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THE NORTHERN ENGINEER Applied Science & Technology in the North THE NORTHERN ENGINEER applied science & technology in the north THE NORTHERN ENGINEER Volume 13, Number 2 Summer 1981 Editor TABLE OF CONTENTS Carla Helfferich North Slope Gas- A Better Approach? Editorial Advisor Michael J. Economides ........................................4 Lee Leonard The Board of Road Commissioners Associate Editor Claus-M. Naske .............................................9 Barbara Matthews An Arctic Research Ship- The Preliminary Design Subscription Manager /Typesetting Robert Elsner and Jonathan Leiby ............................... 22 Teri Lucara Small-Scale Waste Oil Incinerators Finance Officer Frank Abegg ..............................................30 Neta Stilkey Wartsila Activities: New Vessels, New Facilities .........................37 Editorial Board Meetings, Notes, Publications, Letters ...............................38 John Bates Deputy Commissioner, DOTPF Juneau Joseph M. Colonel! Woodward-Clyde Consultants Anchorage Mark Fryer COVER Consulting Engineers Anchorage In honor of the two icebreaker articles in this issue, the cover presents a portrait Paul Goodwin of the Soviet nuclear-powered icebreaker Lenin in annual sea ice. (From the book Variance Corporation The Two Poles by Gennady Koposov; print courtesy of William Sackinger.) Anchorage Keith B. Mather Vice Chancellor for Research, UAF Janet Matheson Architect THE NORTHERN ENGINEER is a quarterly publication of the Geophysical Fairbanks Institute, University of Alaska - Dr. Juan G. Roederer, Director. It focuses on engin­ John M. Miller eering practice and technological developments in cold regions, but in the broadest Geophysical Institute, UAF sense. We will consider articles stemming from the physical, biological and behavioral Elbert F. Rice sciences, also views and comments having a social or political thrust, so long as the Civil Engineering, UAF viewpoint relates to technical problems of northern habitation, commerce, develop­ Tunis Wentink, Jr. ment or the environment. Contributions from other polar nations are welcome. We Geophysical Institute, UAF are pleased to include book reviews on appropriate subjects, and announcements of John Zarling forthcoming meetings of interest to northern communities. "Letters to the Editor" Mechanical Engineering, UAF will be published if of general interest; these should not ·exceed 300 words. Subscrip­ tion rates for THE NORTHERN ENGINEER are $10 for one year, $15 for two years, and $35 for five years. Some back issues are available for $2.50 each. Address all correspondence to THE EDITOR, THE NORTHERN ENGINEER, GEOPHYSICAL INSTITUTE, UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA, FAIRBANKS, ALASKA 99701, U.S.A. (ISSN 0029-3083) The Universj.ty of Alaska is an EO/AA employer and educational institution. The Northern Engineer, Vol. 13, No.2 3 by Michael J. Economides NORTH SLOPE GAS­ A BETTER APPROACHl INTRODUCTION of maximum production from the reser­ voir. Production from primary recovery Alaska's North Slope natural gas is expected to decline soon, although could provide a major boost to national secondary recovery (waterflooding) is energy needs. Although natural gas is expected to pick up the slack. one of the most efficient and cleanest Presently, the gas-oil ratio (GOR) forms of energy, it poses cumbersome at Prudhoe Bay is 900 standard cubic feet problems of transportation. The remote· per barrel. The overall gas-oil ratio is ness of the North Slope reservoirs from 2700 scf/bbl based on recoverable re­ the energy-hungry markets to the south serves. Hence, one would expect a sizable and the high construction costs in Alas­ increase in the amount of gas produced ka further complicate the picture. at Prudhoe both because of the decline In the political climate of the 1970s, in pressure and the "sweep" due to the following the Arab oil embargo and anticipated waterflood. Project Independence, no cost was too At present the gas is reinjected into great to pay for utilizing the United 9 States' own resources. Offshore drilling the reservoir at the rate of 1.2 x 10 scf and exploration in remote and harsh per day, while some of the available gas areas of the U.S. became common char­ is used as fuel for the operation of the acteristics of the petroleum scene. The field and some of the pumping stations. development at Prudhoe Bay, the trans For reasons explained below, the rein­ Alaska pipeline, and the Valdez termi­ jection practice will have to be termi­ nal tapped the vast reserves discovered on nated within three to four years. The the Slope. A natural gas pipeline was issue is what to do with the available gas considered an obvious followup to when that happens. complete the reservoir exploitation. In There are three options that appear the past few years, however, other to be technically feasible: 1) transporting options for utilizing North Slope natural the natural gas via a pipeline connecting gas have been suggested. Alaska with Canadian and Lower 48 lo­ The Prudhoe Bay field is a giant cations; 2) flaring, which will become petroleum reservoir, the largest ever dis­ necessary if no means of useful disposal covered in North America. Recoverable are implemented; and 3) converting the reserves for this field have been estima­ natural gas at Prudhoe Bay to other liq­ ted at 26 x 1012 cubic feet (scf) of gas uid compounds that could be transported 1 and 9.7 x 109 barrels (bbl) of oil. The via the under-utilized trans Alaska pipe­ 6 present production is 1.5 X 10 barrels line. The desirability or lack thereof of per day and is expected to remain at the three options will be discussed in roughly this level, which represents that this article. Michael J. Economides holds B.S. and M.S. degrees in chemical engineering (Univer­ sity ofKansas) and a Ph.D. in petroleum engineering (University ofCalifornia, Berkeley, and Stanford University). He has industrial experience as a process chemical engineer and a petroleum reservoir engineer, and is an Assistant Professor ofPetroleum Engineer­ ing at the University ofAlaska, Fairbanks. The Northern Engineer, Vol. 13, No.2 4 GAS REINJECTION production. The temperature remains the point that the gas-oil contact falls The cessation of gas reinjection be­ largely constant, so most reservoir deple­ below the level of the well completions. comes necessary at some point in the life tion calculations are made assuming iso­ This phenomenon is often called "gas of any petroleum reservoir because of the thermal conditions. coning". fundamental behavior of oilfield fluids. A successful oil well is one that is The production of natural gas from a Liquid oil, natural gas and water are completed in the oil zone. Figure 1 typical oil reservoir is expected to in­ the fluids found in a petroleum reservoir. demonstrates a reservoir with the three crease in relation to the production of The nomenclature of these substances, if distinct zones and with wells completed liquid. More precisely, the gas-oil ratio not scientifically exact, is at least descrip­ in the oil zone. A well represents a pres­ (GO R) increases as the reservoir pres­ tive for the temperatures and pressures sure "sink", and hence a pressure gradient sure decreases. found in typical reservoirs. is created. This gradient forces the fluid At early stages in the life of a res­ Due to "gravity segregation" and the through the reservoir, up the wellbore ervoir, the gas is reinjected with power­ hydraulic pressure gradient, gas inhabits and to the surface. ful compressors into the ground, through the upper strata of the reservoir, oil the Production from the pore spaces wells appropriately called injectors. If middle and water the bottom, as one results in voidage and pressure depletion. the only purpose was pressure mainte­ would expect. Hence, there exists a gas­ This in turn causes an expansion of the nance, a good injection design would oil contact and an oil-water contact; a gas cap. Because of the pressure reduc­ complete the wells in the gas cap. An ex­ phenomenon called capillary pressure tion, gas comes out of solution or, more panding gas cap at sufficiently high "fuzzies" the contacts. Water inhabits precisely, the oil undergoes an isothermal pressure can sustain the underlying oil the entire reservoir at a minimum, "ir­ distillation. Hence, gas can be produced zone at a high enough pressure to over­ reducible", water saturation. either because the reservoir pressure is come the hydraulic head in the wellbore The phase of a fluid in a reservoir reduced below the "bubble point" pres­ and thus permit the oil to reach the sur­ will change as pressure declines due to sure, or because the gas cap expands to face without artificial lift (such as pump­ ing units). A more sophisticated use of pro­ duced solution gas is gasflood. Carefully EXPLORATION selected patterns (known because of the WELL relative well numbers and configuration as "5-spot", "7-spot", "line drive", etc.) are used to inject gas to displace oil PRODUCING towards adjoining producers. Thus, pres­ WELLS sure-depleted reservoirs are offered a "helping hand". An ideal type of displacement is called "piston-like"; the nomenclature is self explanatory. However, a reservoir fluid property known as relative perme­ ability allows gas to "finger" through the passageways or "override". Gas, then, short-circuits the process and eventually WATER creates a swift path between injectors and producers. Thus, much energy is expend­ ed to re-produce recently produced and Figure 1. Reservoir configuration showing gas, oil and water zones and contacts. injected gas without the benefit of oil Note successful completions in the oil zone. production. The Northern Engineer, Vol. 13, No.2 5 The simultaneous gas cap expansion 140°F, they would vaporize. Therefore a The Journal stated that the cost of and the associated gas coning would new natural gas liquids pipeline would be the ANGTS is estimated now at $35 to greatly increase the GOR. An uneconom­ necessary. The NGL pipeline would serve $40 billion. This translates into a price ical remedy would be to lower the com­ as the feed to the contemplated petro­ for gas delivered in Chicago of $15 per pletion level by redrilling the production chemical industry.
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