The Fletcher School Online Journal for issues related to Southwest Asia and Islamic Civilization Fall 2003, Article 2 The Shi’i Perception of Jihad Assaf Moghadam jihad, a concept aptly referred to by Bruce Introduction Lawrence as a “multivalent category of reference 1 The concept of jihad has generated a storm of within the Islamic symbol system.” Indeed, few interest in recent years, particularly in the concepts that have been used as prolifically as Western world. While the concept of jihad and its jihad have been so little understood. meaning in Islam is often misunderstood, an even The word jihad stems from the Arabic and deeper lack of knowledge is apparent over how means to strive or to exert oneself, and is rooted in 2 Shi´a Muslims relate to the concept of jihad. The the verb jahada. Jihad involves a “determined 3 purpose of this study is hence to examine the effort,” directed at an aim that is in accordance concept of jihad as it is approached by the Shi´a with God’s command and for the sake of Islam stream within Islam. and the Muslim umma, and hence praiseworthy. Following a brief overview of the concept of These efforts take two general forms, the first jihad and its multivalent significance in Islam, this being the peaceful form of a “struggle” against study provides a discussion of how the concept is one’s evil inclinations (sometimes referred to as 4 understood and practiced among Shi´i Muslims. the ‘greater jihad,’ or mujahadat al‐nafs). The A subsequent section will examine thoughts on second is the jihad of the sword, sometimes jihad as espoused by three leading Shi´i thinkers referred to as the ‘smaller jihad,’ which is who set the stage for the 1979 Islamic Revolution intended at defending the “House of Islam (dar al‐ 5 in Iran. Islam ) from invasion of non‐Islamic and heretical 6 The study concludes that while the doctrines (kufr) forces. The term jihad, according to Seyyed of Shi´i and Sunni jihad have much in common, Hossein Nasr, can and should be applied to a the Shi´i conception of jihad is heavily influenced variety of exertions aimed at reaching what he by Shi´i perceptions of historical suffering, calls an “equilibrium within the being of man, as leading its exponents to emphasize those well as in the human society where he functions 7 grievances and myths that have had a particular and fulfills the goals of his earthly life.” Fulfilling impact on their identity, including injustice, the jihad, which is commanded upon all Muslims, tyrannical rule, dignity, humiliation, and leads to the realization of complete integration 8 resistance. The difference between the Shi´i and and unity (tawhid). Sunni doctrines of Islam remains one of words In its proper form, and in order to rather than of deeds. distinguish it from the wars of pre‐Islamic Arabia, jihad in Islam is jihad fi sabil Allah, i.e. jihad in the The Multivalence of Jihad way of, or for the sake of, God. It is this attribute A proper discussion of the Shi´a view of of jihad, which distinguishes it from wars fought jihad requires an explanation of the meaning of © Al Nakhlah – The Fletcher School –Tufts University 160 Packard Avenue – Medford, MA 02155-7082 USA – Tel: +1.617.627.3700 2 Al Nakhlah for the sake of personal ends such as glory or prototype of every struggle for justice, every 9 16 booty. suffering.” To this day, Shi´i pilgrims visit 17 On the subject of jihad, the Quran offers shrines associated with the battle of Karbala. The what at times seem to be conflicting emotive drama of Shi´i suffering also finds pronouncements. More moderate descriptions of expressions in Shi´i rites marking the Ashura, jihad emphasizing a passive endurance of when self‐flagellation is often used as a sign of persecution dominate the earlier Meccan verses, mourning. while the later Medinan verses tend to stress a Apart from martyrdom, an additional jihad more inclined to ward off aggression, and at element in Shi´i doctrine that had a direct bearing 10 times permitting it. Verses in the Quran relating on how Shi´is understand jihad is the Occultation to the jihad deal with a variety of issues, (ghayba) of the Twelfth Imam. According to the encompassing fighting, the treatment of prisoners dominant Twelver (Ithna‐Ashari) denomination of war, truce, neutrality, military methods, within Shi´ism, there have been twelve Imams initiation and termination of war, and the spoils of since Muhammad’s death—descendants of the 11 war. prophet’s family who were the “rightful spiritual 18 The doctrine of jihad presupposes the and worldly heirs of the Prophet’s authority,” existence of a unified Islamic state that governs and hence the true leaders of the Islamic umma. the entire umma. It is the latter’s duty to expand Shi´is emphasize the persecution and eventual the territory of this state, aiming to eventually murder of these rightful Imams by the reigning bringing “the whole earth under the sway of caliphs, who thus deprived the Imams of their 12 Islam and to extirpate unbelief.” That expansion right to assume the caliphate. Unlike his eleven is a collective duty of the umma, and presupposes predecessors, however, the Twelfth Imam is 13 the existence of a legitimate caliph. believed to have been taken into occultation by God in 874 to thwart yet another murder of a The Shi’i Perception of Jihad rightful Imam. In 941, the last time that the It must be recognized that the Shi´i “Hidden Imam” had been seen, he entered the conception of jihad is intimately tied to Shi´i Great Occultation. Shi´is believe that the Hidden perceptions of historical suffering and Imam is alive and will eventually return as the 14 19 grievances. The incident that proved most Mahdi, “the one guided by God” who will usher formative for Shi´i identity‐building was the in the End of Days “to fill the world with justice 20 martyrdom of Hussein, the Prophet Muhammad’s and equity.” In Shi´ism, it is the Hidden Imam grandson, on a desolate plain in Karbala in who holds true worldly authority, but in his today’s Iraq in 680. Hussein contended the absence it was the ulama, the learned ones, who accession to the caliphate of the new Umayyad took over this task until the occulted Imam’s leader, Yazid I, by virtue of his descent from the return (raj´a). Prophet. Near Karbala, Hussein, a small band of Shi´a perceptions of its suffering have over followers, and members of his household were the time been accompanied by the feeling that the besieged and finally massacred by Umayyad source of Shi´i agony—the Sunni usurpers of the forces on Ashura, the tenth day of the month of real Islam—need to be battled. It is in this duality Muharram. of suffering and resistance that modern Shi´i Ever since that fateful Ashura, the identity is properly understood. Moojan Momen, martyrdom of Hussein at Karbala has become a for example, describes as a “strange paradox in central component of Shi´i identity and has Shi´i Islam” the existence of these two imbued Shi´i awareness, in the words of Martin contradictory attitudes: on the one hand, Imams Kramer, with an “emotive drama of are praised for enduring suffering; on the other 15 martyrdom.” Moreover, Yann Richard remarked hand, Hussein, the great hero of Shi´ism, is that the martyrdom of Hussein—the only living praised for standing up to tyranny and fighting in 21 grandson of the Prophet—“has become the the face of overwhelming odds against him. © Al Nakhlah – The Fletcher School –Tufts University Fall 2003, Article 2 3 Given this historical conditioning of a Shi´i umma against an outside attack remains 28 identity marked by grievances, the variance obligatory, and the question of what constitutes between Shi´i and Sunni perceptions of jihad an “attack” on Islam therefore appears to stand at should come as no surprise. Nevertheless, the the pivot of the controversy within Shi´ism over degree to which Shi´a and Sunni perceptions of whether and under what conditions jihad in the jihad differ from one another are the substance of military sense—justified as a defense against a 22 ongoing debate. foreign attack—needs to be waged. Abdulaziz In Shi´ism, the notion that jihad, at least in Sachedina points out that one Shi´i interpretation theory, requires the return of the rightful Imam of jihad that dates back to early Islamic times crystallizes as the key difference between Sunni permits the ‘jihad of the Sword’ even against and Shi´a views on jihad. Following the fellow Muslims “if the latter are engaged in 29 Occultation of the Twelfth Imam, Shi´i theory spreading discord in the earth.” holds, no lawful expansionist jihad can be 23 fought. Despite the fact that Shi´i theory puts Exponents of the Shi’i perception of Jihad expansionist jihad on hold, this theoretical notion of a time‐out as long as the Twelfth Imam is in his Ali Shariati—Jihad and Shahadat 30 ghayba has not been strictly adhered to by all Shi´i In his speech “jihad and Shahadat,” Ali thinkers and leaders. During the Qajar period of Shariati (1933‐1977), an Iranian sociologist born Iran, for instance, Sheikh Ja’far Kashif al‐Ghita near Mashad, draws a distinction between jihad (1812‐13) announced that during the occultation, on the one hand, and Shahadat on the other.