Expressively Crafted: Josep Jujol’s Connection to Arts and Crafts Ideals

by

Cate McCowin

Department of Art and Art History, University of Colorado Boulder

Defended April 1, 2020

Thesis Advisor: Dr. Robert Nauman

Committee Members: Dr. Robert Nauman, Department of Art and Art History Dr. Marina Kassianidou, Department of Art and Art History Dr. Javier Krauel, Department of Spanish and Portuguese

Abstract

Josep Maria Jujol (1879–1949) was an architect working in Barcelona during the city’s period of cultural upheaval and modernization. Modernisme was the art movement that encompassed this ​ ​ time period, coming from the international Art Nouveau movement. Jujol worked as a collaborator for many years with Antoni Gaudí (1852–1926), a key figure in Barcelona’s architectural landscape. Jujol was responsible for the overseeing of various elements and the physical creation of some of the most iconic components of Gaudí’s architecture in Casa Battló,

Casa Milà, and Park Güell. Yet, in art history, the work of Jujol has been eclipsed by the narrative of Gaudí’s “solo genius.” This thesis asserts the importance of Jujol on a global scale by aligning his work as a craftsman and architect with the values of the Arts and Crafts movement. The Arts and Crafts movement valued the handcrafted and the artist’s presence in their work, which is something exemplified by Josep Jujol.

2 Table of Contents

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………. 4

Chapter One: Global Context……………………………………………………….…………. 7

Chapter Two: Barcelona’s Modern Makeover………………………………………………… 20

Chapter Three: Josep Jujol………………………………………………………….…………. 32

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..…………. 44

Figures…………………………………………………………………………………………. 47

Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………… 58

3 Introduction

Barcelona. The image that comes to mind at the utterance (or internet search) of this city ​ is one in which ornate conical towers pierce the sky and stone seems to drip off a sculptural facade; it is an undulating bench, with bright geometric tiles formed in kaleidoscopic patterns.

These two icons of Barcelona, La Sagrada Familia and Park Güell respectively, are the works of

Antoni Gaudí (1852–1926), a man whose name is almost synonymous with the city. Gaudí’s work is emblematic of architecture in Barcelona during a time in which the city went through a physical and cultural upheaval. The predominant art movement in Barcelona was called modernisme and was Barcelona’s version of the global Art Nouveau movement, encompassing ​ applied and decorative art as well as architecture. It took different directions in each country based on the industrial and social (as well as scientific and political) developments of the time.1

Preceding Art Nouveau was the Arts and Crafts movement, originating in Great Britain.

The idea of the Arts and Crafts movement was to get back to the handcrafted and away from the mass-production of an industrial society. The aim was to infuse art and architecture once more with the artist’s physical presence, and to carefully craft each detail.2 Gaudí was inspired by the

Arts and Crafts idea of a “total” architecture, an architecture in which all elements are purposefully created and connected. This interest is prevalent throughout his work: from door handles specifically molded to the human hand, to rich mosaic work.3

Given Gaudí’s interest in the ideals of the Arts and Crafts movement, a movement which values the artist’s hand and that which is crafted by hand, the question arises: who actually ​

1 Hans van Lemmen and Bart Verbrugge, Art Nouveau Tiles, (New York: Rizzoli, 1999), 7. ​ ​ ​ 2 Isabelle Anscombe, Arts and Crafts Style, (London: Phaidon Press Limited, 1991), 7. ​ ​ ​ 3 Lluís Permanyer, In Detail: Barcelona Art Nouveau, trans. Sue Brownbridge, (Barcelona: ​ ​ ​ Polígrafa, 2004), 64.

4 physically created the work for which Gaudí is known? Gaudí’s fame has created a narrative of his work being that of a great, solo, genius architect. His genius is proclaimed in tours of his work, in the scholarship written about him, and in the minds of those that visit his buildings. The concept of the “solo genius” is not new, and while Gaudí certainly was innovative in his way of conceiving architecture and seeing the natural world through geometry, it would be remiss to ignore the collaboration of his workshop. The architect’s workshop has to be a collaborative effort, because architects themselves do not draw out every plan or lay every stone. Gaudí’s workshop apparently held a great collective energy, one in which workers would be involved in the “experimental excitement” that permeated the studio, and in which the architecture would be

“conceived as a kind of collective enterprise.”4

One such collaborator was Josep Maria Jujol (1879–1949). Jujol’s association with Gaudí began around 1906 and lasted four or five years.5 Theirs was a true partnership, not just one of master and disciple, but one in which Jujol was able to freely carry out designs and oversee elements of decoration in some of Gaudí’s best-known works.6 However, Jujol is often only a brief edition in the biography of Gaudí, written as a simple disciple, or in more recent publications, as a collaborator and co-worker, but one who is significantly less important than the genius himself. Jujol created spaces that worked harmoniously and were designed purposefully, and is responsible for the physical creation of prominent elements both in his collaborations on

Gaudí’s architecture and in his own independent work.

4 Ignasi de Solà-Morales, Jujol, trans. Jennifer Jackson and Kerstin Engström, (New York: ​ ​ ​ Rizzoli, 1991), 7. 5 Solà-Morales, 7. 6 Solà-Morales, 7. ​

5 In this thesis I will argue that because Jujol can be considered a “total” architect, with his hand physically in many elements of both his and Gaudí’s architecture, that he had a stronger connection to the Arts and Crafts movement than Gaudí or his other contemporaries. With this thesis, I intend to offer a global and local context to modernisme and the work of Josep Jujol in ​ ​ order to demonstrate his connection to the Arts and Crafts movement on a global scale. While the work of Jujol is beginning to gain more recognition in scholarship, the global and historical significance of his craftsmanship is vastly underappreciated, and the connection of Jujol’s work to the Arts and Crafts movement nonexistent. Therefore, it is my hope that this thesis can provide a unique perspective and further knowledge of the significance of Jujol’s work.

Chapter Outline

In the first chapter, I outline the Arts and Crafts movement’s origin in Great Britain, and the ideologies and aesthetics that developed from it. I then discuss the manifestation of Art

Nouveau as an international movement. Chapter Two delves into the unique context of

Barcelona during the turn of the century, and I examine the importance of the creation of the

Eixample, and the intellectual, artistic, and economic growth that was crucial to the development of Barcelona as a modern city. This chapter also makes the important distinction between global

Art Nouveau and Barcelona’s unique form of modernisme. In the third and final chapter, I focus ​ ​ specifically on Jujol, outlining his early biography, his collaboration with Gaudí, and his work after Gaudí. The intention of this chapter is to demonstrate Jujol’s significance to the global art movements and to prove his alignment with the handcrafted ideals of the Arts and Crafts movement. Thus, I will confirm the importance of Josep Jujol on a global scale, beyond the shadow cast upon him by Antoni Gaudí.

6 Chapter One: Global Context

Knowledge of the global art movements during Jujol’s time is fundamental in order to understand his work. This chapter will explore the Arts and Crafts movement as a means for understanding the movement’s connection with Jujol. Although the Arts and Crafts movement did not end with the emergence of Art Nouveau, its ideas evolved into and made way for Art

Nouveau to become an international movement. Art Nouveau manifested itself differently in every country in which it took place, taking the distinct form of modernisme in Barcelona. ​ ​ The Arts and Crafts Movement

The Arts and Crafts movement took place in mid-to-late 19th century Britain, as a reaction to the effects of industrialization, and the moral concerns of industrial capitalism.7 At its core, the Arts and Crafts movement aimed at reforming design and infusing quality once more into the work process. Architecture and decorative arts were seen as reflections of society's health,8 and the Industrial Revolution’s reliance on machine-made products was believed to have devalued the work of the craftsman. The reformers therefore wished to re-establish harmony between architect, designer, and craftsman, and to bring back valued handcrafted objects that were well-designed and affordable.9 One of the Arts and Crafts influencers, A.H. Mackmurdo, saw the movement as “a mighty upheaval of man’s spiritual nature.”10 This signifies that the Arts and Crafts movement for many was not just a style, but a way of life.11 Mackmurdo also believed

7 Hans van Lemmen and Bart Verbrugge, Art Nouveau Tiles, (New York: Rizzoli, 1999), 17. ​ ​ ​ 8 Isabelle Anscombe, Arts and Crafts Style, (London: Phaidon Press Limited, 1991), 7. ​ ​ ​ 9 Elizabeth Cumming and Wendy Kaplan, The Arts and Crafts Movement, (London: Thames and ​ ​ ​ Hudson, 1991), 6. 10 Anscombe, 7 ​ 11 Anscombe, 7. ​

7 that the lack of joy in the work of an industrialized society had caused a situation in which workers only cared about wages, thus creating class issues and unrest.12

In 1851, the world’s first international exposition, the Great Exhibition, was held in

London within Joseph Paxton’s Crystal Palace, constructed only for the event. This exposition, like the ones that would follow, was designed to showcase the wealth of the country. The Great

Exhibition was meant as a celebration of British industrial and imperial power, yet to those who would become proponents of the Arts and Crafts movement, it was an example of the dilution of coherent style and craft in favor of progress and industry. The product manufacturers of this exposition aimed to outdo one another in luxury and ingenuity by imitating past periods and styles.13 Therefore, as a reaction to the Great Exhibition, social critics called for the adoption of one coherent national style to unify a fragmented nation.14

An idea for a national style had been put forward by A.W.N Pugin in the 1830s. Pugin, a draftsman in his mid-twenties who had recently converted to Catholicism, published the lengthily-titled, Contrasts; or a Parallel between the Noble Edifices of the Middle Ages and the ​ corresponding Buildings of the Present Day: showing the Present Decay of Taste. This pamphlet ​ advocated for the Gothic style as a symbol of national and spiritual cohesion.15 Pugin advocated for the medieval cathedral as a symbol for a sense of community that was lacking in modern times.16 He believed that the medieval Gothic Revival style of early Victorian Britain reflected an order and stability of Christian faith.17 A renewal of Catholic thought and practice due to the

12 Anscombe, 7. ​ 13 Anscombe, 13. ​ 14 Anscombe, 16. ​ 15 Anscombe, 16 and 19. ​ 16 Anscombe, 16. ​ 17 Cumming and Kaplan, 12. ​

8 Catholic Emancipation of 1829 and the Oxford Movement of the 1830s (both easing the restraint on Catholics under the Protestant Church of England), fostered an interest in and a nostalgia for the Middle Ages, a time of Catholic prominence.18 His writings provided the moral and aesthetic foundation for the Arts and Crafts Movement.19

In the wake of the Great Exhibition, Gothic emerged as a national style. John Ruskin, though he was a Protestant, also believed in the value of the Gothic. His idealization of the

Gothic came from his view that craftsmen had more freedom under this style. Ruskin was an outspoken critic of the effects of industrial capitalism on the lives of workers. He viewed workers as being debased by machines, and that the machine and the mass production of goods stripped the pride and pleasure from work.20 His influential books, The Seven Lamps of ​ Architecture (1849), and The Stones of Venice (1851 and 1853), described a moral regeneration ​ ​ ​ brought about through craftsmanship.21 He also emphasized the beauty of architectural ornament carved by hand––of labor based on nature and not the machine. He believed that this type of craftsmanship would reflect a sense of the human hand and of care for the craft.22 Ruskin believed that surface ornament was key to architecture itself. Surface pattern and texture represented to Ruskin an expressive truth.23 Ruskin and Pugin maintained the belief that builders and craftsmen of the Gothic period enjoyed complete freedom of expression. The emphasis on the handcrafted as it connected to the Gothic period functioned as a remedy to the perceived

18 Anscombe, 16. ​ 19 Cumming and Kaplan, 12. ​ 20 van Lemmen and Verbrugge, 19, ​ 21 Anscombe, 19. ​ 22 Cumming and Kaplan, 12. ​ 23 Robin Middleton and David Watkin, Neoclassical and 19th Century Architecture, (New York: ​ ​ ​ Rizzoli, 1980), 374, 376.

9 moral corruption and design decay brought on by the Industrial Revolution.24 Pugin and Ruskin both advocated for designers to turn to nature for inspiration and to adapt natural forms into their works,25 although they differed in the fact that Pugin favored an architectural interpretation of nature’s structure while Ruskin aligned with naturalistic representation.26 Ruskin believed that design which used natural scale, form, and materials expressed “Man’s delight in God’s work” further affirming his religious and moral view of design.27

Between 1844 and his death in 1852, Pugin designed an enormous amount of work. He designed over 1,000 pieces, including 49 different types of armchairs and 100 different tables.28

The differences between the pieces were mostly intended to signify rank and dignity, which were important components in his medieval morality. For Pugin, all decoration had to be meaningful and ornament enriching to construction. Pugin died at age 40 after a period of insanity probably due to overwork. He worked without assistants, had produced nine major books, and had created a vast amount of sketches of medieval buildings, as well as drawings of furniture, moldings, fireplaces, stained glass, curtains, jewelry, and inkpots. This richness and vision of design, coupled with the unwavering belief that society would be healed by medieval design and architecture, had tremendous influence on the dispersal of the Gothic style. Many architects emulated his ideas of the relationship between nature, religious symbolism, and aesthetics.29

The writings of the French architectural historian, Eugène Viollet-le-Duc (responsible for the restoration of several important works in France, including the Notre Dame in Paris)

24 Cumming and Kaplan, 12. ​ 25 van Lemmen and Verbrugge, 19 and Cumming and Kaplan, 12. ​ ​ ​ 26 Anscombe, 22. ​ 27 Cumming and Kaplan, 14 ​ 28 Anscombe, 22. ​ 29 Anscombe, 22. ​

10 regenerated interest in medieval French architecture. Like Ruskin and Pugin, Viollet-le-Duc believed in the importance of interior spaces over exterior style.30 Ruskin valued this preference, and wrote in The Nature of Gothic (1853) that one of the primary merits of Gothic builders was ​ ​ their disregard of the established conventions of external appearance in favor of creating useful and valuable spaces. Ruskin’s interpretation of the Gothic here would directly inspire Art

Nouveau in the work of Hector Guimard and Emile Gallé in France and Victor Horta in

Belgium.31 Viollet-le-Duc was immensely interested in construction, and the production of architecture through proper structural principles.32 He advocated for regional building over the international style, and this idea was inspirational to both the Arts and Crafts movement and to the work of Antoni Gaudí, as we will see in Chapter Two. His principles of Structural

Rationalism anticipated certain aspects of Art Nouveau and served as inspiration for many artists and architects working in the late 19th century.33

Another influence of the Gothic Revival that occurred was the regeneration of medieval craft techniques. This revival of tradition aligned to Ruskin’s ideal craftsman’s way of life: living simply and close to the land, in harmony with raw materials, and away from the industrial machine and the city.34 The Gothic style was a way to look back at a “golden age of craftsmanship and social harmony.”35 The intensity of the Gothic Revivalist mission gave way to more socialist aims in the 1880s.36 By this time, the popularity of the Gothic as a decorative style

30 Anscombe, 22. ​ 31 Anscombe, 24. ​ 32 Middleton and Watkin, 379. ​ 33 Kenneth Frampton, Modern Architecture: A Critical History, (New York: Oxford University ​ ​ ​ Press, 1980), 64. 34 Anscombe, 24. ​ 35 Anscombe, 43. ​ 36 Anscombe, 30. ​

11 had waned, but the ideals behind it had not. The Arts and Crafts movement latched on to an idealized society regenerated by the value of craftsmanship. The Gothic period was still present in the belief that the medieval craft workshop was a more humane place than the modern factory or mill.37 Ruskin viewed the work of the masons who physically carved the gargoyles and other stonework in medieval cathedrals as an expression of their individual humanity. The craftsmen of the medieval era were thought to have more expressive freedom in their work, thus the Arts and Crafts movement held the idea of craft as a celebration of the worker and their expressive, creative potential.38

William Morris was enormously influential to the Arts and Crafts movement. Inspired by the ideas of Ruskin and Pugin, Morris was outspoken against the moral implications of an industrialized society, saying, “apart from my desire to produce beautiful things, the leading passion of my life is hatred of modern civilisation.”39 During his height as a designer, he came to believe that the improvement of decorative arts must lead to real social change, not just a recreation of a romanticized version of the Middle Ages. Thus, in 1883, he became a socialist and founding member of the Socialist League.40 Many designers also followed this path of socialism, as it was a belief of the Arts and Crafts movement that satisfaction in labor would ease working-class unrest.41 Arts and Crafts artists and designers had the notion that “honest craftsmanship” was good for both the craftsman and those who were surrounded by these

“reformed” designs.42 By looking back on the medieval guild system, Arts and Crafts followers

37 Anscombe, 53. ​ 38 Anscombe, 8. ​ 39 Cumming and Kaplan, 15. ​ 40 Anscombe, 36. ​ 41 Anscombe, 8. ​ 42 Anscombe, 55, 56. ​

12 were able to see a system of harmony, thus establishing their utopian ideals on the basis of the craft guild.43 Artists guilds like the highly successful Century Guild, founded by A.H.

Mackmurdo and Selwyn Image, were able to thrive because of the medieval guild tradition.44

Although the machine was not rejected by all Arts and Crafts designers, the Victorian idea of progress in technological advance was not held in esteem. For Arts and Crafts practitioners, the machine limited the expressive freedom of the craftsman.45 Quiet beauty, simplicity, and honesty, combined with the sense of nationality in the revival of the medieval period, was searched for in the craft workshop.46

Connecting to the idea of guilds, art schools were revolutionized to encompass Arts and

Crafts ideals. The Central School of Arts and Crafts was founded in London in 1896 with its first principal being the architect W.R. Lethaby. The school’s teachers were also involved in the Arts and Crafts movement. Art schools in Birmingham, Liverpool, and Glasgow gave as much emphasis to ceramics, metalwork, furniture making, or embroidery as to painting or sculpture. In the 1880s, a School of Applied Art was founded in Budapest and a journal of applied arts launched. Many new magazines were founded in continental Europe, the United Kingdom, and the United States, all helping to spread the idea of connection between design and social well-being.47

The leading theorists of the Arts and Crafts movement, including William Morris, C. R.

Ashbee, and W. R. Lethaby, had all trained as architects and believed in a unity in the arts, and

43 Anscombe, 8. ​ 44 Anscombe, 53, 54. ​ 45 Anscombe, 8. ​ 46 Anscombe, 7. ​ 47 Anscombe, 58. ​

13 that all creative endeavors were of equal value.48 They were professionally active as architects, designers, craftworkers, or even all three, creating a synthesis of art and craft, and connecting to the four principles of the Arts and Crafts movement: design unity, joy in labor, individualism, and regionalism.49 Morris aligned with Ruskin’s love of the handwrought craft, and he believed in an interdisciplinary approach to architecture. He thought an architect should not only be a builder, but also a painter, a blacksmith, and a designer of stained glass.50 Designers who allied themselves with the Arts and Crafts movement wished to subvert the use of art as a signifier of grandeur and power in favor of more humble craft aesthetics.51 Because of this movement, the once-considered “minor” decorative arts (as well as architecture) could take place beside painting and sculpture.52 George Frederick Bodley was one of the architects of the movement that valued attention to details in his buildings and provided a sense of completeness in his decoration. Bodley employed bright primary colors to create richness and harmony in his decorations, painting interior walls and roofs. He promoted the Arts and Crafts ideal of imbuing architecture with “refined beauty and restrained power.”53

The late 1860s brought about the Aesthetic movement in England which believed in “art for art’s sake.” This movement influenced Arts and Crafts by bringing more whimsicality and a sense of decadence to counteract the medieval nostalgia. The Aesthetic movement reflected the growing interest in Japanese art and culture and the revival of the “Queen Anne” style of

48 Cumming and Kaplan, 6. ​ 49 Cumming and Kaplan, 7, 9. ​ 50 Cumming and Kaplan, 15. ​ 51 Anscombe, 7. ​ 52 Anscombe, 7, 8. ​ 53 Anscombe, 27. ​

14 architecture.54 This was a movement of cultivated artificiality and decadence, and in England the excess and indulgence of the Aesthetes became known as degenerate. However in France, Art

Nouveau designers Louis Majorelle and Hector Guimard appreciated this intensity and decadence.55 The British Arts and Crafts movement’s ideas and products inspired artists abroad, and the transmission of its theory became one of the principal sources that led to the development of Art Nouveau.56 On the European continent, designers were inspired by the movement’s ideals while not necessarily following its style.57 Art Nouveau, the “new art” embodied the desire for freer art and design. While the English became increasingly concerned with preserving rural traditions, leading to the “Stockbroker Tudor” style, in continental Europe, those inspired by the writings of Morris and Ruskin and the designs of Ashbee and Mackmurdo, developed visual imageries which included natural forms and sinuous tendrils.58 Isabelle

Anscombe, author of Arts and Crafts Style, writes that there was less of an emphasis placed on ​ ​ the “lifestyle” of the craftsman, and the guilds and medieval ideals in European Art Nouveau than in Arts and Crafts. Rather, Europeans were more concerned with the importance of the decorative arts in the environment in which they were occupying.59 Although this is true, I believe that Barcelona’s unique form of Art Nouveau, called modernisme, aligns more closely to ​ ​ the ideals of Arts and Crafts than is stated by Anscombe.

54 Anscombe, 79. ​ 55 Anscombe, 81. ​ 56 van Lemmen and Verbrugge, 33, 7. ​ 57 Anscombe, 9. ​ 58 Anscombe, 168. ​ 59 Anscombe, 168. ​

15 Art Nouveau

There is not a concrete definition for Art Nouveau, as its duration, style, and development are constantly being debated.60 Art historian Jeremy Howard states that Art Nouveau is not a singular style, but rather a movement “in which certain formal characteristics recur and certain ideologies are expressed.”61 Art Nouveau was a response to an age of modern advances and vast change. The climate of new ideas and modes of life influenced artists in their examination of the world under a modern lens.62 Art Nouveau is characterized by modernity and the desire to change European civilization and transform visual culture under the idea of the modern.63 Artists recognized that the world was changing through technological, economic, and political developments, and they felt the need to change too.64 The encompassing of all facets of newness and modernity under Art Nouveau explains its complexity, ambiguity, and stylistic and regional variations.65 Because of modernization, many industrial centers across Europe needed to reconcile with their past. This created a fusion of local and international sources, and generated unique forms of Art Nouveau in each place it manifested.66

A driving force of Art Nouveau was the idea that art and life were synonymous, which is reflected in total design, and the use of decorative arts in homes and wherever it could enrich lives. Art Nouveau, like the Arts and Crafts movement, also wished to subvert the historical

60 Paul Greenhalgh, “The Style and the Age,” in Art Nouveau 1890-1914, ed. Paul ​ ​ ​ Greenhalgh, (New York: Harry N. Abrams Inc., 2000), 15. 61 Jeremy Howard, Art Nouveau: International and National Styles in Europe, (Manchester: ​ ​ ​ Manchester University Press, 1996), 1, 2. 62 Howard, 3. ​ 63 Greenhalgh, 15, 18. ​ 64 Greenhalgh, 18. ​ 65 Howard, 4. ​ 66 Greenhalgh, 18. ​

16 divide between the “fine arts” of painting and sculpture, and the “lesser” decorative arts.67 Art

Nouveau and Arts and Crafts blend together temporally and ideologically in many aspects, adding to the complication of defining Art Nouveau. Through the influence of the Arts and

Crafts movement, a key topic of debate in society at the end of the 19th century was the unity of all arts.68 John Ruskin, as we have already seen, was greatly influential to this debate. He believed all art to be essentially decorative, that even paintings and sculpture were decorations of wherever they were housed.69 Because of the lasting ideas of Ruskin and the Arts and Crafts movement, Art Nouveau by 1900 was known as the style that attacked the existing hierarchy of the arts. Those working in the Art Nouveau movement were known for creating complete interiors and positioning decoration as the central expressive force.70

Common motifs in Art Nouveau art and design were nature, historical references, and symbolism. These motifs were not new to the history of art, however they were used by Art

Nouveau artists in a modern, explorative way.71 Nature was an important source drawn on during this time. Many of the archetypal works of Art Nouveau were inspired by nature and natural forms, and this inspiration helped tie together Art Nouveau’s various international currents.72 It made sense to draw on nature during a time of rapid urbanization and industrialization, as it reminded of a subject outside of humankind and human progress.73

67 Greenhalgh, 19. ​ 68 Greenhalgh, 19. ​ 69 Greenhalgh, 19. ​ 70 Greenhalgh, 20. ​ 71 Greenhalgh, 21. ​ 72 Greenhalgh, 21. ​ 73 Greenhalgh, 22. ​

17 The spirit of international communication, commerce, entrepreneurialism, and industry, were key to the movement of Art Nouveau. There was a blossoming of entrepreneurial activity, especially after 1880, with retail outlets and department stores disseminating the goods of Art

Nouveau.74 The growth in art-related press also contributed greatly to the dispersal of Art

Nouveau ideas. In Belgium, Octave Maus founded the magazine L’Art moderne (1881) and the ​ ​ cosmopolitan exhibition groups Société des Vingt (1884) and La Libre esthétique (1894). His ​ ​ ​ ​ work contributed to the rise not only of Art Nouveau, but also to radical practice and modernism in Belgium.75 Furthermore, state-supported organizations, such as public museums, schools of art and design, official exhibitions, ministries, and government agencies, contributed to the promotion of Art Nouveau goods. Supporting modernity was beneficial to these organizations, established all over the industrialized world, as good design could contribute positively to sales in competitive markets. Another reason for States’ involvement was that during this time, visual culture had become important to national identity. Large nations could use art and design to promote internal cohesion and create a national image, while small nations could use their visual culture in a political manner to differentiate themselves from those in power over them.76

A way for nations to promote their versions of modernity was through Universal

Expositions (also called International Exhibitions, Universal Exhibitions, or World’s Fairs).

These expositions attempted to display every aspect of human civilization, and to promote commercial and imperial power. After 1851, when the first one was held in London, they became highly important for the dissemination of material culture. Designers were able to present their

74 Greenhalgh, 26, 27, 29. ​ 75 Greenhalgh, 27. ​ 76 Greenhalgh, 29, 31. ​

18 works at these expositions, but they were also influenced by what they saw, including art from outside Europe.77 The progress of Art Nouveau can be traced through these Universal

Expositions, from the Paris Exposition Universelle in 1889, where pre-Art Nouveau works were still being displayed, to the 1902 Prima Esposizione d’Arte Decorativa Moderna in Turin, with its expansive array of Art Nouveau design, representing the movement at its peak of international influence.78 After Turin, Art Nouveau style continued to be regularly exhibited, but never in such quantity.79

The complexity of Art Nouveau comes from the internationality of the movement. The movement occured in different countries, and each of those had a different path of development of Art Nouveau. Furthermore, many artists created objects and ideals that seemed to anticipate the thoughts behind Art Nouveau, creating an overlapping of aesthetics and ideologies. Many of the key Art Nouveau designers also worked in related styles before becoming involved in Art

Nouveau itself. All of these aspects add to the complexity and feeling of imperceptibility in the movement. It also demonstrates that there was a wealth of ideas and art during the turn-of-the-century that overlapped and influenced one another.80 This brief background of Art

Nouveau will serve as the basis for understanding the development of modernisme in Barcelona, ​ ​ as explored in Chapter Two.

77 Greenhalgh, 31. ​ 78 Greenhalgh, 32. ​ 79 Greenhalgh, 32. ​ 80 Greenhalgh, 24. ​

19 Chapter Two: Barcelona’s Modern Makeover

For 600 years, Spain was under Roman rule. This history is an important part of

Catalonia, and reminders of the Romans remain present in Barcelona, albeit on a small scale due to the city’s history of development.81 During the 14th century, Barcelona had developed into a major port and trading center and experienced flourishing trade and commercial success.82

Barcelona’s long history of trade, commercial power, and connection to other countries is a precursor to its development as a modern, global city, and an economic powerhouse.

Creation of L’Eixample

In 1854, the Roman walls surrounding Barcelona were demolished.83 The population in

Barcelona had grown rapidly and living conditions within the walls were poor because of it. The demolishing of the walls led to the construction of the Eixample under the plan of Ildefons

Cerdà. He published his Teoría general de la urbanización in 1867 as a proposed solution to ​ ​ issues of housing, transit, sociability, health, and income.84 Cerdà looked at the open space between the previously walled city of Barcelona and the town of Gràcia as a means to create a more equitable, efficient, and hygienic society. His goal was to create a new beginning for

Barcelona, to transform the city and urbanize the open space following his utopian ideals.85

Eixample is the Catalan word for “expansion,” or “widening,” and this widening was of both ​

81 John Payne, Catalonia: History and Culture, (Nottingham: Five Leaves, 2004), 28. ​ ​ ​ 82 Payne, 51, 52. ​ 83 Teresa-M. Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” in Barcelona 1900, ed. Teresa-M. Sala, ​ ​ ​ (New York: Cornell University Press, 2007), 16. 84 Brad Epps, “Modern Spaces: Building Barcelona,” in Iberian Cities, ed. Joan Ramon Resina, ​ ​ ​ (New York: Routledge, 2001), 151. 85 Epps, 151, 152. ​

20 Barcelona as a city, and in creating wide streets and housing blocks. Cerdà’s aims with his plan were political, and he was concerned with undoing class conflict by redistributing space.86

The building of the Eixample became possible because of the wealth of the middle-class citizens who funded the creation of some of the most emblematic buildings of Barcelona.87

Landholders would commission architects to build a block of flats, reserve the principal floor for themselves, and rent the rest out to tenants. Cerdà envisioned a plan in which the buildings were all uniform, as in Haussmann’s plan for Paris, with all blocks of buildings at the same height and with similar facades.88 However, greater freedom was given to architects in the designing of the new buildings of the Eixample. There was a compositional freedom to the facades, and the heights of buildings were allowed to be altered. This spurred the creation of the houses in the

Eixample as representational of the builder or owner, thus there was the use of various symbolic and figurative elements that testified to social and economic power and political or religious views.89 Casa Milà and Casa Batlló were both able to be constructed because of the environment created due to the development of the Eixample.

The construction of the Eixample was essential in the development of modernisme and of ​ ​ Barcelona as a global city. The city had become a modern metropolis with the construction of the

Eixample and the annexation in 1897 of the municipalities around Barcelona.90 Furthermore, the expansion caused craftsmen to move to a neighborhood where they found the space that allowed

86 Epps, 154, 155. ​ 87 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 16, 17. ​ 88 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 16, 17. ​ 89 Mireia Frexa and Joan Molet, “Public and Private Architecture,” in Barcelona 1900, ed. ​ ​ ​ Teresa-M. Sala, (New York: Cornell University Press, 2007), 86. 90 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 16. ​

21 them to set up vast workshops. Because of this, they were able to work better and to produce innovative pieces.91

Industry and the Arts

Crucial to the development of the Eixample was the creation of the Barcelona School of

Architecture, which trained the new generation of architects under the ideals of modernisme. The ​ ​ economic boom experienced by the city was also vital in allowing for growth of the construction sector and the wealth of the citizens.92 Barcelona was (and still remains) the industrial and economic capital of Spain, and at the turn-of-the-century, contained a vast range of industries from weaving Egyptian cotton to metal processing. Barcelona also had access to trade from all over Europe as one of the principal cargo ports of the Mediterranean.93 The growing economy allowed for the applied arts to thrive, stimulating competition among the bourgeoisie to stand out from one another through the construction of elaborate, unique homes that contained equally impressive ornamentation. Furthermore, the wide streets presented like a stage allowing for architecture to be clearly viewed and appreciated, fueling the sense of competition even more.94

Architects were integral as well in the flourishing of applied arts. The use of applied and industrial arts by architects revitalized the craft, and there was a reciprocal relationship between architect and craftsman.95 The modernista idea of being a “total creator”––of designing all ​ ​ elements from the house itself to the door handles––contributed to this importance placed on applied arts. Therefore it can be said that applied arts were a key part of the modernisme ​

91 Lluís Permanyer, In Detail: Barcelona Art Nouveau, trans. Sue Brownbridge, (Barcelona: ​ ​ ​ Polígrafa, 2004), 7. 92 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 16, 17. ​ 93 François Loyer, Art Nouveau in Catalonia, (Köln: Benedikt Taschen Verlag, 1997), 7. ​ ​ ​ 94 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 17. ​ 95 Permanyer, 7. ​

22 movement.96 Furthermore, the legacy of medieval era guilds contributed to the presence of skilled craftsmen and their works, creating a context in which applied arts could thrive.97 The guild legacy influential to Catalonia ties into the importance placed on guilds in the Arts and

Crafts movement. The Arts and Crafts belief that guilds created better working conditions for craftsmen and thus spurred freer and more expressive creation can be seen in the context of

Barcelona. I made the claim in Chapter One that although Isabelle Anscombe, author of Arts and ​ Crafts Style, writes that there was less of an emphasis placed on the “lifestyle” of the craftsman, ​ and the guilds and medieval ideals in European Art Nouveau than in Arts and Crafts,98 that

Barcelona’s modernisme actually aligns more closely to these Arts and Crafts medieval ideals. ​ ​ This is seen through this medieval guild influence, as well as the interpretation of local Gothic forms in modernisme architecture which will be discussed later in this chapter. ​ ​ The rich trade industry encouraged more factory and workshop production, thus contributing to architects’ utilization of the applied and decorative arts.99 Commerce and trade were significant parts of the city. The symbols of trade were markets, shops, and exhibition pavilions. The architectural language of these buildings used glass and wrought iron, largely made in the Maquinista Terrestre y Marítima.100 This is representative of that connection of the trade industry to industrial production and the use of applied arts. The idea of using design to create beautiful spaces as a reprieve from the bustling new industrialized society was also on the minds of the architects,101 directly relating to the concerns that promoted the philosophies of the

96 Permanyer, 6. ​ 97 Permanyer, 6. ​ 98 Anscombe, 168. ​ 99 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 22, 29. ​ 100 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 25, 27. ​ 101 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 40. ​

23 British Arts and Crafts Movement. This idea was fused with the Art Nouveau embrace of industry, and the utilization of the goods produced in Barcelona. The beauty of decorative art, the importance placed on living well, and the role of architecture in fulfilling this idea was promoted by utilizing industry. For example, the ceramic factory Pujol i Bausis just outside Barcelona in

Esplugues, was devoted to producing interior design elements, and was utilized by Gaudí and

Jujol in their designs for Casa Batlló and Park Güell, among other works.102 Characteristics of

Barcelona’s industrial architecture related to the interest in reviving local Catalonian traditions.

Decorative elements such as applied ceramics, wrought-iron details, and flooring reflected traditional motifs and techniques.103

The influence of the Güell family is an interesting study in demonstrating the importance of industry to the development of modernisme. The Güell family was part of the textile industry, ​ ​ the largest industry in Barcelona at the time, and they were considered one of the “good families of Barcelona,” giving them a lot of social and economic power.104 Eusebi Güell was an important patron of the arts and culture, and in 1886, Güell commissioned Gaudí to build him a house in

Barcelona. This started a relationship that would result in the building of Güell’s new factory in

Santa Coloma de Cervello in 1888-89,105 and the famous Park Güell, which was originally conceived of as a housing development project. In 1908 when the king Alfonso XIII made

Eusebi Güell a Count, Gaudí designed his coat of arms using symbolic references to his career as an industrialist: the dove, a reference to Santa Coloma de Cervello, the location of Güell’s factory (coloma being the Catalan word for dove), the owl a symbol of Güell’s wisdom in ​ ​

102 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 40, 65. ​ 103 Frexa and Molet, 97. ​ 104 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 29, 30. ​ 105 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 34, 36. ​

24 business, and the tower of Palau Güell, the first house Gaudí built for him.106 The case of Güell and Gaudí is representative of the ways in which the wealth of industry directly contributed to and was intertwined with artistic creation.

Renaissance and Regeneration

The urban growth of Barcelona was accompanied by growth in the intellectual culture, thus contributing to growth within the arts. In 1881, an avant-garde journal called Renaixença ​ was founded, and the subsequent intellectual movement that thrived took its name.107 The presence of the Renaixença magazine connects to the Belgian Art Nouveau movement, with the ​ ​ journal L’Art Moderne in Brussels, and the emergence of artists known as “Les Vignt” based on ​ ​ the ideas presented in the journal.108 This connection affirms the broader European context of Art

Nouveau and modernisme. The revival of Barcelona’s university was also a major source of ​ ​ intellectual exchange and created a growth of ideas that impacted politics, literature, and above all, the arts.109 The renaixença, or renaissance, in Barcelona occurred with the transformation ​ ​ from a widely experienced pessimism to a regenerative sense of optimism for the future.110 In

1898, during the Spanish–American War, the group of intellectuals known as “la Generación del

‘98” were working in commitment to Catalan cultural and aesthetic renewal.111 The idea of looking towards Catalonia’s future became fundamental in the conception of modernisme. In art ​ ​ and architecture, by gazing back and reinterpreting styles, Catalonia’s period of splendor was

106 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 36. ​ 107 Loyer, 7. ​ 108 Loyer, 7. ​ 109 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 10. ​ 110 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 10. ​ 111 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 10. ​

25 evoked. Pioneers of modernisme wanted to create a national style of architecture in order to get ​ ​ Catalonia “back on its feet.”112

Barcelona’s modernization had strong roots in Catalan tradition, and the paradox between tradition and modernity became characteristic of modernisme.113 The interpretation of tradition ​ and the use of local typologies was integral to Barcelona’s modernization process as artists, architectects, and intellectuals consciously created a national image of Barcelona as it changed from a Spanish town to a European city.114 Barcelona came to be a city that joined modern processes and ways of thinking with tradition, thus creating an environment where architects like

Gaudí and Jujol could achieve original, innovative, and expressive designs. It was architects like these who created an architectural language for Barcelona, and helped it evolve into modernity, transforming this language into an icon of Art Nouveau in Europe.115 The two seemingly opposite influences on the artistic and architectural language developed within modernisme were ​ ​ the international, cosmopolitan language of Art Nouveau, and the local, medieval Gothic forms.

Modernity in Catalonia meant projecting the region into the future through its tradition.116

The utilization of Barcelona and Catalonia’s medieval heritage in the creation of modernity speaks to the desire for the revival of Catalan language and culture.117 Catalan pride is part of modernisme in this desire for language and cultural revival, and also in the way that ​ ​ Catalan artists looked outside of their country––to Europe rather than the rest of Spain––for ideas on updating their approaches to art. The combination of the local with the foreign allowed for

112 Permanyer, 6. ​ 113 Frexa and Molet, 85. ​ 114 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 10, 17. ​ 115 Frexa and Molet, 82. ​ 116 Frexa and Molet, 82. ​ 117 Frexa and Molet, 85. ​

26 artists to achieve something highly individual and new.118 Barcelona’s evocation of Gothic forms in order to achieve a unified regional language can also be seen in the British Arts and Crafts idea of the Gothic as a symbol of national and spiritual cohesion.

Modernisme

Modernisme essentially began with the 1888 Universal Exposition in Barcelona.119 The ​ Universal Exposition was a way to bring wider recognition to Barcelona and Catalonia. It allowed the city to take pride in its place as one of the world’s most modern and industrialized cities, as is suggested by participation in the Exposition. Universal Expositions, or World’s Fairs, serve to promote innovation, progress, consumption, and industry, as well as stimulating globalization and International styles.120 After the Universal Exposition in Paris in 1889, modernisme underwent a change in direction. The Exposition proved inspirational for artists and ​ produced a taste for Art Nouveau forms, yet architectural details such as ornament, the nature of materials, and the techniques used were still derived from Catalan tradition.121

It is important to note that modernista architecture is a combination of different ​ ​ ideological and figurative styles, as the modernista architects spanned three generations and ​ ​ encompassed those of various political persuasions and artistic visions. However, the defining factors were that modernista architecture enlisted the aid of a range of artists and artisans, ​ ​ creating an architecture that had a distinctive local character. Furthermore, architects between

1888 and 1908 would not have consciously regarded themselves as modernistas, as the concept ​ ​

118 Juan Carlos Bejarano and Teresa-M. Sala, “The Status and Self-Image of the Artist in ​ Catalonia,” in Barcelona 1900 In Barcelona 1900, ed. Teresa-M. Sala, (New York: Cornell ​ ​ ​ ​ University Press, 2007), 120, 121. ​ ​ 119 Frexa and Molet, 85. ​ 120 Epps, 167, 168, 169, 176. ​ 121 Frexa and Molet, 85. ​

27 was initially a theological and literary concept before being applied to architecture. The architecture is characterized by expressive symbolism, faith in technology and modern innovations, the decadence associated with Art Nouveau, and a sense of Catalan nationalism.122

Varying conceptions of modernisme came about largely as a reaction to the tragic ​ ​ bombing at the Gran Teatre de Liceu. The Gran Teatre de Liceu was Barcelona’s first opera house. Barcelona was notable for its support of the avant-garde work of Wagner, and agreed with his nationalist ideals.123 The opera house embodied modernisme aesthetics and values, with ​ ​ wealth displayed in the form of translucent enamel jewels designed by Lluís Masriera. The jewels displayed would also be for sale at Masriera’s shop, again strongly aligning art and industry.124 Another connection of the theater to the social norms of Barcelona at that time was the organization of the seats in a hierarchical manner, mimicking the way class was organized in the houses of the Eixample: the wealthy at the bottom of the theater and in the principal floor of the houses, and the lower classes the further one goes up.125 The anarchist bombing of the Gran

Teatre del Liceu on November 7, 1893 was “a symbolic as well as real explosion.”126 With the opening of the season, the Anarchist Santiago Salvador threw two Orsini bombs into the stalls, killing twenty people and wounding many more. This violent act remained imprinted in people’s minds and as a reaction, two differing cultural attitudes developed in artistic creation, and these influenced the movement that is now known as modernisme.127 ​ ​

122 Ignasi de Solà-Morales, “Barcelona: Spirituality and Modernity,” in Art Nouveau 1890-1914, ​ ​ ​ ed. Paul Greenhalgh, (New York: Harry N. Abrams Inc., 2000), 336. 123 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 50, 51. ​ 124 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 51. ​ 125 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 51. ​ 126 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 51. ​ 127 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 51. ​

28 One group of architects that came about had a faith in social and material progress and embraced the relationship of modernization between Catalonia and other major European cities.

Architects who aligned with this viewpoint saw the fast-paced construction as due to the industrial prowess of Barcelona and believed in this industrial form of Catalan nationalism. The aim of these architects was to create a fusion of different art forms and to produce architecture for the new social sphere that had emerged from Barcelona’s economic growth. Furthermore, they wanted to create a style that would fit a global, modern city. Both Lluís Domènech i

Montaner and Josep Puig i Cadafalch, famous for producing some of Barcelona’s most well-known works (the Palau de la Música Catalana (1905–1908) and the building that housed

Els Quatre Gats (1896) respectively) aligned with this group of modernistas.128 ​ ​ The second group of artists that emerged during this time sought refuge in religion, aligning with the Catholic church’s reaction to modern society and the changing conventions of urban life.129 The artists’ group known as the Cercle de Sant Lluc was created as a moral and spiritual reaction to the bombing of the Liceu and as a reaction to society in general. Founded by

Joan Llimona, this is the group in which Antoni Gaudí was a part.130 Artists within this group created architecture that had utopian aims of achieving higher moral standards.131 The Cercle de

Sant Lluc, grouped together under patron saint of the artists, Saint Luke, emphasized the guild nature of the association (again speaking to an industrial quality of art making). Their artistic mission was in service of Catholicism and guided by the teachings of Bishop J. Torras i Bages,

128 Solà-Morales, “Barcelona: Spirituality and Modernity,” 336. ​ 129 Solà-Morales, “Barcelona: Spirituality and Modernity,” 336. ​ 130 Teresa-M. Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” in Barcelona 1900, 54. ​ ​ ​ 131 Solà-Morales, “Barcelona: Spirituality and Modernity,” 336. ​

29 who had just published La tradició catalana (Catalan tradition).132 This sense of religious ​ ​ Catalan pride informed the works of this group greatly. Local Gothic forms were regenerated with new technologies, creating the synthesis between tradition and modernity that defines modernisme. However, this group of artists did not consider themselves modernistas. They ​ ​ ​ detested modernisme and believed that the values that it represented went directly against the ​ ​ Catholic church.133 Therefore, although Gaudí is usually associated with modernisme, it is ​ ​ important to know that he did not consider himself a part of this movement, therefore he cannot be considered an emblem of the movement, but rather something separate.

Gaudí wanted to go beyond modernisme to capture the spirituality of the Middle Ages in ​ ​ architecture.134 Gaudí was influenced by the morality of Ruskin and the ideas of Viollet-le-Duc, which can be seen in his use of Gothic construction techniques that were improved upon by using modern materials.135 The influence of Viollet-le-Duc’s idea that a national style is contingent on Structural Rationalism manifests in Gaudí’s Casa Vicens. Here, Gothic structural principles are combined with more modern inspirations.136 Viollet-le-Duc’s call to return to regional building can be seen as influential in Gaudí’s work. Gaudí’s idea of morality in Gothic construction also led to the creation of Col·legi de les Teresianes and the Sagrada Familia.137

They are also examples of the predilection for medieval heritage as a way to revive and honor

Catalan language and culture.

132 Sala, “Images of the City of Modern Life,” 54. ​ 133 Solà-Morales, “Barcelona: Spirituality and Modernity,” 339. ​ 134 Frexa and Molet, 93. ​ 135 Frexa and Molet, 93. ​ 136 Kenneth Frampton, Modern Architecture: A Critical History, (New York: Oxford University ​ ​ ​ Press, 1980), 65. 137 Frexa and Molet, 85. ​

30 Presented in this chapter is the situation in which Josep Jujol lived and worked. As will be noted in Chapter Three, Jujol’s position in the culture of Barcelona at this time demonstrates an artist able to synthesize these different ideas, movements, and styles to create unique versions of a “total architecture.”

31 Chapter Three: Josep Jujol

Josep Maria Jujol i Gibert was born in Tarragona on September 16, 1879. Jujol lived in

Tarragona until 1888, when he was nine years old. His father, a schoolteacher, was relocated to the village of Gràcia, which would be annexed by Barcelona shortly after the Jujols’ arrival.

Josep Jujol attended the School of Architecture in Barcelona, and graduated in 1906. During his years there, the School of Architecture was directed by Lluís Domènech i Montaner, following his conceptions of modernisme: faith in social and material progress, the embracing of ​ ​ modernization, and the fusing of different art forms.138 Jujol was a skilled draftsman, and while in school, worked in the studio of Antoni M. Gallissà, between 1901 and 1903. Gallissà was a follower of Domènech i Montaner and “a delicate and attentive cultivator of the smallest details.”139 This attention to detail must have influenced Jujol greatly, as it was an attention he carried with him throughout his life.

Pertinent to understanding Jujol is to acknowledge that he studied under the direction of

Domènech i Montaner at the Barcelona School of Architecture and in the studio of Gallissà, a follower of Domènech i Montaner. Then, he went on to collaborate with Gaudí. These experiences allowed him to learn from and operate within the differing artistic ideas of the time, placing him in an exceptional position. Architect and scholar Ignasi de Solà-Morales characterizes Jujol’s work as having a “personal isolation,” as it is not an antecedent of any trends and demonstrates Jujol’s position at the crossroads of differing ideas.140 This operation under a synthesis of many ideas is why Jujol cannot be called a simple follower of Gaudí, or a

138 Ignasi de Solà-Morales, Jujol, trans. Jennifer Jackson and Kerstin Engström, (New York: ​ ​ ​ Rizzoli, 1991), 5. 139 Solà-Morales, Jujol, 6, 7. ​ ​ ​ 140 Solà-Morales, Jujol, 5, 6. ​ ​ ​

32 gaudanismo architect. Jujol was also working at a time in which his contemporaries were ​ influenced by the happenings in Europe, therefore, although Jujol only traveled outside of Spain once, he would have been knowledgeable about European trends.141 Thus, his connection to the

Arts and Crafts movement and European Art Nouveau is relevant. Because of this, Jujol must be considered an architect important to the global sphere of art.

Scholarship on Jujol is light compared to the main three architects associated with

Barcelona: Lluís Domènech i Montaner, Josep Puig i Cadafalch, and Antoni Gaudí. The most illuminating account of Jujol as an architect and man comes from his son, Josep Maria Jujol Jr.

This account came about during a time when virtually nothing was written about Jujol.

Therefore, as Jujol Jr. asserts, his book is meant to be “the first building block” for scholarship on his father.142 This book compiles various stories as told by father to son or related by other sources, and personal rememberings about Jujol. I have found it to be extremely useful in gaining a sense of the architect as a whole, as well as a closeness with the architecture and character of Josep Jujol.

The intention of this chapter is not only to outline Jujol’s personal contributions to the work of Gaudí and his work as an independent architect, but also to affirm the argument that

Jujol had a greater proclivity towards the handcrafted than Gaudí had, thus aligning Jujol more strongly with the Arts and Crafts movement.

141 Solà Morales, Jujol, 6. ​ ​ ​ 142 Josep Maria Jujol Jr., The Architecture of Jujol, ed. Ronald Christ, (Santa Fe, NM: ​ ​ ​ SITES/Lumen Books, 1996), 15.

33 Jujol and Gaudí

The exact start of Gaudí and Jujol’s collaboration is not known for certain, but it was sometime in 1906, and Jujol subsequently began working with Gaudí on Casa Batlló by the end of that year, or the beginning of 1907.143 According to Ignasi de Solà-Morales, Jujol’s most decisive collaboration as a young architect was with Antoni Gaudí, a collaboration that would mark Jujol as a “simple follower of Gaudí,” in most scholarship.144 However, as Jujol’s son points out in his book, Jujol was Gaudí’s collaborator, rather than an assistant, and that is how their relationship started. Jujol Jr. says that it is important to emphasize this, because when studying Gaudí’s work, there is a point where it becomes freer and more expressive in terms of decoration and color, and that this point coincides with his association with Jujol. The question of how much Jujol influenced Gaudí can not be said decisively, but Jujol Jr. posits that the collaboration may have caused Gaudí to feel less isolated in his work, or that Jujol’s attention to detail and decoration may have improved upon Gaudí’s work.145

As mentioned in the introduction to this thesis, the nature of Gaudí’s workshop was collaborative, and this collaboration is important in the consideration of his architecture. The collaborative relationship between Jujol and Gaudí allows for Jujol’s specific contributions to be clearly noted and distinguishable from simply executing Gaudí’s ideas without his own creativity and style.146 Furthermore, Jujol physically created elements for Gaudí’s well-known designs.

Regarding this physical craftsmanship, Ronald Christ, in the introduction of Jujol Jr.’s book, makes an important point:

143 Solà-Morales, Jujol, 7, and Jujol Jr., 28. ​ ​ ​ 144 Solà-Morales, Jujol, 7. ​ ​ ​ 145 Jujol Jr., 28. ​ 146 Solà-Morales, Jujol, 7. ​ ​ ​

34 “...here is a point of distinction from Gaudí: beyond designing and

directing or assigning the manufacture of his furniture, iron work,

and trencadís, Gaudí, so far as we know, did not labor directly in

his buildings as an artisan. Jujol did. And his personal stamp is

more present personally for that labor.”147 ​ ​ This answers the question posed in the introduction of this thesis: who actually physically ​ ​ created the work for which Gaudí is known? This physical creation is important in considering the argument that Jujol is more closely aligned with the Arts and Crafts movement. The handcrafted objects and the direct labor of Jujol differs from Gaudí in a significant way. The personal stamp of Jujol is in the details, and this follows the Arts and Crafts aesthetic concern with detail and decoration. The idea of Gaudí being the “whole” (the administrator, the delegator), and Jujol the “part” (concerned with the details of the work) is a concept posed in

Jujol Jr.’s book.148 Jujol being “the part” is interesting through the lens of the Arts and Crafts movement, particularly in the ideas of John Ruskin, where the parts––the details––were very important to the whole.

Jujol’s “personal stamp” is all about the details. In Casa Batlló, Jujol served as the decorator (most notably in the rooms of the first floor), as well as executing the trencadís ​ (ceramic mosaic work) on the building’s facade (Fig. 1). As noted by Jujol Jr., the ceramic facade followed Gaudí’s idea, but can be recognized as being of Jujol in its resemblance to his later work on the medallions at Park Güell (Figs. 2 and 3) and his sense of coloration.149 For La

147 Ronald Christ, introduction to The Architecture of Jujol by Josep Maria Jujol Jr., ed. Ronald ​ ​ ​ Christ, (Santa Fe, NM: SITES/Lumen Books, 1996), 8. 148 Christ, introduction to The Architecture of Jujol, 9. ​ ​ ​ 149 Jujol Jr., 29. ​

35 Sagrada Familia, Jujol painted “Entrance” and “Exit” on wooden signs, reflecting his signature style of calligraphy. He also painted the maquette exhibited in Paris at the Société Nationale de

Beaux Arts in 1910, the fragments of which are preserved today in the cathedral’s museum.150

Casa Milà is a good case study in looking at the relationship between Jujol and Gaudí.

During the construction of Casa Milà, Gaudí was also working on a cathedral project in Palma de

Mallorca, so he left Jujol in charge of supervising Casa Milà’s construction during his absences.

The iron door (Fig. 4) was completed under Jujol’s direction, following Gaudí’s conception.151

Jujol also painted the calligraphic waves that adorn the ceilings in the apartments, improvising and creating these as a free expression.152 Jujol’s contributions to Casa Milà were extremely hands-on and focused on the details. Jujol was given freedom in his designs: as Jujol Jr. relates,

Gaudí answered any of Jujol’s questions on what to do regarding construction with, “Whatever you decide.” An important account that paints Jujol in the light of a true craftsman is that if Joan

Matamala153 as remarked to Jujol Jr. in 1966:

“Gaudí is more geometric, Jujol less restrained, more intuitive,

more spontaneous… Sometimes Gaudí and Jujol would go

together to the metal shop of Badia…On the way, Gaudí talked

endlessly, almost in a monologue; but once at the shop, Gaudí kept

quiet, and if he did open his mouth, it was only to say ‘Very good,

150 Jujol Jr., 31. ​ 151 Jujol Jr., 36. ​ 152 Lluís Permanyer, In Detail: Barcelona Art Nouveau, trans. Sue Brownbridge, (Barcelona: ​ ​ ​ Polígrafa, 2004), 114. 153 Joan Matamala was a sculptor who was present on many of the occasions like the one he ​ describes. Matamala also eventually designed and sculpted the Nativity Facade of the Sagrada Familia after Gaudí’s death.

36 Jujol’ or some other expression of praise or encouragement. Jujol

was never doubtful about whatever work he had in hand, but if he

sometimes asked for Gaudí’s opinion out of respect or courtesy,

Gaudí only replied: ‘Whatever you decide, Jujol.’

The young architect was giving directions to Badia, who was

working the iron in front of Jujol and Gaudí; but Jujol could not

limit himself to directing, and, without giving it a second thought,

he often picked up the tools and began working along with the

smith. Pleased, Gaudí looked on, saying nothing, approving Jujol’s

work with the expression on his face and gentle nods of his

head.”154

Matamala’s account is interesting in two regards. First, it shows Jujol as a craftsman, physically laboring on the ironwork for Casa Milà.155 Jujol’s physical labor at the blacksmith’s workshop represents this idea of a “total architect” that is valued in the Arts and Crafts movement––this is an architect and artisan whose hand is present in their work. This account also dispels the “solo genius” narrative of Gaudí. Gaudí’s acceptance of Jujol’s work and the authority he gave to Jujol demonstrates his willingness to let go of total control, aligning with his aforementioned collaborative spirit. Casa Milà was a revolutionary design, combining abstract sculpture and expressionist architecture.156 Jujol’s creation of the floral references of his railings (Figs. 5 and

6), which were improvised in the smith’s forge, had lasting impacts. The railings inspired

154 Jujol Jr., 36, 37. ​ 155 Jujol Jr., 36 ​ 156 Permanyer, 114. ​

37 Catalan artists Pau Gargallo and Juli González to become the first sculptors to utilize iron in their sculpture, after seeing its expressive effects.157 The use of metalwork is strongly linked to the

Arts and Crafts movement, in which the handmade, hammered appearance was first made popular by the metalworkers of C.R. Ashbee’s Guild of Handicraft. Moreover, this type of metalwork became an important component of the interiors of the Arts and Crafts movement.158

Park Güell is also a place in which Jujol’s presence is pervasive. He was put in charge of decorating the hypostyle ceiling (Figs. 2 and 3) because his sense of color allowed for creativity and expressiveness in design.159 Jujol decorated the ceiling with chinaware, bottles, coffee cups, and other objects.160 Present in these applied arts is the sense of industry, of products utilized in creative ways. Some of the tiles and ceramics for Park Güell came from the Pujol i Bausis factory, therefore demonstrating Jujol’s contribution to the industrial economy of Barcelona, and connecting industry with the handcrafted. Jujol was also responsible for drafting plans for the now iconic bench at Park Güell, free to alter and color the drawings as he saw fit. Jujol chose the colors for the bench, laid much of the mosaic, and decorated the tiles with his characteristic calligraphic incisions (Figs. 7 and 8).161 His freedom to decorate this bench that reads as a large abstract painting speaks to his expressive style. Ronald Christ, in the introduction for Jujol Jr.’s book, writes about the bench, “[r]unning our hands over its alternately glassy and rough surface, we touch pieces of tile set by Jujol’s own hand.”162 This description illustrates Jujol’s important contribution to handcrafted design. Of course, labor was shared with assistants and specialized

157 Permanyer, 114. ​ 158 Isabelle Anscombe, Arts and Crafts Style, (London: Phaidon Press Limited, 1991), 123. ​ ​ ​ 159 Jujol Jr., 39. ​ 160 Permanyer, 84. ​ 161 Jujol Jr., 43. ​ 162 Christ, introduction to The Architecture of Jujol, 8, 9. ​ ​ ​

38 workers who followed his lead and his lines, but Jujol characteristically painted his own paintings, incised his own tiles and sgraffiti (decoration made by scratching a plastered surface, ​ ​ revealing another layer of color), and burned his own designs into doors and chairs.163 This direct labor proves the argument of Jujol being connected with the handcrafted ideals of the Arts and

Crafts movement.

Jujol’s as an Independent Architect

Collaboration between Jujol and Gaudí lasted for about four or five years, after which

Jujol took on his own commissions, some given to him by Gaudí or people associated with him.164 A commission that stands out was in 1913, when Jujol was given money and absolute freedom to do as he wished by his aunt in the building of Torre de la Creu (Fig. 9). This was to be her summer residence in the province of Barcelona, Sant Joan Despí.165 Because of this ​ money and freedom, Jujol excelled himself in designing what has been called his “manifesto piece.” Torre de la Creu marks a turning point in his work from his period of collaborative projects to the period of commissions for refurbishments.166 For this project, Jujol created expressive design both inside and out. Dennis Dollens in his book, Josep Maria Jujol: Five ​ Major Buildings, states of Torre de la Creu, “I no longer believe it possible to find another ​ contemporary European building more spatially and stylistically experimental.”167 The plan of

Torre de la Creu is circular, with three cylinders rising up, symbolizing the Holy Family.168

163 Christ, introduction to The Architecture of Jujol, 9. ​ ​ ​ 164 Solà-Morales, Jujol, 7. ​ ​ ​ 165 Permanyer, 136. ​ 166 Permanyer, 136. ​ 167 Dennis Dollens, Josep Maria Jujol: Five Major Buildings, (New York: SITES/Lumen Books, ​ ​ ​ 1994), 42. 168 Dollens, 42. ​

39 Jujol’s manipulation of space and form through the bisection of the curved interior by straight walls is an original spatial characteristic of Jujol’s work. In the interior of Torre de la Creu, the intersection of geometries and exploitation of spaces set him apart in an expressive, modernist way from Gaudí or any other contemporaries.169 For the roof (Figs. 10 and 11), Jujol utilized the method of creating mosaics known as trencadís in a way that created harmony and resonance.170 ​ ​ However, this roof differs from his ceramic work on Gaudí’s buildings in its sculptural expressiveness. Interconnected with the ceramic roof is a series of stairs, paths, observation posts, rails, and seats, creating a sense of a sculpture park that is more intricate and sculpturally complex than Park Güell and the roof of Casà Mila.171 Jujol demonstrates his craft aesthetic in

Torre de la Creu through the staircase’s use of polished wood and gold-leaf metal (Fig. 12), and his characteristic calligraphic inscriptions in plaster.172

Throughout Jujol’s work, words, symbols, and phrases make up an important part of the architecture, equal to other decorations. Examples of this can be seen in the bench at Park Güell

(Figs. 13 and 14), where Jujol incised texts and symbols that were odes to his Catholic faith.173

Overt religious symbolism is used by Jujol in many of his works in the form of calligraphic prayers, invocations, and emblems. In Torre de la Creu, religion in the form of text is added on ceilings and roofs to create a celestial, heavenward reference. Above the stairway, Jujol wrote

169 Dollens, 46, and David Mackay, Modern Architecture in Barcelona 1854-1939, (New York: ​ ​ ​ Rizzoli, 1989), 87. 170 Permanyer, 156. ​ 171 Dollens, 46. ​ 172 Dollens, 47, 48. ​ 173 Dollens, 52. ​

40 Déu hi sia (May God Dwell Here) in the undulating form of the plaster. The ceramic roofs are ​ also inscribed with calligraphic monograms and symbols that suggest heaven and religion.174

Can Negre (can being the Catalan word for house), was an expansion and renovation of a ​ ​ traditional 1680 Catalan farmhouse completed by Jujol between 1915 and 1930, also in Sant

Joan Despí.175 Can Negre was also a work in which Jujol’s text and calligraphic design was at the forefront, its facades incised with drawn vegetation and text (Fig. 15).176 Being a renovation project, Jujol maintained building materials that aligned with the house’s original materiality, such as wood, straw, plaster, glass, concrete, and wrought iron.177 This project was imbued by

Jujol with rich decoration and use of symbolism.178 Can Negre is emblematic of Jujol’s attention to detail, as the accumulation of small features in this house becomes the triumph of the project.179 The sgraffiti work on the facade is lightly incised with a free-flowing concept, ​ ​ representing Jujol’s expressiveness. The trencadís, the painted decoration, the use of gold leaf in ​ ​ the interior, and the forged metalwork all point to Jujol’s mastery of craft. The metalwork present (Figs. 16 and 17) in the window grates, the now removed balcony rails, and the front side gate are representative of the ways in which Jujol transformed ironwork from being simply utilitarian to being artistic and sculptural. At Can Negre and throughout Jujol’s work is his ability to take common materials––discarded farm, household, or industrial items––and elevate them through his aesthetic and material control and his mastery of detail.180 Jujol’s detailing reflects

174 Dollens, 52. ​ 175 Dollens, 54. ​ 176 Dollens, 54. ​ 177 Dollens, 54. ​ 178 Permanyer, 156. ​ 179 Permanyer, 156. ​ 180 Dollens, 59, 60. ​

41 the sense of true artist-craftsmanship, a sense that, as Dennis Dollens puts it, “goes beyond that of any other Catalan architect of this period.”181 I wholeheartedly agree with Dollens’s statement, as this exemplary status of Jujol as an artist-craftsman affirms his strong connection with the

Arts and Crafts movement. Jujol’s attention to every element and detail in Can Negre and in his other works is a reflection of A.W.N. Pugin’s idea that decoration should be meaningful and ornamentation enriching to design,182 and John Ruskin’s view that surface ornament is just as important as the architecture itself, that it makes the architecture.183

Jujol as a Teacher

Ignasi de Solà-Morales describes Jujol as a “transitory artist” because Jujol divided his time between drawing, architecture, sculpture, and the decorative arts.184 Jujol was a lecturer at both the School of Architecture and the School of Arts and Crafts at the Industrial University,185 demonstrating his status as a “total” architect, and his ability to participate in both the Arts and

Crafts and in industry as part of his architectural style. As a teacher, Jujol brought a revolutionary spirit that came from his father’s system of education in which students learned from experience.186 An account from Jujol’s Flora and Fauna drawing class by one of his first students, César Martinelli i Brunet, is particularly enlightening of Jujol’s teaching style:

“In teaching, he was a revolutionary. Before his arrival, flora and

fauna were copied from the school’s static plaster models… Jujol,

181 Dollens, 60. ​ 182 Isabelle Anscombe, Arts and Crafts Style, (London: Phaidon Press Limited, 1991), 22. ​ ​ ​ 183 Robin Middleton and David Watkin, Neoclassical and 19th Century Architecture, (New York: ​ ​ ​ Rizzoli, 1980), 374, 376. 184 Solà-Morales, Jujol, 6. ​ ​ ​ 185 Solà-Morales, Jujol, 6. ​ ​ ​ 186 Jujol Jr., 181. ​

42 in contrast, had flowers purchased or brought from among the

plants and herbs pulled out of the university gardens. In this way,

he broke classical molds and instituted active teaching. For fauna,

he took students to the zoo. Drawing became much more difficult

but much more interesting. After observing an animal at the zoo,

Jujol could reproduce it faithfully and full of life in just a few

strokes, without needing another look at it.”187

This account reflects the belief held by Jujol that the best way to learn was to draw from life.188

The precise rendering of natural form reminds one of John Ruskin’s design philosophies of using natural scale, form, and materials, and his practice of drawing natural forms from life.189 This connection further affirms Jujol’s Arts and Crafts disposition.

187 Jujol Jr., 182. ​ 188 Jujol Jr., 181. ​ 189 Elizabeth Cumming and Wendy Kaplan, The Arts and Crafts Movement, (London: Thames ​ ​ ​ and Hudson, 1991), 14.

43 Conclusion

This thesis aimed at providing a global and local context to the work of Josep Jujol in order to demonstrate his importance on a global scale, specifically within the Arts and Crafts movement. The Arts and Crafts movement valued handcrafted work in a society that was believed to be morally corrupted by industry. In this movement, the craftsman was valued and medieval Gothic styles were evoked in order to get back to a time in which craftsmen could be freer and more expressive. The values of the Arts and Crafts movement made way for the emergence of the international Art Nouveau style. Art Nouveau operated under all things new and modern, looking forward in a society that was rapidly changing. In Barcelona, their distinct version of Art Nouveau was known as modernisme. Modernisme was characterized by a ​ ​ ​ ​ connection with Barcelona’s strength in industry and their expansion into a global city.

Barcelona’s sense of Catalan nationalism caused artists to evoke Gothic forms in order to move forward and project a modern, national style into the global sphere.

Barcelona’s architectural landscape is dominated by the work of Antoni Gaudí, who has been lauded as a great “solo genius” architect. However, as it has been shown here, Gaudí maintained a collaborative spirit, one in which his collaborators contributed in important ways to his architecture. The presence of his collaborators complicates the “solo genius” narrative and makes way for scholarship on such collaborators to come to light. The scholarship on Jujol, while not extensive, is intimate, with the writings by his son being the true “building blocks.”

There is a small group of people truly interested in Jujol, and through this thesis I have come to recognize their names and see where they overlap. The common thread is a deep appreciation for the work of this architect that seems to have been lost in history. Jujol was a humble man, a

44 devout Catholic, unconcerned with recognition on a large scale, and a tough but inspiring teacher.190 Yet he created spaces that seemed to be the opposite: highly expressive and ornamental, spaces that were loud and did not care if they were liked. In this expressiveness, this attention to detail, lies Jujol’s brilliance.

I have asserted in this thesis that Jujol was more strongly connected to the Arts and Crafts movement than Gaudí or his other contemporaries, based on Jujol’s physical creations and intense attention to detail. Jujol was a true “total architect,” designing buildings, forging metal, and placing pieces of ceramic in mosaics. The significance of his craftsmanship has been barely touched on in other scholarship, however in this thesis it is the central argument. Jujol’s craftsmanship and his craft aesthetic is essential in understanding his work. It could also be essential in understanding why his work has been undervalued. Historically, the divide between

“fine art” and “craft” has demoted those who are considered part of the “craft” group.

Furthermore, the celebration of Gaudí eclipsed anyone who worked with him as mere followers, and delegated them as not important enough to be studied. However, this overshadowing does not seem to be at the fault of Gaudí, as he supported Jujol greatly. An account of the visit of the

Bishop of Tarragona to the Sagrada Familia in the company of Jujol and Gaudí is illustrative of the esteem Gaudí held for Jujol:

“Affectionately and enthusiastically, the cardinal remarked: ‘Jujol,

you must write a book about the cathedral.’ But before Jujol could

answer, Gaudí said: ‘No! Others will write books about him.’” 191

190 According to Josep Jujol Jr.’s accounts in his book The Architecture of Jujol. ​ ​ ​ 191 Jujol Jr., 15. ​

45 It is my hope that this thesis provides a unique perspective about the architecture of Josep

Jujol, and furthers the knowledge of his work’s significance. Jujol was a true craftsman, a “total” architect, and a creator of unique and expressive designs. His connection to the values of the

British Arts and Crafts movement can be seen through these characteristics.

46 Figures

Fig. 1 Facade of Casa Batlló, photograph by Melba Levick in Jujol (New York: Rizzoli, 1991). ​ ​ ​ ​

47

Figs. 2 and 3 Medallions in the domes of the hypostyle hall at Park Güell, photographs by Melba ​ ​ Levick in Jujol (New York: Rizzoli, 1991). ​ ​

48

Fig. 4 Iron door at Casa Milà, photograph by Melba Levick in In Detail: Barcelona Art ​ ​ ​ ​ Nouveau (Barcelona: Polígrafa, 2004). ​

49

Figs. 5 and 6 Ironwork balconies at Casa Milà, photographs by Melba Levick in In Detail: ​ ​ ​ Barcelona Art Nouveau (Barcelona: Polígrafa, 2004). ​

50

Figs. 7 and 8 Incisions on the bench at Park Güell, photographs by Melba Levick in Jujol (New ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ York: Rizzoli, 1991).

51

Fig. 9 Torre de la Creu, photograph by Melba Levick in Jujol (New York: Rizzoli, 1991). ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

52

Figs. 10 and 11 Roof of Torre de la Creu, photographs by Melba Levick in Jujol (New York: ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Rizzoli, 1991).

53

Fig. 12 Staircase at Torre de la Creu, photograph by Melba Levick in Jujol (New York: Rizzoli, ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 1991).

54

Fig. 13 Map locating Jujol’s drawings and inscriptions on the bench at Park Güell, photograph ​ ​ by Ronald Christ in The Architecture of Jujol, (Santa Fe, NM: SITES/Lumen Books, 1996). ​ ​

Fig. 14 (Top) Detail of Jujol’s signature on the bench at Park Güell. (Bottom) Enhanced ​ signature detail and map of signature’s location, from Ronald Christ, in The Architecture of ​ ​ Jujol, (Santa Fe, NM: SITES/Lumen Books, 1996). ​

55

Fig. 15 Exterior of Can Negre, photograph by Melba Levick in Jujol (New York: Rizzoli, 1991). ​ ​ ​ ​

56

Figs. 16 and 17 Details of wrought-iron work at Can Negre, photograph by Melba Levick in ​ ​ ​ Jujol (New York: Rizzoli, 1991). ​

57 Bibliography

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