HOLOGRAPHY OCTOBER, 2006

OVERVIEW

Since the last writing (2002), many changes and improvements have been made during the past few years. Holography is now offered in both sessions of PHYS 128A/B, allowing more students to perform the lab. The optics table has been divided into two partitions which allows a specific set-up to remain intact. There is enough equipment to permit two simultaneous labs to run without daily tear-down and set-up. The lab now has two electromechanical shutters. All the lower division accessories have been replaced with professional accessories. We stress using the table’s mounting capabilities. All the accessories mount to the table. Magnetic mounts have been eliminated (except for the shutter assembly). Each lab group has their own equipment drawer outfitted with all the accessories needed to perform the lab. This includes both hardware and optical components.

The processing of the film has also changed. Standard developing techniques and chemicals are used.

INTRODUCTION AND OUTLINE

Introduction

In traditional photography, objects are transformed into a two-dimensional image onto the surface of a film or CCD via a lens. This image is a latent image. It becomes visible after processing (developing). The finished product (photograph) has some noticeable limitations. One, it lacks depth of field, that is you can not “see” behind the subject. Secondly, if the photo is torn into shreds, you do not have a complete photo.

Holography, on the other hand does not utilize a lens to form a latent image. It relies on the principle of interference to produce an image. The interference pattern is captured by the film and processed. The hologram is then illuminated with laser light (transmission) or white light (reflection). A holographic image is then observed.

To produce an interference pattern, a single (coherent) source is split and then re- combined. Any path differences are manifested as dark and light rings or patterns. This basic requirement is also a characteristic of holograms. A laser beam is split or caused to be divided. One beam is sent directly to the photographic plate or film. This is the reference beam. The other beam illuminates an object. The scattered light is then sent to the film. This is the object beam. There, the constructive and destructive interference patterns are captured. These patterns are not visible to the naked eye. However you may notice “bull’s-eye” patterns or lines on holograms. These are interference patterns usually produced by the optical system and/or by dust on the surfaces of optical components. This is called “noise.”

1 After processing, laser light or white light is directed on or through the hologram depending on which type is being viewed. The reflected or transmitted light is scattered by the interference patterns into your eye. At this point, the eye-brain system interprets the light rays and reconstructs the image of the original object. It is able to do this because all the space-time information has been captured by the interference patterns on the hologram. Hence, the eye-brain mechanism cannot distinguish any difference between the light scattering off the original object and the light being redirected (via the diffraction pattern) by the hologram. In either case the “image” is the same.

Outline

1. Holographic media, specifically, plates and film.

2. Viewing a reflection hologram.

3. Creating a reflection hologram.

4. Viewing and creating a transmission hologram.

5. Making an interferometer.

6. Making a reflection hologram

7. Making a transmission hologram.

Appendices A. Theory B. Wet lab procedures

Deliverables – What is expected?

You will make a Michelson interferometer, at least two reflection holograms, and at least two single side-referenced transmission holograms.

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1. Film

The film we will be using is an all purpose film for reflection and transmission holograms. The type is PFG-01. It is a fine-grained red sensitive holographic film designed for transmission or reflection hologram recording. Average grain size is 40 nm, resolving power more than 3000 lines/mm, spectral sensitivity range 600-680 nm (including 633 nm, 647 nm), and emulsion thickness 7-8 um.

To identify the emulsion side, lightly moisten your lips and place the film between your open lips. Compress your lips onto the film. Do not drag film through your lips. Now open your lips. What do you experience? Have you found the emulsion side?

Photographic film is a sheet of plastic (polyester, celluloid (nitrocellulose) or cellulose acetate) coated with an emulsion containing light-sensitive silver halide salts (bonded by gelatin) with variable crystal sizes that determine the sensitivity and resolution of the film. Sometimes the substrate is a glass plate. When the emulsion is subjected to sufficient exposure to light (or other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays), it forms a latent (invisible) image. Chemical processes can then be applied to the film to create a visible image, in a process called film developing.

In black-and-white photographic film there is usually one layer of silver salts. When the exposed grains are developed, the silver salts are converted to metallic silver, which block light and appear as the black part of the film negative.

We will be using holographic (plastic) film because of cost issues and ease of use.

Q 1.1 What is the difference between a latent image and a holographic image?

2. Viewing a reflection hologram

Locate the box of reflection holograms in the lab. Select one and hold it in such a manner as to have the room light reflect off the surface. Reorient the film until you view an image.

Now turn on the slide projector. Place the reflection hologram in the white light beam. Orient the film to view the image. Go outside (if applicable) and let sunlight reflect off the hologram.

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3. Creating a reflection hologram

Reflection holograms have a few rare subtleties. First they are very inefficient. Second, they can be viewed with white light. Let’s take a closer look at the film (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Film during reflection hologram The laser light passes through the substrate and then through the emulsion. In this trek a Bragg-plane (standing wave) is established by the incoming beam and the reflected light. As the light exits, it proceeds toward the objects that now scatter light back toward the emulsion where it interferes with the light that is passing through the emulsion. Hence a standing wave pattern and an interference pattern are generated. These holograms are also known as volume holograms. To view the hologram, illuminate from the front and move the film around to observe the reconstructed image. The reason that the reflection hologram can be viewed under white light is that the Bragg planes are spaced in such a manner to allow the wavelength of the original light source to be generated in the emulsion and hence be reflected back with the interference pattern for the eye-brain to interpret.

Two things to note here. One, the emulsion faces the object(s) and two; the objects are close, if not touching, the film.

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4. Viewing a transmission hologram

Refer to the figure (2) below.

Figure 2.

Figure 2(a) shows one possible layout to make a transmission hologram. Note that part of the beam is directed to the photographic plate (reference beam) and the remainder illuminates the object. Light that scatters off the object onto the film interferes with the reference beam producing the hologram.

Figure 2(b) shows how to view the hologram. Be sure the emulsion side faces the laser. Essentially, the hologram is illuminated with light of the same wavelength that was used to make it. This laser light strikes the hologram at the same angle that the reference beam struck the film during the exposure (2a). Move the film to obtain the best image of the object. See if you can locate both images. The first image is a replica of the object. A second image can be seen usually upside-down, distorted, and having an inverted depth

5 of field. This image is the conjugate image also sometimes called a “pseudoscopic” image.

If you re-orient the film (2c) so as to illuminate the hologram at the mirror-image angle you will be able to view the conjugate image as a real image. Use a screen to find the image.

Activity I

Take one of the transmission holograms from the container and mount it in the clamp- ring stand assembly. Be sure the beam spreader (modified microscope objective) is installed. Turn on the laser. Orient the hologram so that the beam covers the entire hologram. Turn and rotate the hologram to get maximum brightness. Perform the above operations to find the images. Caution: The transmission holograms in the box are on glass substrates. Handle with care.

There are two interesting properties of transmission holograms. The first is that there is depth of field. By repositioning the hologram or your head, you can see behind and around objects. Second, the entire hologram contains information from all points of the original object. This means any part of the hologram contains information to reconstruct the entire hologram.

Activity II

Set up a transmission hologram for viewing. Peak for maximum amplitude. Find the black card with a hole in the center. Place the hole anywhere on the hologram and peek through the hole. What do you see?

Q 4.1 If a hologram shattered and a piece were to be illuminated, what would you

see and why?

Q 4.2 What is sacrificed (lost) as you view your broken piece?

6 5. Making a Michelson Interferometer

The basic schematic for a Michelson Interferometer is shown in Figure 3.

White screen

Beam splitter

Path 2 Mirror Laser

Diverging lens Path 1 ½ ∆L

Mirror

Figure 3. Michelson Interferometer Schematic

Rather than use a diverging lens, we will use a microscope objective to open the beam. The microscope objective is used in the entire lab as a beam expander.

Procedure: Refer to Figure 4

A. The lasers will be on as you enter the lab room. The M/W and T/R groups each have an assigned area on the optics table. They are labeled on the optics table. The optics table is a dynamically stabilized platform. DO NOT LEAN ON THE TABLE. Try to perform activities without leaning on the table.

Note: All mechanical and optical components are located in the drawers below the hutch. Each group has their own cabinet assigned to them. Do NOT borrow any items from the other drawer or from the storage cabinet.

Place the electromechanical shutter (mounted on a switching magnet base) a few centimeters in front of the laser aperture. CAUTION: The beam is on. The shutter is set to block the beam in the “off” mode. If you need to perform adjustments, simply slide the shutter out of the way. When you are finished, slide the shutter back into position. DO NOT HOLD THE “ON” BUTTON FOR BEAM ADJUSTMENTS. This switch is used only during exposures.

7 B. Mount the beam splitter/prism-holder accessory with the necessary hardware to the table. The beam splitter is a cube splitter which will onto a smaller table. That assembly is then mounted on the optics table. Mount the hardware on the beam line of the laser and about 15-20 centimeters beyond the shutter. See Figure 4 below.

Dividing Curtain

Fixed

Prism/ Mirror splitter table

Laser

Moveable Microscope Electromechanical Objective Shutter Cube Splitter Screen

Interferometer Table Layout

Figure 4. Interferometer layout on the optics table

C. Mount the microscope objective onto the table with the appropriate hardware from your kit. It is mounted between the shutter and the cube splitter.

D. Mount a first surface mirror about 10 cm. away from the splitter toward the curtain. This will be the fixed mirror. Note: the optics table has a matrix of 1/4-20 holes spaced on 1 inch squares. Your instructor will show you how to identify the first surface.

Caution: Never dry wipe first surface mirrors. The instructor will show you the proper method of cleaning first surface mirrors.

E. Mount a second first surface mirror to an adjustable base. Mount the base to the table. Try to get the adjustable second mirror about the same distance away from the splitter as the fixed mirror.

F. Mount a viewing screen on the side opposite the fixed mirror.

8 ALIGNMENT AND TUNING

A. Unscrew the microscope objective. Place it in a secure place to prevent it from Crashing to the ground.

B. Slide the shutter assembly out of the beam. Caution: The beam is now exposed. You should now see multiple laser beams.

C. First, using the adjustment controls, align the splitter assembly so that the first reflection from the cube bounces back to the laser near but not into the laser. DO NOT ALLOW THE REFLECTION TO ENTER THE LASER APERATURE. THIS WILL CAUSE IRREGULAR MODING IN THE LASER. The beam is now (nearly) perpendicular to the cube surface. This technique is called “auto-collimation.”

D. Find a beam blocker (piece of cardboard) and block the light path between the adjustable mirror and splitter. You should see a single dot on the screen. Adjust the fixed mirror to auto-collimate the beam on the cube’s surface.

E. Remove the beam blocker (step D). You should now see several dots. Two of them are quite bright. Adjust the second (moveable) mirror and try to hit the first dot. Do not translate the mirror at this time.

F. As you are moving the second ray to overlap the first, you may see the dot- combo twinkle. When you do, STOP. If not, try to physically overlap the two dots.

G. Carefully screw the microscope objective into its holder. View the screen.

H. After you have observed the interference pattern, translate the moveable mirror a centimeter or so. Re-align the instrument and observe the pattern. Be prepared to discuss your findings.

Q 5.1. Theoretically, under perfect lab conditions, if ∆p (difference in path length) is zero λ, what would you expect to see on the screen? If ∆p = 1/2 λ ? If ∆p = 3/2 λ ?

Q 5.2. Why are you unable to achieve the theoretical screen pattern even though you achieved ∆p = zero λ?

Q 5.3. What scientific application(s) can this instrument be used for?

9 6. CREATING A REFLECTION HOLOGRAM

The reflection hologram involves exposing a plate or film with laser light as it passes through the film onto the objects. Light reflecting back produces an interference pattern in the emulsion. After processing, the hologram may be viewed upon reflection with either white light or monochromatic light of the wavelength used in the original exposure.

The diagram below is a suggested starting point. There are a many way to make a hologram as there are grains of sand on the local beaches. You are encouraged to alter the geometry and see what happens.

First Surface Mirror Beam Expander

Laser

Shutter

Object(s)

Film Figure 5. Typical reflection hologram layout

Note that this layout has some elements of the interferometer. Here we have only one main beam striking the film plane. The interference takes place as the light bounces off the objects and produces and interference pattern in the emulsion. Helpful hints:

1. When you set up the array, be sure the metallized surface of the mirror is the first surface.

2. Be sure to place the emulsion so it faces the objects.

3. Use metallic items as objects. The objects should be as close as possible to the emulsion, touching if possible. DO NOT CEMENT OR EPOXY ANYTHING IN THIS LAB! We have modeling clay and tacky stuff to prevent objects from moving during the exposure if you feel it should be necessary..

4. Start you exposure at 15-20 seconds. Be sure air pressure to the optics table is turned on. The valve is in room 3215. Your instructor will show you the location.

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6.1 LOADING THE FILM

Prior to loading the film, the lab must be made as light-proof as possible. a) Lock the outside door so no one can walk in during an exposure.

b) Pull the black cloth so that it covers the door. Check bottom for light leaks.

c) Turn on GREEN safe light in the wet lab area. Close door in wet lab. Be sure it is also locked.

d) Turn off all white light sources. From this point forward, until otherwise advised, you will be working in near dark conditions.

e) Be sure the shutter is blocking the main beam and that it is working. Test shutter by momentarily depressing then releasing the push-button switch.

f) Turn on green clock light.

As you enter the wet lab, turn right. On the counter you will see a film safe (black plastic box) containing sheets of 4”x 5” film. You will also find two optically flat glass plates. The film is sandwiched between the plates and held in place by two plastic slip-on clips. (Your instructor will have run you through this process, in the light, so you can practice loading the film successfully.)

Next, carefully open the film safe. In it you will find an envelope or plastic bag. Open the flap. Remove the second bag. Open the second bag and take out one sheet of film. Place in a secure (dry) location. Close the inner bag and place it inside the first bag. Place the bag(s) in the film safe. Close the film safe. This procedure is important because if some one barges in, you only lose one sheet of film not the whole package.

Now first identify the emulsion side. Determine if you want the emulsion side up or down. It makes no difference. The only thing is that you have to able to identify it. Let’s say you select “down.” Position the film in your hand with emulsion down. Place it on top of one of the glass plates. Place the second plate on top of the film. Locate the plastic clip with the words “emulsion side.” Hold the clip with the words facing down (same as the emulsion). Slide the clip over the 4” edge. Now slide the other clip over the other 4” edge. With luck the marked clip now coincides with the emulsion side of the film.

Finally, mount the plate-film assembly to the film holder. BE SURE THE EMULSION SIDE FACES THE OBJECT(S).

Wait a few minutes for the air to stabilize then expose the film.

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6.2 DEVELOPING THE FILM

There are basically two types of holographic processes. The first is Amplitude Modulation (AM). In this hologram the interference pattern is stored in closely spaced varying density lines. The second is Phase Modulation (PM). In this type, the holographic information is stored in a closely spaced varying thickness much like a 3-D topo-map. In the former (AM), the image is reproduced by the combination of varying amplitudes. In the latter (PM), phase delays produce the interference patterns.

Phase modulated holograms tend to be more efficient as light is not blocked by dark fringes (in AM holograms). Since reflection holograms are not the most efficient, we will use PM processing. The process is outlined in Appendix A.

Chemicals are usually poured out ahead of time in light into their appropriate trays from bottles marked “Working Solution.”

Please take a moment to read the Darkroom Etiquette sheet in Appendix A.

It is important that you be neat and organized in a wet lab. Cross contamination can ruin an entire experiment.

The PM process requires that the hologram be completely (air) dried before viewing. Emulsion swelling during the developing process distorts the surface and hence the hologram. Do NOT heat the film above room temperature.

6.3 VIEWING THE HOLOGRAM

Turn on the viewing laser located on the table. Be sure the beam spreader is properly positioned. Place the (dry) reflection hologram into the beam. Position the hologram so that the incidence angle equals the exposure angle. Try both sides.

Q 6.3. Which side (facing the viewer) produces the best image?

7. CREATING A TRANSMISSION HOLOGRAM

The main difference between the reflection hologram and the transmission hologram is that the laser beam is split into two or more beams that travel different paths and all eventually terminate at the film plane. See Figure 6..

12 MIRROR OBJECTIVE BEAM SPLITTER LASER

ILLUMINATION BEAM

FILM OBJECTS SHUTTER

MICROSCOPE OBJECTIVE

REFERENCE MIRROR BEAM

Figure 6. Single illumination, side-referenced layout

Notice the close similarity to the interferometer layout. The main beam is split into two beams that meet at the film.

7.1 DETAILS

The choice of the beam splitter will be determined in the lab through a beam intensity analysis. The beam splitters are of the thin-film type of various ratios. These are part of the optics kits in the drawer.

There are also a few objectives from which to choose from in the kit.

Objects should be diffuse rather than metallic. White chessmen, sea shells, wiffle balls, etc. will work better as objects.

Reference beam intensity-to-film illumination ratio, the beam-balance ratio, of about 4:1 will give best results. You can experiment a bit with this variable. A power meter is available to measure intensities.

Try to keep angles between the reference beam and film and illumination beam and film less than 45°.

Last, but not least, it is important to keep the reference-beam path and the illumination- beam path within a few centimeters. (Why?)

7.2 PROCESSING THE FILM

As mentioned earlier, there are two developing processes that can be used, phase modulation or amplitude modulation. These processes are given in Appendix A.

13 Transmission holograms are more efficient than reflection ones, so we can develop them using AM processing. After making a few AM holograms, we will take one of them (the one most over-exposed) and bleach it.

You will then make some PM transmission holograms, skipping the AM process.

Compare the holograms using each process. What do you observe?

If time permits, change the beam balance ratio and camera geometry.

Here are some questions for Section 7.

Q 7.1. For transmission holograms, why are diffuse objects better than metallic?

Q 7.2. What is the purpose of “bleach” in reflection and transmission holograms?

Q 7.3. What is the difference between an amplitude-modulated hologram and a phase -modulated hologram? How are they processed (developed)?

Q 7.4. What guideline is essential for the making of a high quality hologram?

Q 7.5. What is a spatial filter and how does it work?

Q 7.6. Why is it important to isolate the camera (table) from the immediate surroundings?

APPENDIX A: Wet-lab chemistry and etiquette.

APPENDIX B: This section deals with the theory of holography.

14 Appendix A DEVELOPING PFG-01 HOLOGRAPHIC FILM

TYPE I

REFLECTION HOLOGRAMS: PHASE MODULATION (BLEACHING)

DEVELOPER TEMP TIME AGITATION COMMENTS

D-19 64º F – 72º F 4-6 MIN MODERATE EMULSION SIDE UP (18º C – 22º C) CONTINUOUS DURING DEVELOPMENT TIME WILL VARY DEPENDING ON EXPOSURE AND TEMPERATURE

STOP BATH

KODAK 64º F – 72º F 30 SEC MODERATE EMULSION SIDE UP INDICATOR (18º C – 22º C) STOP BATH

RINSE 64º F – 72º F 1 - 3 MIN (18º C – 22º C)

BLEACH 64º F – 72º F UNTIL EMULSION SIDE (18º C – 22º C) CLEAR DOWN

RINSE 4 – 6 MIN

15 Appendix A

DEVELOPING PFG-01 HOLOGRAPHIC FILM

TYPE II

TRANSMISSION HOLOGRAMS: PHASE MODULATION (BLEACHING)

DEVELOPER TEMP TIME AGITATION COMMENTS

D-19 64º F – 72º F 4-6 MIN MODERATE EMULSION SIDE UP (18º C – 22º C) CONTINUOUS DURING DEVELOPMENT TIME WILL VARY DEPENDING ON EXPOSURE AND TEMPERATURE

STOP BATH

KODAK 64º F – 72º F 30 SEC MODERATE EMULSION SIDE UP INDICATOR (18º C – 22º C) STOP BATH

RINSE 64º F – 72º F 1 - 3 MIN (18º C – 22º C)

BLEACH 64º F – 72º F UNTIL EMULSION SIDE (18º C – 22º C) CLEAR DOWN

RINSE 4 – 6 MIN

16 Appendix A DEVELOPING PFG-01 HOLOGRAPHIC FILM

TYPE III

TRANSMISSION HOLOGRAMS: AMPLITUDE MODULATION

DEVELOPER TEMP TIME AGITATION COMMENTS

D-19 64º F – 72º F 4 – 6 MIN MODERATE EMULSION SIDE UP (18º C – 22º C) CONTINUOUS DURING DEVELOPMENT TIME WILL VARY DEPENDING ON EXPOSURE AND TEMPERATURE

STOP BATH

KODAK 64º F – 72º F 30 SEC MODERATE EMULSION SIDE UP INDICATOR (18º C – 22º C) STOP BATH

RINSE 64º F – 72º F 1 – 3 MIN (18º C – 22º C)

FIX

KODAK RAPID 64º F – 72º F 3 – 4 MIN MODERATE EMULSION SIDE UP FIXER (18º C – 22º C)

RINSE 4 – 6 MIN

17 Appendix A

DARKROOM ETIQUETTE

1. PLACE PAPER TOWELS UNDERNEATH ALL TRAYS AND RINSE SOLUTIONS TO CONTROL SPILLAGE DURING DEVELOPMENT.

2. FILL DEVELOPING TRAYS 1/4 TO 1/2 FULL ONLY. THIS WILL REDUCE SPILLAGE DURING AGITATION.

3. POUR ALL WORKING SOLUTIONS BACK INTO THEIR RESPECTIVE CONTAINERS. BE SURE TO RINSE FUNNELS AT THE END OF EACH POUR TO AVOID CROSS-CONTAMINATION.

4. WASH AND RINSE ALL TRAYS.

5. TURN OFF THE SAFELIGHT AND ROOMLIGHTS BEFORE LEAVING THE LAB.

18

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