Entheogenic Spirituality
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Entheogenic Spirituality Conversations with Psychonauts Petter Grahl Johnstad Masteroppgave i religionsvitenskap Institutt for arkeologi, historie, kultur- og religionsvitenskap Universitetet i Bergen Våren 2016 Special experience going on? Petroglyph from Tamgaly Valley, Kazakhstan, 2nd millennium BCE (Rozwadowski 2001). Used with permission. Acknowledgements This study is a multidisciplinary project with two main parts. Part one was completed in the spring of 2015 as a bachelor thesis in psychology with the title “User perceptions of the mental health consequences of hallucinogen use in self-identified spiritual contexts.” It has since been published in the journal Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs (Johnstad 2015). As the title indicates, this thesis has a focus on mental health. Part two is what you are about to read. As the title indicates, it has a focus on spirituality. As we shall see, however, the spirituality of the participants in this study is heavily invested in personal growth processes that include also the domain of mental health. Thus there is an overlap in thematic content. In order to avoid repeating myself, I have avoided as much as possible the reuse of interview material published in the first part of the study. Some of the literature review on mental health consequences published in part one does however reappear in rewritten form in section 3.2, and some methodological elaboration from part one reappears here, substantially rewritten, in sections 4.2 and 4.3. This study also has a predecessor in the form of a bachelor thesis in religious studies titled “Religiøs bruk av rusmidler” (Religious use of psychoactive drugs) from 2012, which is historically oriented. Some of the material from this thesis reappears in translated and rewritten form in sections 1.4 and 1.5. Along the way I have received much help and support. Most importantly, my supervisor in religious studies, Håkan Rydving, has been with me since the fall of 2014, and has provided invaluable theoretical, methodological, and technical support. Geir Scott Brunborg, my 2015 supervisor in psychology, also provided important feedback and perspectives. Furthermore, the editors and reviewers of Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs did much to raise the quality of my submission to this journal, and their input has informed also my subsequent work. Finally, the participants of the religious studies symposia at the University of Bergen during the fall of 2015 and spring of 2016 have provided valuable feedback on various chapters submitted to their scrutiny. Abstract This study attempts to gain insight into the life worlds of users of entheogenic drugs, and thereby to broaden our understanding of a clandestine and little known spiritual phenomenon. Such insight will also help us to comprehend the rationale behind and consequences of entheogen use. Respondents were recruited at several Internet fora for individual email- mediated interviews (n = 11) or group interviews in public discussion threads (n = 15). They were predominantly males in their 20s, 30s or 40s with stable jobs and living conditions and extensive entheogen experience. The findings obtained indicate that participants tended to follow a pattern of infrequent and often well-planned entheogen sessions. They described a wide variety of cognitive and emotional effects taking place under the influence of entheogenic drugs, ranging from Maslovian peak experiences to one dramatic psychotic episode. Respondents emphasized the capacity of entheogenic drugs for healing and personal growth, and even adverse experiences (“bad trips”) were regarded as valuable for these purposes. Their reported spiritual experiences did not seem significantly influenced by familial or cultural background. Denne studien forsøker å oppnå innsikt i livsverdenen til brukere av entheogene rusmidler, og dermed øke vår forståelse for et hemmelighetsfullt og lite kjent spirituelt fenomen. Slik innsikt vil også hjelpe oss med å forstå årsakene til og konsekvensene av denne form for rusmiddelbruk. Deltakere ble rekruttert på flere Internettfora for individuelle intervjuer via epost (n = 11) eller gruppeintervjuer i offentlige diskusjonstråder (n = 15). De var i hovedsak voksne menn i 20-, 30- eller 40-årene med stabile jobber og livsforhold, samt ekstensiv erfaring med entheogener. Funnene i studien indikerer at intervjuobjektene fulgte et bruksmønster med relativt sjeldne, men ofte godt planlagte, «turer» på slike rusmidler. De beskrev en bred rekke av kognitive og følelsesmessige effekter under innflytelse av entheogener, som strakte seg fra maslowske «peak experiences» til en dramatisk psykotisk episode. Deltakerne fremhevet hvordan bruk av entheogene rusmidler kunne ha positive konsekvenser i form av personlig vekst og helbredelse, og selv vanskelige rusopplevelser («bad trips») var ansett som positive i denne forstand. De beskrevne spirituelle erfaringer virket ikke å være betydelig påvirket av familie- eller kultur- bakgrunn. Contents Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 1 – Spirituality and entheogens ................................................................................ 3 1.1 Spirituality and religion .................................................................................................... 3 1.2 Of its own kind ................................................................................................................. 4 1.3 Hallucinogens, psychedelics, entheogens ....................................................................... 10 1.4 A brief history of religious intoxication ......................................................................... 14 1.5 Entheogens and religious hierarchies ............................................................................. 20 1.6 Spirituality and materiality ............................................................................................. 22 Chapter 2 – Inner experience ................................................................................................ 25 2.1 Experience and consciousness ........................................................................................ 25 2.2 Altered states of consciousness ...................................................................................... 27 2.3 “Religious experience” ................................................................................................... 29 2.4 Cultural and linguistic mediation ................................................................................... 33 Chapter 3 – Entrance and maintenance processes .............................................................. 39 3.1 Entrance processes .......................................................................................................... 39 3.2 Maintenance processes ................................................................................................... 41 Chapter 4 - Methods .............................................................................................................. 50 4.1 Epistemological overture ................................................................................................ 50 4.2 Design and recruitment ................................................................................................... 53 4.3 Data collection and analysis ........................................................................................... 55 4.4 Verification and reporting .............................................................................................. 57 4.5 Anonymity ...................................................................................................................... 57 Chapter 5 – Interviews ........................................................................................................... 60 5.1 Crossing the threshold .................................................................................................... 60 5.2 Religious background ..................................................................................................... 62 5.3 Patterns of use ................................................................................................................. 64 5.4 Entheogenic experiences ................................................................................................ 67 5.5 Bad trips .......................................................................................................................... 72 5.6 Psychotic reactions ......................................................................................................... 74 5.7 Adverse long-term consequences ................................................................................... 76 5.8 Positive long-term consequences .................................................................................... 80 Chapter 6 - Discussion ........................................................................................................... 85 6.1 Analytical summary ........................................................................................................ 85 6.2 Entheogenic experience .................................................................................................. 90 6.3 Attractions and consequences ......................................................................................... 92 6.4 Entheogenic spirituality .................................................................................................