these important resources. affecting proximate users. Water emanating from mining activities is generally enriched in a wide array of compounds. Iron notably gives a distinct red colour (e.g. left) and, coupled with acid generation from sulphide-minerals, acid mine water (right) can result. The colour is characteristic of very low pH (high acidity) water; at this position, the pH was measured at 2.5.

56 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg Water Treatment and Discharge to Other Catchments

Driefontein WWTW

Johannesburg is the first municipality in South Africa to thoroughly incorporate anaerobic sludge digestion at some of its wastewater treatment works. Organic matter from the sewage sludge is used to produce biogas (as methane gas) which is used as an energy source for the treatment process. Through this, energy costs are reduced as the sludge itself provides part of the requirements for the operation of the water treatment works. The process, termed Combined Heat and The Driefontein Wastewater Treatment Works is one of Johannesburg’s Power (CGP), is done through a series of chemical processes to produce prime examples of water treatment to standards allowing its discharge methane. Combustion of methane then generates energy required for into the Crocodile catchment to the north. Being on the the oldest other processes. Based on findings from a WRC report (TT 565/13), the such facilities in the city, it comprises one activated sludge module City of Johannesburg’s CHP can potentially produce 10.2 MW electrical with a daily capacity of 30 million litres. Given proposed expansions, energy and 12.2 MW heat from five of its wastewater treatment plants its capacity will initially increase to 55 million litres and ultimately to when treating just over one million cubic meters (1 billion litres) of 80 million litres per day. sludge daily.

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 57 Chapter 6: The road ahead

“Yesterday is We always look to the past to Scientifically and emotionally, be our heritage. Will we still call it gone. Tomorrow justify where we are; and we always mankind acts much in the same way. a bad heritage, or will the feeling has not yet come. look to the future to motivate where We understand the value of mining, have changed? are going. But we rarely look to the urban development, industrial We have only Current efforts by the City of present to appreciate or to actively growth and economic prosperity, Johannesburg to find alternative today. Let us improve our conditions. but we choose to communicate water supplies include the reuse of begin.” In the buzz that is Johannesburg, only the dire opposites of pollution, effluent from wastewater treatment – Mother Theresa. South Africa’s economy was born. environmental degradation and works, rainwater harvesting and Now a country with an enormous societal antagonism. the incorporation of groundwater African importance, South Africa’s We should, of course, understand into the water mix. Treated presence is marked essentially by the downsides and compromises effluent is discharged back into a strong mineral heritage and the made in development. We should natural drainage features and is of discovery of gold in the late 1880s. mitigate and maintain rather than quality that will not compromise Gold, thanks to its discovery in the just take and claim. We should shift human health. Relevant by-laws Witwatersrand, remains the global our focus from the urban sprawl are presently being promulgated in financial indicator to this day. The towards rural water and sanitation. order to implement effluent reuse Rand – our currency – is named But we should simultaneously have in certain areas. after these gold-bearing reefs. an appreciation of our economic Rainwater harvesting is already When teaching a child speech, prosperity and social independence. being tested at the City’s depot and easiest is often to relate polar South Africa has excelled at large- will be rolled out to schools within opposite concepts. Switching the scale national and international the municipality. Rainwater will light on and off, the notions of transboundary water imports. As mostly be used for the flushing of ‘light’ and ‘dark’ are understood. a country, this should be a pride toilets, subsequently reducing the Through primitive body language rather than the good side effect of use of reticulated water for these enactments, the opposite emotions what is sensationally labelled our purposes. And groundwater is of ‘happy’ and ‘sad’ are labelled with bad mining heritage. Decades from presently being investigated for the words for easier communication. now, our decisions of today will possible purposes of park and lawn

58 | Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg irrigation, food garden irrigation preservation of water should be a water to 50 million people in South and as process water in industrial collective effort. Africa. And it is time we get actively developments. In 2016, Johannesburg celebrates involved in protecting this valuable Additional to alternative supply 130 years since founding. South resource. options, the City is also increasing Africans are at the forefront of its water management strategies engineering and water science, in its 18 water management as is evident in the story of units. These interventions are Johannesburg. The extent of water to include increased water import from catchments situated quality monitoring, river health far away, supplied from the Lesotho assessment, preparation of new Highlands at 2 km elevation, and water quality management plans, raised 600 m from the Spioenkop controlling effluent discharges, Dam to the Sterkfontein Dam, combatting and minimising effects accentuate our engineering abilities. of pollution, and increased water So how will our perspectives of course rehabilitation. today alter what we leave for our These efforts by the City of youth? Johannesburg coupled with an The time has arrived for a informed public sensitive to the paradigm shift: it is our collective value of water may reduce the stress duty to save water. Misuse and on the limited water resource in the wasting can no longer be afforded Johannesburg area and the country as the search for water further away as a whole. Water is not free; it from Gauteng increases its cost and is a heavily subsidised resource likelihood of being contaminated. that is supplied at very low cost It is time that we, the public and due to its importance as the most citizens, appreciate the effort in fundamental human need. But the supplying cheap and subsidised

Hydrological Heritage Overview: Johannesburg | 59 Selected Bibliography

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