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ED 280 782 SO 018 051 TITLE Technologies for Prehistoric & Historic Preservation. INSTITUTION Congress of the U.S., Washington, D.C. Office of Technology Assessment. REPORT NO OTA-E-319 PUB DATE Sep 86 NOTE 209p. AVAILABLE FROMSuperintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. .PUB TYPE Reports General (140) -- Legal/Legislative/Regulatory Materials (090) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC09 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Archaeology; Architectural Character; *Architecture; Building Conversion; Building Obsolescence; *Buildings; Conservation (Environment); Construction Materials; Facilities; Facility Guidelines; *Preservation; *Repair; Resources; *Technological Advancement ABSTRACT Archaeological remains and historic structures and landscapes are important tangible reminders of the United States' rich and diverse cultural heritage. In recent years the stresses on these unique, nonrenewable cultural resources have increased dramatically. This report presents the primary findings of an assessment requested by the House of Representatives Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs. Focus is on the applications of preservation technologies rather than preservation disciplines. The study examines the current use of preservation technologies and identifies research and development needs. It also explores how improvements in Federal policy and implementation can make more effective use of technologies appropriate for managing this country's prehistoric and historic cultural resources. Appendices are: (1) "Cultural Resources Management Laws and Regulations"; (2) "Documentation and Conservation of Rock Art";(3) "Registration and Private Ownership of Archaeological Objects"; (4) "National Register Criteria from the Introduction to: 'How to Apply the National Register Criteria for Evaluatiole"; (5) "National Register of Historic Places Inventory--Nomination Form"; (6) "U.S. National Park Service Cultural Programs"; (7) "Advisory Council on Historic Preservation"; (8) "National Trust for Historic Preservation"; and (9) "National Building Museum." (Bz)

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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 03 Office of Educational Research and Irnprovemel EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIO CENTER (ERIC) 2'1'.'his document has been reproduceda receivud from the person or organizatio originating it. 0 Minor changes have been madeto improv reproduction quality.

Points of view or opinions statedin this doCt ment do not necessarily represent officit OERI position or policy.

CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES Office of Technology 1 ,!;sment ' 4T Washington, D, C. 20510 2 Office of Technoiogy Assessmen;

Congressional Board of the 99th Congrriss

TED STEVENS, Alaska, Chairman

MORRIS K. UDALL, Arizona, Vice Chairman

Senate House ORRIN G. HATCH GEORGE E. BROWN, JR. Utah California CHARLES McC. MATHIAS, J. JOHN D. DINGELL Maryland Michigan EDWARD M. KENNEDY CLARENCE E. MILLER Massachusetts Ohio ERNEST F. HOLLINGS COOPER EVANS South Carolina Iowa CLAIBORNE PELL DON SUNDQUIST Rhode Island Tennessee JOHN H. GIBBONS (Nonvoting)

Advisory Council

WILLIAM J. PERRY, Chairman CLAIRE T. DEDRICK RACHEL McCULLOCH H&Q Technology Partners California Land Commission University of Wisconsin DAVID S. POTTER, Vice Chairman S. DAVID FREEMAN CHASE N. PEI ERSON General Motors Corp. (Ret.) Lower Colorado River Authority University of Utah EARL BEISTL1NE MICHEL T. HALBOUTY JOSEPH E. ROSS Consultant Michel T. Halbouty Energy Co. Congressional Research Service CHARLES A. BOWSHER CARL N. HODGES LEWIS THOMAS General Accounting Office University of Arizona Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center

Director

JOHN H. GIBBONS

The Technology A!sessment Board approves the release of this repoit. The views expressed in this report are not neces>:ayily those of the Board, OTA Advisory Council, or individual members thereof.

3 Recommended Citation: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technoiogies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation, OTA-E-319 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, September 1986).

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 86-600574

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402

4 Foreword

Archaeological remains and historic structures and landscapes are important tangible reminders of this Nation's rich and diverse cultural heritage. They provide a sense of our past and contribute in other ways to our quality of life. Yet, in recent years, the result primarily of population shifts, urban growth, and _nergy development, the stresses on these unique, nonrenewable cultural resources have increased dramatically. As this assessment makes clear, the appropriate use of a wide variety of preservation technologies, many of which were originally developed for applications in natural science and engireering, could reduce many of these stresse- This report presents the primary findings of an assessment recit.sted by the House Committee on Interior'and Insular Affairs. The Subcommittee on Public Lands is carrying out a major review of how Federal agencies implement Federal preservation policy. This assessment directly supports the Committee's review by showing how the uses of certain methods, techniques, as well as tools and equipment can assist Feder- al, State, and local preservation efforts. The assessment takes the unusual step of focusing on the applications of preservation technologies rather than preservation disciplines. It examines the current use of preservation technologies and identifies research and development needs. It also explores how improvements in Federal policy and implementation can facilitate the more effective use of technologies appropriate for managing this country's prehistoric and historic cultural resources. In undertaking this assessment, OTA sought the contributi )ns of a wide spectrum of knowledgeable and interested individuals. Some provided information and guidance, others reviewed drafts of the report. OTA gratefully acknowledges their contributions of time and intellectual effort. OTA also appreciates the timely help rendered by a number of individuals from the National Park Service.

JOHN H. GIBBONS Director

5 I ii Review Pan&

Robert Baboian John H. Myers Corrosion Laboratory College of Architecture Texas Instruments Georgia i nstitute ui Tech nology Attleboro, MA Atlanta, GA Carole L. Crum ley Patricia O'DonneH Department of Anthropology Waimsley & Co. University of North Carolina New York, NY Chapel Hill, NC Mimi RodA.1 Hiroshi Daifuku Carson City, NV Historic Preservation Consultant Reynold Ruppe Washington, DC Department of Anthropology James Ebert Arizona State University Ebert & Associates Tempe, AZ Albuquerque, NM Susan E. Schur Joel Grossman Technology and Conservation Grossman & Associates, Inc. Boston, MA New York, NY Thomas Spiers Robe,t Harvey Benatec Associates Department of Landscape Architecture Harrisburg, PA Iowa State University M. Jane Young Ames, IA Department of Anthropology Ruthann Knudson University of Texas Woodward-Clyde Consultants Austin, TX Walnut Creek, CA Charles Mazel Klein Associates Salem, NH

NOTE: OTA appreciates and is grateful for the valuable assistance and thoughtful critiques provided by the review panel and workshop participants. The oanel and workshops do not, however, necessarily approve, disapprove, or endorse this report. OTA assumes full responsibility ior the report and the accuracy of its contents.

Iv 6 OTA Project Staff on Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Lionel S. Johns, Assistant Director, OTA Energy, Materials, and International Security Division

Peter D. Blair, Energy and Materials Program Manager

Richard E. Rowberg, Energy and Materials Program Manager until December 1985

Ray Williamson, Project Director

Mary Lee Jefferson, Analyst

Janne lle Warren-Findley, Contractor

Administrative Staff

lian Chapman Linda Long

7 Workshop Participants Techne!ogies for the Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Structures, Dec. 3-4, 1985

Dena Dincauze, Chair Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA

Annetta Cheek Mark Leone Thomas Sever Archeology Assistance Division Department of Anthropology National Aeronautics and Space Office of Surface Mining University of Maryland Administration Washington, DC College Park, MD National Space Technology Laboratories Bay St. Louis, MS James Ebert Charles Pearson Ebert & Associates Coastal Environments, Inc. R.E. Taylor Albuquerque, NM Baton Rouge, LA Department of Anthropology University of California Jeffrey Eighmy G.R. Rapp, Jr. Riverside, CA Department of Anthropology College of Science and Engineering Colorado State Univesity University of Minnesota Leslie Wildesen Fort Collins, CO Duluth, MN Colorado Heritage Center State Historic Preservation Office James Judge Joseph Schuldenrein Denver, CO Fort Burgwin Research Center Commonwealth Associates Southern Methodist University Jackson, MI Dallas, TX Timothy Kohler Department of Anthropology Washington .S'ate University Pullman, WA

Technologies for the Preservation of Historic Structures, Jan. 28-29, 1986

James Marston Fitch, Chair Department of Historic Preservation, Beyer Blinder Belle Architects & Planners, New York, NY

Terry Amburgey Tomas H. Spiers John rl. Myers Forest Products Laboratory Benatec Associates Center for Architectural Conservation Mississippi State University Harrisburg, PA College of Architecture Mississippi State, MS Georgia Institute of Technology Geoffrey Frohnsdorff Atlanta, GA Jan C.K. Anderson Center for Building Technology RESTORE National Bureau of Standards Susan E. Schur New York, NY Gaithersburg, MD Technology and Conservation Boston, MA Robert Baboian Larry Jones Corrosion Lai:,oratory Old House Journal Norman Weiss Texas Instruments Brooklyn, NY Center for Preservation Research Attleboro, MA Columbia University Robert Kapsch New York, NY Hiroshi Daifuku National Park Service Historic Preservation Consultant Washington, DC Washington, DC Judith Kitchen Ohio State Historic Preservation Office Columbus, OH

8 vi Technologies for Underwater Archaeology and Maritime Preservation, Feb. 20, 1986

Reynold Ruppe, Chair Department of Anthropology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ J. Barto Arnold Daniel Lenihan J.K. Orzech Texas Antiquities Cornrnittee Submerged Culairal Resources Unit Scripps li,stitute of Oceanography Austin, TX National Park Service La Jolla, CA Santa Fe, NM Frank Busby She li O. Smith Busby Associates, Inc. Charles Mazel Mariners Museum Arlington, VA Klein Associates Mariners Drive Salem, NH Newport News, VA Calvin R. Cummings National Park Service Craig Mullen Denver, CO Eastport International Upper Marlboro, MD Anne G. Giesecke Underwater Archaeologist Carol Olsen Arlington, VA Department of Maritime Preservation National Trust for Historic Preservation Washington, DC

Technologies for the Preservation of Planned Landscapes and Other Outdcor Sites, Feb. 27-28, 1986

Patricia O'Donnell, Chair Walmsley & Co., Inc., New York, NY

Shary P. Berg Thomas J. Kane Darwina L. Neal Frederick Law Olmsted National Kane, Liede, and Ratyna, P.C. National Park Service Historic Site Pleasantville, NY National Capital Region Brookline, MA Washington, DC Timothy Keller Crrole L. Crum ley Land and Community Associates Ford Peatross Department of Anthropology Charlottesville, VA Prints and Photographs Division University of North Carolina Library of Congress Chapd Hill, NC Setha M. Low Washington, DC Department of Landscape Architecture Nomi Greber and Regional Planning Scott Weinberg Cleveland Museum of Natural History University of Pennsylvania School of Environmental Design Cleveland, OH Philadelphia, PA University of Georgia Athens, GA Robert Harvey Martin McGann College of Design Institute of Historic Horticulture M. Jane Young Iowa State University Sleepy Hollow Restorations Department of Anthropology Ames, IA Tarrytown, NY University of Texas Austin, TX Catherine Howett Hugh C. Miller Bunting Institute Historic Architecture Division Radcliffe College National Park Service Cambridge, MA Washington, DC

9 vil Technologies for the Physical Protection of Prehistoric and Historic Sites,Apr. 14-15, 1986

Mimi Rodden, Chair Carson City, NV

David G. Battle Richard Haines Felix Lavicka National Park Service Bureau of Land Management Analytics, Inc. Denver, CO Division of Lands and Renewable Tintcn Falls, NJ Richard Bierce Resources Portland, OR J. Rodney Little National Trust for Historic Preservation State Historic Preservation Office Washington, DC James Hester Annapolis, MD Waterways Experiment Station Fred Blackburn Constance Ramirez White Mesa Institute U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Vicksburg, MS Department of the Army College of Eastern Utah Washington, DC Blanding, UT Captain Alvin Hinton Tupper Thomas Joel Grossman U.S. Park Police Washington, DC Prospect Park Grossman & Associates, Inc. Brooklyn, NY New York, NY Tom King Office of Cultural Resource Preservation Advisory Council on Historic Presrvation Washington, DC Ruthann Knudson Woodward-Clyde Consultants Walnut Creek, CA

1 0 Acknowledgments

The following individuals contributed to this study in a variety of ways. OTA is grateful for their assistance:

Mary Lee Mien James R. Druzik Ken Ireland Gunston Han The Getty Conservation Institute National Park Service Bruce Anderson Robert Dunne H Mary Ison National Park Service Washington State University Library of Congress Christy Arrington Mark R. Edwards Jake Ivy Bureau of Land Management Maryland Historical Trust National Park Service Rick Athern Mary Farrell Man Jabbour Bureau of Land Management National Park Service American Folk life Center Cad Barna Laura Feller Library of Congress Bureau of Land Management National Park Service Squire Jaros John Be !she Helen C. Fenske Michigan Historic Preservation U.S. Army Corps of Engineers New Jersey Department of Section Walter Bender Environmental Protection Neal C. Johannsen Massachusetts Institute of Cynthia Field Alaska Department of Natural Technology Smithsonian Institution Resources Jim Bradford Charles.Fisher James Jordan National Park Service National Park Service National Trust for Historic Preservation John Burns Carl Heischauer National Park Service American Folk life Center Debra Katz National Park Service John Byrne Library of Congress National Park Service George Frison Bennie C. Keel National Park Service Tony Carrell University of Wyoming National Park Service Diana Gelburd John J. Knoell National Park Service Elliott Carron Son Conservation Service Office of the Architect of the Leland Gilsen Bruce Kriviskey Capitol Oregon State Historic Preservation American Institute of Architects Beth Cole Office Kathryn M. Kuranda International Masonry Institute Nancy W. Hawkins Nevada Division of Historic Preservation and Archeology John Cullinane Louisiana Division of Archaeology Advisory Council on Historic Helen Hooper William Lebovitch Preservation Society for Historical Archaeology National Park Service Karl Ludwig Dasser Adv;sory Council on Underwater Suzanne Lewis Bayerishes Landesamt fiir Archaeology National Park Service Denkmalpflege, Munich Stanley M. Hordes Richard Livingston Robert B. DeBlieux Consulting Historian Environmental Protection Agency Louisiana Office of Cultural Santa Fe, NM Nellie Longsworth Development Barbara J. Howe Preservation Action Evan de Blois Department of History, West Shiela MacFarlin U.S. Forest Service Virginia University Bureau of Land Management Tom De Haven Mary Hufford Ed Malony National Park Service American Folk life Center Bureau of Land Management Library of Congress Diane Dimkoff Thomas E. Marceau National Archives and Records Winston Hurst Wyoming State Archives, Muse- Administration Edge of the Cedars Museum ums, & Historical Department Paul Dolinsky Heather Huyck Daniel Martin National Park Service National Park Service Bureau of Land Management

ix 11 Jim Maxon Allan Postlethwaite Rolf Snethlage Bureau of Reclamation Smiihsonian Institution Bayerishes Landesamt für Judith McCulloh Paul Putz Denkmalpflege, Munich University of Illinois Press South Dakota I listorical Society Jacob I. Thomas Edward Miller Board of Trustees Washington State Office of National Oceanic and John W. Renaud Archaeology and I listoric Atmospheric Administration National Park Service Preservation Nancy Miller Jerry Rogers miIrott National Conference of State National Park Service National Park Service Historic Preservation Officers Todd Rutenbeck Nicolas Veloz Page Putnam Miller Bureau of Reclamation National Park Se;vice National Coerdinating Committee Michael Scardaville Ken Verana for the Promotion of History Department of History National Park Service James Mueller University of South Carolina Wzilter Wait National Park Service Curtis Schaafsma National Park Service Lee H. Nelson New Mexico State Historic Alicia Weber National Park Service Preservation Office National Park Service Marilyn W. Nickels Polly Schaafsma Douglas Reid Weimer National Park Service Santa Fe, NM Congressional Research Service Michele Pacifico Günter Schelling Library of Congress National Archives and Records Bayerische Verwaltung der Thomas E. (Ted) Weir, Jr. Administration Staatlichen National Archives and Records Richard Pankratz Schlosser, Garten und Seen, Administration Kansas State Historical Society Munich Westermeyer Paul Pearson Peter Schmidt Alice of Technology Assessment Historic Inns of Annapolis, Museo Regional Instituto Margaret F. Will Maryland Nacional Antropologia & Historia, Historic Preservation Consultant Yucatan George W. Percy St. Clair Wright Florida Division of Archives, Donna J. Schober Historic Annapolis, Inc. Arizona State Parks History and Records Barbara Wyatt Management Payson Sheets State Historical Society of Charles Peterson University of Colorado Wisconsin Architect Susan Sherwood John Peterson National Park Service National Park Service Steve Sigstad Kenneth Peterson National Forest Service Bureau of Land Management Brona Simon Dwight Pitcaithley Massachusetts Historical National Park Service Commission

1 2 Contents

Page Chapter 1: Summary 3 Chapter 2: Background 30 Chapter 3: Research 43 Chapter 4: Restoration, Conservation, Maintenance, and Protection 83 Chapter 5: Preservation Information 107 Chapter 6: Public Information 121 Chapter 7: Technology and Preservation Policy 133

Appendix A: Cultural Resources Management Laws and Regulations 161 Appendix B: Documentation and Conservation of Rock Art 165 Appendix C: Registration and Private Ownership of Archaeological Objects 169 Appendix D: National Register Criteria From the Introduction to: "How To Apply the National Register Criteria for Evaluation" 174 Appendix E: National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form 176 Appendix F: U.S. National Park Service Cultural Programs 178 Appendix G: Advisory Council on Historic Preservation 184 Appendix H: National Trust for Historic Preservation 187 Appendix I: National Building Museum 186

Index 189

1 3 Report Brief

The United States is losing important parts of its cul- Fee ral properties; improving coordination and infor- tural heritage at an alarming rate. Preserving America's mation sharing among agencies; and focusing on using prehistoric and historic sites contributes to our qual- new, efficient technologies. ity of life, and that of future generations, by increasing our understanding of U.S. history. It also provides Some foreign countries have been using advanced economic benefits such as jobs and increased tourism. technologies for preservation longer than the United States. In some cases their technologies represent sig- To carry out their legal responsibilities for preserv- nificant advances over U.S. practices. Foreign experi- ing these important historical resources, Federal agen- ences with preservation techniques, methods, and cies must have cost-effective methods for studying and equipment should be examined closely for possible protecting them. Modern technologies may provide transfer to U.S. applications. cost-effective methods to help stem the loss of these irreplaceable resources, especially if technologies de- Preserving Historic Structures.Tax incentives veloped in other fields can be transferred to preser- now available for rehabilitating qualified historic build- vation. The lack of adequate technology transfer dem- ings demonstrate the success of the public-private sec- onstrates a conspicuous need for an institution to tor partnership in historic preservation. Their con- coordinate research, disseminate information, and tinued availability would assist the retention of many provide training about new technologies. Congress more of America's historic structures. could establish: Landscapes Preservation.Significant prehistoric a Federal Center for Preservation Technology and historic landscapes continue to be lost because within the Department of the Interior or some they are not recognized as important to U.S. history. other agency; Passage and implementation of the Olmsted Heritage a National Center for Preservation Technology Landscapes Act of 1985 (H.R. 37) could aid the col- managed by a consortium of universities; or lection of information on all U.S. historic designed a Preservation Technology Board composed of landscapes. It could also enhance public awareness professionals from all parts of the preservation of other significant prehistoric and historic landscapes. community, to provide guidance for a Center. Shipwrecks Preservation.Historic shipwrecks in The stewardship of prehistoric and historic cultural coastal waters, receive very little protection from cur- resources has not received sufficient attention within rent Admiralty Laws. Yet they contain a wealth of im- the Department of the Interior and other Federal agen- portant information concerning the exploration and cies. Congress could consider altering the institutional settlement of this country. Passage and implementa- structure of Federal preservation efforts by: tion of the proposed Abandoned Shipwrecks Act (H.R. 3558/S. 2569) would make it possible to preserve sig- establishing a separate agency to manage all Fed- nificant historic shipwrecks for future generations by eral cultural programs; ceding their jurisdiction, ownership, and oversight to creating an independent agency devoted to the the States. care and protection of prehistoric and historic cultural resources; Stemming Looting and Vandalism.Both are seri- reorganizing the Department of the Interior to ous threats to prehistoric and historic cultural re- provide for an Assistant Secretary for Natural and sources. Advanced monitoring devices may aid the Cultural Resources; or law enforcement process, but the United States also leaving the Lurrent Federal preservation structure needs to improve enforcement of policies dealing with intact. illicit excavation and trafficking in stolen artifacts. Con- gress could consider amending the Archaeological Re- Even if the structure were left intact, Federal agen- sources Protection Act of 1979 and other statutes to cies could still improve their efforts by developing sus- permit private registration of antiquities obtained in tained, organized maintenance programs for historic supervised archaeological excavations on private land. Chapter 1 Summary

1 5 Contents

Page Introduction 5 Context 7

Major Findings 8 Federal Preservation Policy 10 Applying Technologies in Prehistoric and Historic Preservation 11 Federal Management of Historic Cultural Resources 13 Survey of Prehistoric and Historic Landscapes 14 Historic Shipwrecks and Other Submerged Cultural Resources 14 Protection of Prehistoric and Historic Cultural Resources 15 The Preservation Process 16 Discovery 16 Recording and Measurement 20 Analysis and Evaluation 21 Restoration, Conservation, and Maintenance 21 Protection From Catastrophic Losses 23 Preservation Information 23 Public Education 25

Table Table No. Page 1. Prehistoric and Historic Preservation Laws and Executive Orders 6

-1 6 Chapter 1 Summary

INTRODUCTION The preservation of this country's prehistoric tee on Public Lands initiated a major review of and historic heritage has a long tradition of com- how Federal agencies implement the provisions munity support and academic and political in- of laws relating to prehistoric and historic prop- terest. Federal preservation legislation, commenc- erties (table 1). The findings of this assessment ing in 1906,' reflects the national value and support the subcommittee's efforts to review how significance that U.S. prehistoric and historic cul- the use of technologies, including methods and tural resources possess, whether managed by techniques, as well as tools and equipment, can Federal, State, or local governments or private assist historic preservation. citizens. As the National Historic Preservation Act asserts, As the population of this country has grown and urban centers have become more dense and ...the preservation of this irreplaceable heritage expanded into the countryside, the stresses on is in the public interest so that its vital legacy of cultural resources have increased dramatically. cultural, educational, aesthetic, inspirational, eco- The destruction of shipwrecks and submerged ar- nomic, and energy benefits will be maintained chaeological sites, particularly along the coasts and enriched for future generations of Americanc 2 of Texas and Florida, has also increased (Signifi- Virtually every congressional district contains fed- cantly in recent years. Currently, the United erally managed sites, structures, or landscapes of States is losing its prehistoric and historic cultural prehistoric and historic interest.3 The ability of resources at an alarming rates in spite of the best Federal agencies to carry out their preservation efforts of preservation professionals to identify responsibilities, within the context of managing and protect them. Because the national irien- public lands4 and other duties, rests increasingly tory of these cultural resources is far from com- on discovering and using cost-effective techniques, plete, sites, structures, and landscapes that may methods, and equipment for studying and pro- have prehistoric or historic significance may not tecting these important cultural resources. be cataloged and protected before they have been destroyed or dramatically altered. This assessment was requested by the House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs to as- This assessment provides an overview of tech- sist the committee's legislative authorization and nologies relating to the care and preservation of oversight of Federal preservation efforts. During cultural resources. In this assessment, preserva- 1986, the 20th anniversary of passage of the Na- tion technology refers broadly to any equip- tional Historic Preservation Act, the Subcommit- ment, methods, and techniques that can be applied to the discovery; analysis; interpretation; 'The Antiquities Act of 1906 (Public Law 59-209). restoration; conservation; protedion; and man- 2National Historic Preservation Act (Public Law 89-665), Sec. 1(b) agement of prehistoric and historic sites, struc- (Purpose of the Act), para. 4. tures, and landscapes. The assessment also ex- 35ee, for example, the National Register of Historic Places, which lists significant prehistoric and historic places throughout the United amines a variety of options related to the use of States. preservation technologies and suggests improve- 4For example, the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976, Sec. 102(a)(8), calls for "the public lands [to] be managed in a manner that will protect the quality of scientific, scenic, his- 'For example, experts estimate that fewer than 10 percent of the torical, ecological, environmental, air and atmospheric, water re- prehistoric Mimbres sites in southwestern New Mexico are free from source, and archeological values; that, where appropriate, will pre- damage due to looting and vandalism. See Carol Ann Bassett, "The serve and protect certain public lands in their natural condition; Culture Thieves," Science, July/August 1986, p. 22. In addition, see that will provide food and habitat for fish and wildlife and domes- the extensive discussion in Leslie E. Wildesen, "The Study of Im- tic animals; and that will provide for outdoor recreation and hu- pacts on Archaeological Sites," Advances In Archaeological Method man occupancy and use." and Theory 5, 1982, pp. 51-96.

7 5 6 Technologies for Prehistoric nd Histor:c Preservation

Table 1.-Prehistoric and Historic Preservation Laws and Executive Orders

Laws: Legislation under consideration in hie 99th Congress: The Antiquities Act of 1906, Public Law 59-209 (6 U.S.C. R.M.S. TITANIC Memorial Act of 1985 (H.R. 3272) 431-433) The Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1985 (H.R. 3558 and S. The 1%!ational Park Service Organic Act (An Act of Aug. 25, 2569) 1916), (39 Stat. 535, 1f; U.S.C. 1) The Olmsted Heritage Landscapes Act of 1985 (H.R. 37) The Historic Sites AtA of 193, Public Law 74-292 (15 U.S.C. Regulations:a 461-467) 43 CFR 3 (Antiquities Act) The National Historic Preservation Trust Act of 1949, Public 43 CFR 7 (Archeological Resources Protection Act of 1979) Law 81-408 (63 Stat. 927, 16 U.S.C. 468 et seq.) 36 CFR 60 (National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 The Submerged Lands Act of 1953, Public Law 83-31 (67 (N H PA) and EO 11593) Stat 29, 43 U.S.C. 1301 et seq.) 36 CFR 61 (NHPA and EO 11593) Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, Public Law 83-212 (67 36 CFR 63 (NH PA and EO 11593) Stat. 462, 43 U.S.C. 1331 et seq.) 36 CFR 65 (Historic Sites Act of 1935) The Management of Museum Properties AcZ of 1955, Pub- 36 CFR 66 (Archaeolgical and Historic Preservation Act of lic Law 34-69 (16 U.S.C. 180 1974) The Reservoir Salvage Act of 1960, Public Law 86-523 (16 36 CFR 68 (NH PA) U.S.C. 469-469c) 36 CFR 800 (NHPA and EO 11593) The Department of Transportation Act of 1966, Public Law 40 CFR 1500 (NEPA) "Regulations for Implementing the 89-670 (80 Stat. 931) Procedural Provisions of the National Environmental Policy The National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, Public Law Act." 89-665 (16 U.S.C. 470) Standards and Guidelines for Historic Pmservation: The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, Public Law "The Secretary of the Interior's Standards for lishabllits- 90-190 (16 U.S.C. 470) Hon and Guidelines for Rehabilitating Historic Buildings," Executive Order 11593, "Protection and Enhancement of National Park Service (revised 1983), booklet. the Cultural Environment," May 13, 1971. (36 F.R. 8921) "The Secretary of the Interior's Standards and Guidelines Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, Public Law 92-203 for Archeology and Historic Preservation," Federal Register (85 Stat. 688, 43 U.S.C. 1601-1624) 48, No. 190, Thursday, Sept. 29, 1983. The Archaeological and Historical Preservation Act of 1974, "Final Uniform Regulations, Archaeological Resources Pro- Public Law 93-291 (88 Stat. 174, 16 U.S.C. 469 et seq.) tection Act of 1979,"Federal Register 49, No. 4, Friday, Jan. American Folklife Preservation Act of 1976, Public Law 6, 1984. 94-201 (20 U.S.C. 2101-2107) "Draft Guidelines for Historic and Archeological Resource The American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978, Public Management: Federal Agency Responsibilities Under Sec- Law 95-341 (92 Stat. 46a, 42 U.S.C. 1996) tion 110 of the National Historic Preservation Act," National Central Idaho Wilderness Act of 1980, Public Law 96-312 Park Service, Feb. 5, 1986. (94 Stat. 948, 16 U.S.C. 1274) Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, Executive Direc- National Historic Preservation Act Amendments of 1980, tor's "Procedures for Review of Proposals for Treatment of Public Law 96-515 (94 Stat. 2987, 16 U.S.C. 470 et seq.) Archaeological Properties: Supplementary Guidance," 45 The Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979, Pub- Federal Register 78808. lic Law 96-95 (16 U.S.C. 470aa et seq.) Advisory Council on Historic Preservation "Protection of Convention on Cultural Property Implementation Act, Pub- Historic Properties," 36 CFR Part 800, Federal Register 51, lic Law 97-446 (96 Stat. 2350-2363, 19 U.S.C. 2601-2613) No. 169, Sept. 2, 1986. aRegulatIons are promulgated, adopted, and then compiled In the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), in order to Implement provisions of generallaws. The name of the act it implements follows each citation. SOURCE: U.S. Department of the Interior and OTA. ments in implementing current policy. It does not 2. Technologies for the Preservation of Historic address the preservation of paintings, books, and Structu res, other artifacts; however, some technologies used 3. Technologies for Underwater Archaeology for their preservation are also applicable to sites, and Maritime Preservation, structures, and landscapes. 4, Technologies for the Preservation of Planned In the course of thEs assessment, OTA held a Landscapes and Other Outdoor Sites, and series of five workshops that explored the range 5. Technologies for the Physical Protection of of issues raised by the application of technologies Prehistoric and Historic Sites. to prehistoric and historic preservation: More than 100 individuals participated in the 1. Technologies for the Preservation of Archae- workf,hops, either as invited participants or as ob- ological Sites and Structures, servers.

1 8 Ch. 1Summary 7

CONTEXT The U.S. historic preservation movement has structures, historic vernacular buildings and land- always enjoyed broad public support. It began scapes, and submerged sites and shipwrecks. even before Fe,leral preservation legislation with This change in emphasis necessitates interdis- grassroots efforts to restore and conserve the ciplinary approaches to the manegement and houses, monuments, and battlefields related to preservation of sites, structures, and landscapes. the history of the United States, focusing on the Different stages of the preservation process may protection of sites and structures connected with the "great men" of U.S. history. Over time, that now require the involvement of specialists from focus has broadened to include an exploration such divergent fie!ds as anthropology, archaeology, architecture, chemistry, folklore, geology, of the tangible and intangible remains of a more history, landscape architedure, oceanography, culturally heterogeneous past that i ncludes such and Pianning and engineering. diverse resources as Native American sites and

dri

Photo credit: (Aerial rmto by Dache M. Reeves, Jan. 20, 1934. Courtesy of Smithsonian institution National Anthropological Archives). Serpent Mound in modern farm landscape, south-central Ohio. Designed and built by the so-called Adena culture, which flourished in the first millenium B.C., this is an unusual example of thousands of earthworks found throughout the Central and Southeastern United States.

1 n 6 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

MAJOR FINDINGS The boundaries separating the practice of ar- ing access to information about technologies, chaeology and the preservation of historic struc- training, and coordinating research. Finally, they tures and historic landscapes are becoming in- share the constraints of inconsistent funding and creasingiy indistinct. Preservation professionals a serious lack of coordinated implementation of apply many of the same technologies to the study Federal policy. and conservation of sites, structures, and landscapes. In addition, preservationists in all the New technologies can extend the scope of our associated disciplines share problems of obtain- understanding and care of the U.S. cultural her-

Photo credit: HABS/HARE, National Park Servico Brooklyn Bridge seen from Front Steet.

20 Ch. 1Summary 9

itage by improving the quality, quantity, type, their longer histories as nations. In part, it is the and usefulness of data gathered. Certain tech- result of stronger and better coordinated national nologies can also improve the authenticity of res- support for preservation from their Ministries of toration, and the effectiveness of conservation Cu ltu re. and maintenance. Yet, a variety of educational, institutional, managerial, and cost barriers in- In some cases foreign technologies may rep- hibit the broad application of new methods, resent significant advances over U.S. practices. techniques, and equipment to preservation. For example, German methods for recording historic structures are far more complete and result In many cases, the technologies appropriate in more detailed drawings and data than U.S. to prehistoric and historic preservation have been methods. Archaeologists in the United Kingdom developed for use in natural science and engi- employ advanced methods of physics and chem- neering disciplines, but have not been adequately istry in analyzing artifacts more readily than many adapted to preservation requirements. The effi- U.S. archaeologists. European art historians also cient transfer of technology developed in other use more advanced techniques to preserve their disciplines to preservation is impeded by pres- prehistoric rock paintings and carvings. European ervation specialists' freq...:lant lack of familiarity techniques of preserving submerged wooden with natural science and engineering. It is also ships and other maritime artifacts have led U.S. slowed by a general lack of formalized interdis- efforts. The French have developed a sophisti- ciplinary approaches to preservation problems. cated airborne infrared scanner for investigating Similarly, many natural scientists and 'engineers landscapes, as well as advanced methods for are unfamiliar with the needs and goals of pres- using it effectively. Foreign experiences with ervation, yet would be receptive to assisting the preservation techniques, methods, and equip- preservation community in applying new tech- ment should be examined closely for possible nologies. transfer to U.S. applications. The United States If advanced technologies are to assume a would also benefit by increased cooperation with greater role in preservation, it is important to other nations in developing and testing new pres- find more effective means of transferring tech- ervation methods. It could strengthen channels nology developed in other fields to prehistoric of com mun ication between the U nited States and and historic preservation. These will include: other countries by reinforcing its participation in the Inwrnational Council on Monuments and training in the use of technologies, Sites (ICOMOS). studying ways to apply known technologies to preservation problems, The preservation of the U.S. cultural heritage improving information-sharing and coordi- often results in economic benefits (such as jobs nation, and increased tourism) to individuals and com- finding the appropriate fit of technologies to munities. In order to convince decisionmakers preservation problems, of the value of retaining the best or most signifi- reducing costs of new technologies, and cant historic structures and landscapes, preser- developing standards for the application of vationists must better quantify and measure the new technologies. economic benefits of restoring and rehabilitating them. They must also articulate more effectively Improved transfer of technology will also re- the benefits related to quality of life. For exam- quire greater acceptance among preservation ple, rehabilitating a historic structure may be specialists of the role technologies play in solv- cheaper than replacing it with a modern one. In ing cultural resource problems. It will also require addition, the intangible benefit of retaining a more effective training in the management of cul- sense of belonging and place by retaining the tural resou rces. historic integrity of a neighborhood may out- Other countries, particularly in Europe, have weigh the purely economic benefits. been applying technologies to preservation longer Prehistoric and historic preservation can con- than the United States. In part this stems from tribute to our quality of life by increasing our 10 Technologies for Piehistoric and Historic Preservation appreciation and understanding of our Nation's to preserve. Documentary research conducted cultural and political history. Public education at the outset of a project helps define the ap- and interpretation play vital roles in preserva- proach and focus of the preservation efforts. tion by enhancing the public's appreciation of Historic materials are diverse and may include our cultural heritage and involving the public drawings, letters, maps, photographs, printed in the preservation process. Yet competing mis- records, oral histories, and articles. Even the ex- sion demands withirFederal agencies often isting data archives from any government agency cause them to neglect public education and inter- are so numerous that current analytical techniques pretation. Hundreds of non-Federal historic orga- are often inadequate to search and evaluate them nizations, such as Colonial Williamsburg, Vir- satisfactorily. The vast amount of information ginia; Plimoth Plantation, Massachusetts; Cahokia available suggests preservation professionals Mounds State Historic Site, Illinois; and Santa Bar- need to gain intelledual and technological con- bara Mission, California, have made significant trol over the knowledge base. New information contributions to the interpretation of prehistoric databases, automated finding aids, and related and historic cultural resources by instituting a va- techniques are needed. A database of technical riety of innovative volunteer and public-partici- information would be particularly important. pation programs. Underwater archaeology and maritime preser- Because only a limited number of our cultural vation have made significant contributions to the resources will be preserved with a high degree understanding of our past, in many cases, as the of authemicity, we must be able to understand direct result of the application of sophisticated the historical context in which prehistoric and technologies. If these gains are to continue, the historic activities took place. It is important to rec- information acquired in such studies must be in- ognize the national, regional, or local significance tegrated into the larger body of prehistoric and of those sites, structures, and landscapes we wish historic preservation information.

FEDERAL PRESERVATION POLICY The Federal Government, "in cooperation with isters, with the Internal Revenue Service, the tax other nations and in partnership with States, lo- incentives program to encourage private sector cal governments, Indian tribes, and private orga- investment in rehabilitating certified income- nizations and individuals,"is responsible for producing historic structures. NPS also reviews providing leadership in preserving the Nation's State historic preservation programs and admin- prehistoric and historic cultural resources.6 The isters the matching grants-in-aid to the States for National Historic Preservation Act charges the historic preservation projects. NPS protects and Secretary of the Interior and the independent manages the cultural resources within the Na- Advisory Council on Historic Preservation with tional Park system. administering and guiding Federal preservation efforts. The National Park Service (NPS) acts as Every Federal agency has certain responsibili- the lead agency in technical preservation mat- ties for the prehistoric and historic properties un- ters for the Federal Government, and for State der its control,7 and must designate a qualified and local efforts. NPS, through a variety of "ex- historic preservation officer.8 The historic pres- ternal programs," oversees the National Regis- ervation officer plans for and coordinates the ter of Historic Places, assists in historic survey and agency's preservation activities within the agency planning, and extends technical assistance to the and with NPS. preservation community, including other Federal 7"The heads of all Federal agencies shall assume responsibility agencies, States, and local governments. It admin- for the preservation of historic properties which are owned or controlled by such agency." National Historic Preservation Act, Sec. 110(a)(1). 6National Historic Preservation Act, Sec. 2(2). 'National Historic Preservation Act, Sec. 110(c). Ch. 1Summary 11

The National Historic Preservation Act also vation. However, participants in this assessment established an independent Advisory Council, cited the following impediments to the adoption whose membership is composed of individuals and widespread use of advanced preservation from the private sector appointed by the Presi- techniques: dent, to "advise the President and the Congress inadequate experience with and acceptance on matters relating to historic preservation, [and of new technologies, to] recommend measures to coordinate activities inadequate coordination among and within of Federal, State, and local agencies and private agencies, institutions relating to historic preservation."9 It inadequate funding for technologies, also review[s] the policies and programs of Fed- inadequate training in the application of eral Agencies"1° and writes and distributes gen- technologies, and eral information on historic preservation. When inadequate technical information exchange. a Federal undertaking would affect a historic property, the Advisory Council must be afforded BIrd Control Technologies "a reasonable opportunity to comment" on it." Additionally, the National Historic Preservation Act authorized and directed the establishment of a National Museum of the Building Arts. Among other things, the museum "shall collect and disseminate information concerning the building arts ...and research relating to the building arts,"12 which include information concerning buiding technologies and skills. Each State has established a State Historic Pres- ervation Office (SHPO), mandated by the Na- f tional Historic Preservation Act. The SHPOs and the Certified Local Governments (CLGs), receive yearly matching grants from the Historic Preser- The imitation snake represents a "low-tech" solution vation Fund to ensure that regional, State, and to the problem of damage from bird droppings. community preservation projects are carried out according to the nationally accepted standards. CLGs are approved by States and receive funding from them. The National Trust for Historic Preservation, chartered and partially funded by Congress,13 is also a source of information and expertise about technologies for preservation. Applying Technologies in Prehistoric and Historic Preservation Federal agencies can provide a variety of means for encouraging and facilitating the use of new technologies for prehistoric and historic preser- °National Historic Preservation Act, Sec. 202(a)(1). '°National Historic Preservation Act, Sec. 202(a)(6). "National Historic Preservation Act, Sec. 106, Photo credits: Preservation Assistance Division, National Park Service '2National Historic Preservation Act, Sec. 306(a)(1). "The National Historic Preservation Trust Act of 1949 (Public Law The device behind Lincoln's head Is an ultrasonic 81-408; 63 Stat. 927). device for preventlng birds from roosting on the statue.

23 12 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Participants in this assessment cited the criti- Because it would also otherwise be free of the cal need to establish a federally funded institu- institutional constraints and pressures imposed tion as a mechanism to coordinate research, by being housed within the Federal structure, disseminate information, and provide training such an organization might be more innovative about new technologies for preservation. Sev- than a Federal laboratory. Though a National eral institutional structures are possible. Center would serve as a resource for the Federal Federal Center for Preservation Technology. Government, like the Federal center outlined Congress could establish such a center within the above, it would also serve State and local needs. Department of the Interior or some other Fed- The National Astronomical Observatories, which eral agency. The center would assist the transfer are managed by the Association of Universities of technology from other areas into prehistoric for Research in Astronomy, Inc., and funded by and historic preservation by developing new ap- the National Science Foundation, might serve as plications for existing technologies, providing an appropriate model. They not only provide training for preservation professionals, and serv- research facilities for the entire astronomical coming as a clearinghouse for disseminating infor- munity, but also conduct their own research mation on preservation technologies. A center projects. should have a small but highly trained staff and the facilities for developing technologies relevant Because a national center based in the univer- to all phases of the preservation process. sity community would support Federal preserva- A Federal center, based within the Department tion efforts, it would require some Federal funding. of the Interior, would have the advantage of con- This option would be an excellent opportunity solidating much of the specialized technological to strengthen public/private ties for prehistoric expertise now spread throughout the Department and historic preservation, which have always of the Interior and other Federal agencies. It could been important features of the preservation move- also increase administrative efficiency and lower ment. Thus, the center could derive a significant costs by reducing redundancy of personnJ and percentage of its operating expenses from State consolidating overhead. In addition to serving as and private sources. the focal point for technology-related preservation information within the Federal Government, Preservation Technology Board.Additionally, such an institution would provide needed assis- Congress might wish to consider supporting a tance to State and local governments and to the Preservation Technology Board. Even if one of private sector. All agencies and private individ- the two options for creating a Center for Preser- uals and groups would have a central place vation Technology were adopted, a board com- within the Federal Government to look for tech- posed of professionak from all parts of thepres- nical help with preservation problems. ervation community would be needed to provide guidance for a center, and to determine current National Center for Preservation Technology. needs for technology, develop standards for the Alternatively, Congress could create a National application of new technologies, and assist in dis- Center for Preservation Technology, outside the seminating information. The professional socie- Federal Gov ernment and managed by a consor- ties concerned with archaeology, historic struc- tium of universities. St_..ch an institution would be tures, and historic landscapes are likely to be able to draw on a multitude of different skills in highly supportive of such a Board. several universities, and in many university departments. Like the Federal center, it would de- The preservation efforts of the Federal agen- velop and test new applications of technologies, cies would benefit immeasurably by a Preserva- conduct training, and distribute information. tion Technology Board. Congress could foster its However, it would be free to contract with agen- creation by directing the Federal agencies with des and with States and the private sector to de- major responsibilities for prehistoric and historic velop technologies of specific interest to them. preservation to prm ide initial funding.

24, Ch. 1Summary 13

Federal Management of Historic turally oriented programs. It would in essence be Cultural Resources similar to a Ministry of Culture, which most foreign governments have. A thorough assessment of the Federal institutional structure for prehistoric and historic pres- Create an Independent Agency Devoted to the ervation is beyond the scope of this assessment. Care and Protection of Prehistoric and Historic However, participants in the OTA workshops ex- Cultural Resources.Such a policy has the ma- pressed marked concern over the institutional im- jor advantage of providing coherence for the pediments within the Federal Government that management of U.S. prehistoric and historic pres- limit its effectiveness in applying a fuller range ervation programs. It would remove the primary of technologies to preservation. responsibility for cultural resources management from the Department of the Interior, yet it would The stewardship of prehistoric and historic ar- create a new institution that must be staffed and chaeological resources, historic strudures, and funded (though many staff, and some funding historic landscapes has not received sufficient would result from transfers from existing pro- attention within the Department of the Interior. grams). An independent agency would be the Even within the National Park Service, which car- logical place for the Federal Center for Preserva- ries out many of the Federal responsibilities for tion Technology suggested above. However, it prehistoric and historic preservation, the manage- would lack the benefits of in-house expertise in ment of programs relating to other Federal, State, the actual ownership and management of historic and local cultural resources often conflicts with properties. NPS's priorities in caring for natural resources in the Nation's parks. Yet, of the 337 units of the Reorganize the Department of the Interior To National Park system, two-thirds were established Provide for an Assistant Secretary for Natural because of their prehistoric and historic resources. and Cultural Resources.This option would All NPS parks contain some prehistoric and his- bring all the cultural programs from NPS and toric cultural resources. other DOI agencies under the aegis of one office. It would be simpler to effect than creating In order to implement fully the provisions of an independent agency, and would increase the historic preservation legislation (table 1), it would visibility and importance of preservation within be important for the Federal Government, includ- the Departmen: of the Interior. However, it would ing Congress, to increase its attention to pre- continue the current arrangement of maintain- historic and historic preservation. Federal pro- ing the preservation function within the depart- grams have often served as models for the States, ment, which as noted earlier, carries disadvantages local governments, and private preservation as well as advantages for the national preservation efforts. programs. In view of the concern over the management Work Within the Current Preservation Struc- of the Federal Government's preservation ef- ture.Even if the overall management structure forts, Congress may wish to consider changing for the Federal preservation effort were left largely the strudure of the Federal Government's pres- unaltered, the agencies could make several ervation efforts. The following paragraphs present changes to improve this Nation's preservation ef- options for improving Federal management of fort, within the direction provided by the National cultu ra I resources. Historic Preservation Act, and other legislation. Establish a Separate Agency To Manage and The initiation and execution of such programs will Coordinate All Federal Cultural Programs.In require direction and continued oversight by addition to providing a central focus for all the Congress. The agendes could: government's programs in preservation, such an inventory their preservation needs and plans agency would be responsible for administering for carrying them out; the National Endowment for the Humanities, the develop sustained, organized maintenance National Endowment for the Arts, and other cul- programs for historic Federal properties;

9 14 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

improve coordination and information-sharing among agencies with respect to historic preservation; w develop a stronger focus on theapplication of new, efficient technologies for preservation; and o establish a central office to collect anddis- seminate information about preservation technologies.

Survey of Prohistoric and Historic Landscapes

The United States has made no comprehensive -745A survey of significant national prehistoric and Photo credlt: HABS1HAER, National Park Service historic landscapes comparable to its efforts for Cascade area, Meridian Hill Park, Washington, DC historic structures. Because prehistoric and historic landscapes are an especially ephemeral re- Limited surveys have been conducted on Olmsted source, some groups are now surveying them. landscapes by the National Association of Olm- For example, 'he State of Ohio has an ongoing sted Parks and the Massachusetts Association of survey of hktoric landscapes. New Mexico has Olmsted Parks. These primarily volunteer efforts also condt ,d landscape studies. cannot discover all significant Olmsted landscapes. In 198 Historic Preservation Committee Although the Olmsted Act is directed toward the of the Arr Society of Landscape Architects parks designed by Frederick Law Olmsted's firms, initiated a 3 ti al survey of historic designed which include some of the most famous and his- landscapes, which is endorsed by the National torically significant of U.S. parks,16 passage and Park Service. This important example of a pub- implementation of the Olmsted Act would ma- lic/private partnership depends primarily on vol- terially aid the collection of information oh all unteer assistance from many regions of the United U.S. historic designed landscapes. Focusing at- States. However, without professional, full-time tention on the Olmsted landscapes would also leadership, relying entirely on volunteers from enhance public awareness of other significant different regions may lead to inconsistent survey landscapes. results. The National Park Service could assume a stronger role than it has taken in this effort, in Historic Shipwrecks and Other order to assure timely completion of the survey Submerged Cultural Resources and to standardize the information collected. Congressional oversight may be necessary to as- The United States has not undertaken a na- sure that this process takes place. tional inventory of submerged cultural resources, which include submerged villages and other sites Significant prehistoric and historic landscapes as well as shipwrecks. Although some Stateshave continue to be lost through lack of recognition. made substantial progress in surveying their own The proposed Olmsted Heritage Landscapes Act coastal and riverine areas, and locating submerged of 198514 (Olmsted ActH.R. 37), seeks to "en- resources, no States have comprehensive data on courage the identification, preservation, and com- file. memoration of historic designed landscapes."' 5 "Over three generations, the Olmsted firms, whose Brookline, "See, however, The National Historic Preservation Act: An Assess- MA, office is now a National Historic Site, managed by the Na- ment (Washington, DC: Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, tional Park Service, designed such parks as Central Park in New September 1986) for a discussion of many of the broader institu- York City, Franklin Park in Brookline, MA, and Prospect Park in tional issues faced by preservation efforts in this country. Brooklyn, NY, as well as estates, universities, park systems, institu- "Sec. 4 of H.R. 37. tional properties, and urban plans.

00 Ch. 1Summary 15

Historic shipwrecks in coastal waters contain Congressional oversight may be necessary to a wealth of important information concerning the guarantee that such requirements are met. exploration and settlement of this country. Yet efforts to protect them for research and public Protection of Prehistoric and Historic interpretation are hampered by current Admiralty Cultural Resources Laws, under which historic shipwrecks are treated as abandoned property. Their contents may be Looting and vandalism are serious threats to recovered by salvors. Such recovery often de- the management and conservation of prehistoric stroys valuable information related to the Nation's and historic cultural resources. The activities of maritime history. Passage and implementation looters are particularly damaging to prehistoric of the proposed Abandoned Shipwrecks Act sites because they destroy important and valu- (H.R. 3558/S. 2569) would make it possible to able scientific information. Painting graffiti, break- preserve significant historic shipwrecks for fu- ing windows, destroying shrubs, and other acts ture generations by ceding jurisdiction, owner- of vandalism reduce the value of historic struc- ship, and oversight of them to the States. The tures and landscapes and make them much less Senate version is almost identical to the House attractive to visitors. Advanced monitoring and version, and maintains incentives for sportdivers observation devices may aid the law enforcement and salvors to continue searching for historic ship- process. However, they cannot substitute for the wrecks. It would also guarantee salvors "reason- presence of trained officers in the field. Adapt- able compensation" for work undertaken under ive reuse of cultural resources imparts a natural its terms. element of protection by giving them value be- The important additional attention to submerged yond their historic value. prehistoric and historic cultural resources that The high value placed on some items in na- passage of the Abandoned Shipwrecks Act im- tional and international markets and the lack of plies may require the National Park Service and consistent law enfor_ement in dealing with illicit the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin- excavation on public lands and trafficking in sto- istration to increase their funding and other sup- len artifacts, make protection of sites and struc- port of submerged cultural resources activities. tures as well as prosecution for illegal activities extremely difficult. Professional thieves are tech- nologically well-equipped and motivated by strong economic incentives to continue their activities. In addition to employing trained personnel and applying appropriate technologies, the United States needs to improve the enforcement of its policies for dealing with illicit excavation and trafficking in stolen artifads. Con- gressional oversight of the implementation of existing legislation may be necessary to encourage such enforcement. Recent technological advances could enable relatively easy registration and coding of artifacts for sale. To assist in stemming the illegal loss of ok, irreplaceable artifacts from public lands, and the concomitant damage that looting causes, it may Photo credit: Submerged Cultural Resources Unit (SCRU) National Park Service be appropriate to amend the Archaeological Re- Stop 6 on underviater trail In Isle Royale National Park, sources Protedion Ad of 1979 and other stat- Lake Superior, Michigan. Photo shows diver preparing utes to permit private registration of antiquities to attach marker to the wreckage of the passenger/ package freighter Monarch that went down In a storm obtained in the course of archaeological exca- In December 1906. vations, crzriducted by trained archaeologists on

9 "Y 16 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation private land. Registration would make it easier ing to the inventory of a public monument, mu- for law enforcement officials to obtain convictions seum, or similar institution in a State party to the for illegal sale of unregistered artifacts taken from UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibit- public lands, by shifting the burden of proof that ing and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and the artifact was dug on private land from the gov- Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property.18 It ernment to its owner. To be most effective, regis- also restricts archaeological or ethnological ma- tration should include sufficient information terials from other count-ies upon request and about the artifact to allow the owner to under- subsequent agreement by the United States. stand its archaeological origins and connection However, it is just being implemented and fur- to the prehistoric peoples from which it derives. ther experience will be needed to test its efficacy in stemming the international flow of cultural Registration of scientifically excavated artifacts property. is likely to enhance the value of registred artifacts relative to unregistered ones. Such increase in U.S. law does not protect against export of ir- value might provide economic incentives for pri- replaceable items of U.S. cultural history from the vate landowners to have their sites properly ex- United States to other countries. The UNESCO cavated and recorded, rather than dug solely for Convention encourages each State party to reg- their marketable artifacts. Registration might also ister cultural property19 for the purposes of con- assist in educating landowners to the scientific trolling import into other countries. As experience value of using the best possible excavation meth- is gained with implementing the Convention on ods. However, sale of artifacts from excavations Cultural Property Implementation Act, it may would have the disadvantage of dispersing some be appropriate for the United States to explore collections, rendering them less available for ways in which the registration of artifads sug- restudy. gested above could be expanded to other prehistoric and historic cultural property for inter- The Convention on Cultural Property Imple- national trade. mentation Act" prohibits importation of stolen cultural property that is documented as belong- "Fifty-eight countries have signed the UNESCO Convention. "See articles 6 and 10 of the UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Trans- "Public Law 97-446. fer of Ownership of Cultural Property.

THE PRESERVATION PROCESS The process of sound cultural resource research ogies. Many new technologies promise to en- and management is extremely complex and in- hance the process of prehistoric and historic pres- volves individuals from a variety of disciplines. ervation. However, they must be appropriate to It can be divided into the following components, the task to which they are applied. In some cases, which are not necessarily listed in order of ap- traditional methods (so-called low-tech solutions) plication: may be the most appropriate and cost-effective. discovery (identification and survey); recording and measurement; Discovery analysis and evaluation; Archival investigation is an important first step restoration, conservation, and maintenance; protection from catastrophic losses; in the discovery phase of the preservation process. Before beginning actual fieldwork, archival data and information storage and retrieval; and materials and oral histories related to the project public education and involvement. should be collected and studied. They are especially helpful in focusing the research problem These components make use of a broad array and aiding creation of a detailed research plan. of rudimentary, as well as sophisticated, tech nol- Efficient data management systems are needed -28 Ch. 1Summary 17

Box A.Some Research Technologies Discussed in the Report Discovery Remote Sensing.Includes techniques of imaging Earth from spacecraft and aircraft. Also includes surface methods and geophysical methods that penetrate below the surface of the Earth, or underwater.

Aircraft and spacecraft methods: photography: black and white, color, and infrared at a wide variety of scales; o multispectral scannin.: electronic sensing and processing of visual images in many spectral bands, including infrared; and O imaging radar: builds image of surface topography by analyzing a series of microwave radar scans. It can even be used to penetrate below the surface of dry soil; Subsurface methods: o georadar: detects reflections of microwaves, transmitted by radar carried along the surface, from cultural material below the surface; soil resistivity meter: measures electrical. ,stance of soil to the passage of a small current from probes placed in soil; cultural material generally displays different resistance from surrounding soil; O soil conductivity meter: measures conduction of current passed between two probes placed in soil; cultural material generally displays different conductivity from surrounding soil; magnetometer: registers changes in the local magnetic field as detector passes over iron-bearing cultura: material; and metal detector: finds subsurface metals by detecting small electric currents (eddy currents)generated in the metal by electromagnetic pulses transmitted by the instrument. Underwater methods: side-scan sonar: locates shipwrecks and sites on the bottom surface by detecting the echoes of high- frequency acoustic pulses transmitted from instrument towed behind Fhip; sub-bottom profiler: locates shipwrecks and sites below the ocean bottom by detecting the return signals of lower frequency acoustic pulses from instrument towed behind ship; magnetometer: similar in principle to the magnetometer for use on land. It detects changes in the magnetic field as detector passes over iron-bearing cultural material. It can be used from a ship or an airplane; and 9 remotely operated vehicles (ROVs): a variety of submersible vehicles that can carry photographic or video cameras to image submerged objects. ROVs can also retrieve sampies from the bottom. Surface. methods: video: color and black and white; and photographic cameras: can be operated in infrared as well as color and black and white. Predictive Locational Modelling.This term is applied to a group of techniques, often requiringa computer, employed to predict the distribution of archaeologically significant material in a region by analyzing such factors as climate, soil characteristics, landform characteristics, and the availability ofcrops and game. Documentalion Photogrammetry.This precision recording technique makes use of a stereo pair of photographs, the details of which are analyzed in a stereo comparator and plotted on a precision plotter. Most recentver- sions of the method, called analytical plotting, make use of computers to assume most or all of the burden of analyzing the stereo photographs. The method can be used to record extremely fine details ofa site, structure, or landscape for later three-dimensional analysis.

2 9 18 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Close-Range Inspection.This includes a variety of techniques for studying the surfaces or interiors of structures in detail. In addition to visual analysis under bright light, or photography, such methods include: o infrared inspection: the useof infrared light and infrared sensors to reveal surface detail invisible to the naked eye; uultraviolet inspection:the use of ultraviolet light (often called black light) to reveal surface detail invisible to the naked eye; OX-ray inspection:the use of X-rays to explore the interior of structural material (primarily plaster and wood); Oneutron-gamma ray inspection:the use of neutron-emitting radioactive sources to determine the chemical constituents of structural materials. High energy neutrons strike atoms of structural material causing them to emit gamma rays characteristic of the material. Analysis of the energies of the detected gamma rays can be used, for example, to determine the kinds, distributions, and amounts of contaminants within structural materials without cutting, coring, or otherwise disturbing them. Archival Information Systems.Computer technology makes nationwide linksbetween archives and libraries possible. Keyword systems allow efficient searches for materials that may be located in many different places. They also permit the listing of diverse kinds of archival and library holdings, such as papers, maps, photographs, charts, books and films, under one subject heading. Optical Disk Storage.Optical, orlaser, disk storage is a highly powerful medium for storing and retrieving large amounts of visual, print, and voice data quickly. It works much like a compact record disk, using a small laser to,read the disk's surface, but can store and display full motion video as well asstill photographs and text. A single optical disk can now store approximately 54,000 single images on one side. Analysis Geographic Information Systems (GIS).Theseare computerized database systems in which the data are explicitly spatial in nature and organization. They can be used to accumulate many kinds of data, such as soil type, distribution of sites or structures, plant type, and population distribution and display them in a variety of ways to reveal patterns of settlement, land use, or other spatial patterns. Dating Techniques.Awide variety of direct dating techniques are available that use chemical, physical, or visual analysis. dendrochronology:commonly known as tree ring dating, this technique relys on the fact That climate, water, and soil conditions make trees grow at different rates from year to year. Visual inspection of the patterns of tree rings yield highly accurate cutting dates for logs. radiocarbon:depends on the slow decay of carbon-14 in organic compounds. The amount of carbon- 14 in organic materials remains in equilibrium with the atmosphere while organisms are still alive. The approximate date they die can be determined by measuring the current ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in samples. archaeomagnetism:depends on the slight change of direction and strength of Earth's magnetic field over time. Iron-bearing particles, when heated, for example in a fire hearth, become free to assume the magnetic direction of the local field of the Earth. After the hearth cools, the magnetic field of that epoch is sealed in the iron-bearing material. Comparison of the sample's magnetic field direction with the present magnetic field yields an estimate Gf the sample's age. obsidian hydration:depends on the fact that the outer surfaces of freshly flaked obsidian will take on water from the atmosphere over time. By measuring the amount of water in the outer layers of a sample of obsidian, it is possible to estimate how long ago an obsidian flake was made. NOTE: This list is illustrative of the many technologies applicable to preservation rather than comprehensive. Most of the technologies in this brief list can beapplied in other phases of the research process han those for which they are listed. For example, although predictive locational modeling is listed as a technology for discovery,it is also a potentially powerful analytic tool. Ch. 1Summary 19 for archival investigation. These include subject- ing the distribution of archaeologically significant accessible keyword systems and finding aids that material across large regions, are likely to prove relate to the geographic location of sites. Care- powerful aids for research and management of fiil of the field survey and inventory data cultural resources, especially in the vast public for later use and archival storage requires the de- lands of the Southwest and West. However, such sign of collection forms that can be easily read models need considerable refinement, and may by automated information systems.20 never reduce the overall costs of surveying and identifying archaeological sites. Remote sensing techniques using both aircraft and spacecraft, as well as close-range sensors, ap- Underwater archaeology depends primarily on pear to offer great promise in extending our ability technologies borrowed from the oil and gas ex- to discover, characterize, and study archaeolog- ploration industry. The costs of using such sur- ical sites and historic landscapes. Yet, high costs vey technologies as side-scan sonar, sub-bottom of equipment and lack of familiarity with remote profilers, remotely operated vehicles, and preci- sensing techniques have inhibited their use in ar- sion positioning systems are likely to remain ex- chaeology and landscape studies. Although re- tremely high. However, the data for initial sur- mote sensing techniques are little used in iden- veys in shallow coastal waters may be available tifying historic structures, they can improve our from the exploration firms and the Minerals Man- understanding of the significance of these struc- agement Service at extremely low cost. Mag- tures by revealing new contextual information. netometry, the most widely used of underwater locational technologies is less costly, but responds Geographic information systems and predictive only to ferrous material. Using airborne mag- modeling methods are also finding utility for survey and identification of archaeological sites and netometers would reduce the costs of surveys by landscapes. Ultimtely,locational predictive allowing rapid coverage of large areas of water. modeling techniques, analytical tools for predict- Video technology, because it is relatively simple and inexpensive to use has broad applications "For example, the Wisconsin State Historic Preservation Office has devised a sites and structures form, which can be read efficiently for survey and identification, can store vast by an optical character reader. amounts of information about the context of his-

Rada,- image of Death Valley, California

./Z Photo credit: Jet Propulsion Laboratory and National Aeronautics and Space Administration A variety of geologic features can be seen in this radar image acquired by the Shuttle Imaging Radar-B carried aboard the space shuttle, Oct. 11, 1984.

31 20 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation toric structures, and is capable of imparting a in heightened accuracy and speed of execution, sense of presence, place, and context that indi- as well as the requirement for trained staff and vidual photographs cannot. It has also found con- specialized equipment. Recent advances in com- siderable use in underwatei archaeology, for sur- puter software, brought about by extensive re- vey and interpretation of submerged resources search on remote sensing from aircraft and space- to the public. craft, coupled with relatively inexpensive image digitizers, promise to lower costs dramatically. During the last two decades, significant strides Stereo photogrammetric techniques are also be- have been made in the drive to recognize significant landscapes. However, only within the last ing applied to documenting submerged cultural year have landscapes been incorporated within resources. the significance categories for the National Reg- Excavation is necessarily destructive. There is ister of Historic Places.21 Such an omission has therefore a strong need to improve the quantity constituted a major barrier to nominating land- and quality of archaeological data recording. It scapes to the Register. is also important to refine the techniques for locating the most suitable sites for excavation. Recording and Measurement Many experts feel that archaeologists need to excavate less and record sites more carefully. Photogrammetric stereo recording of archaeo- They might also benefit from standardizing the logical sites, historic buildings, and landscapes process of gathering data so there is less onsite is underutilized in the United States, in large part analysis. Microanalytic soil and plant techniques because of a lack of appreciation of its benefits have improved dramatically in the past decade. In addition to storing records and artifatts, ar- 215 ee J. Timothy Keller and Genevieve P. Keller, "How To Evaluate and Nominate Designed Historic Landscapes," Bulletin #18, Na- chaeologists would benefit from saving soil sam- tional Park Service, 1986. This document represents the first attempt ples, corings, and excavation profiles for future within the U.S. preservation movement formally to signify the im- reanalysis of sites when techniques have importance of landscapes to the U.S. cultural heritage. The preservation of cultural landscapes has also received relatively little atten- proved still further. tion. See Robert Z. Melnick, Cultural Landscapes: Rural Historic Districts Within the National Park Service (Washington, DC: Na- Underwater archaeologists need greater access tional Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1984). to the dramatically improved deepwater remotely operated exploratory vessels developed for the U.S. Navy, and the oil, gas, and mineral indus- tries. Because submerged wooden vessels, the largest of all artifacts, are extremely fragile, they

0." I 'it would also benefit from the development of technologies that would enable shipwrecks to be examined and their contents excavated with minimal disturbance to the structures themselves. The detailed exarn'nation of the surfaces of historic structures benefits immeasurably by using infrared and ultraviolet techniques. X-ray and neutron-gamma ray devices make possible the nondestructive examination of internal or hidden structural details. Optical disk technology allows the storage and retrieval of diverse kinds of information on all preservation issues. Photographs, videos, test results, field notes, and other kinds of information Photo credit: Preservation Assistance Division, National Park Service can be stored together in one place to facilitate Stereo photogrammetry In Rome access. 32 Ch. 1Summary 21

Analysis and Evaluation systems, they nevertheless function as a total interdependent system. It is essential to analyze Accurate dating of archaeological materials their performance as a whole, rather than a sum plays an important part in understanding pre- of independent component parts. Architects historic cultures. The several dating techniques must be trained correctly to analyze and predict developed for archaeology are exceHent examples the behavior of structural elements over time in of the transfer of technology from the natural sci- different environmental conditions. Structures ences into archaeology. Traditional radiocarbon also exist as part of a total landscape and should dating techniques, which were developed by be analyzed within that context rather than being chemists, have proved powerful tools for deter- considered independent of their surroundings. mining the ages of organic material. However, because many of the artifacts archaeologists wish Considerably more progress is needed in non- to date are extremely small, they are limited by destructive assessment of structural condition. the amount of the sample (about a gram) needed X-ray and gamma-ray devices can locate hidden compared to the size and mass of the artifacts. features of structures. They can also be used to Recent advances in radiocarbon dating yield ac- determine and diagnose moisture and deterio- ceptable results with samples 1,000 to 1 million ration of structural elements. times smaller. Other advances in dating techniques, such as archaeomagnetic dating, which was developed by geophysicists and depends on Restoration, Conservation, measuring changes in the Earth's magnetic field and Maintenance over time, have dramatically extended the archaeologists' ability to date archaeological Regular, periodic maintenance plays a crucial remains. part in conserving prehistoric and historic sites, structures, and landscapes and enhances their Archaeologists have usefully applied the ana- value. Yet relatively little attention has been lytical techniques derived from soil science and given to training for maintenance or applying geomorphology for many years. Techniques de- technology to improving maintenance manage- rived from the earth sciences have much to con- ment. Long-range management is especially im- tribute to the management of archaeological sites portant. Expert systems and optical disk technol- and historic landscapes. Continued improvements ogy can vastly improve the delivery of quality in such techniques will be important in assisting training in restoration, repair, and maintenance. the research of archaeologists and landscape his- Craftspeople skilled in restoration techniques torians. should be made part of the decisionmaking proc- Landscapes are subtle and constantly chang- ess for restoration, conservation, and maintenance. ing as a result of both natural and human proc- Proper cyclic maintenance for sites, structures, esses. Computer modeling and remote sensing and landscapes includes a thorough understand- techniques provide a powerful set of techniques ing of both traditional and advanced techniques. for the analysis and evaluation of large-scale land- Materials recovered from submerged sites pose scapes. Analysis of landscapes requires under- particularly difficult conservation problems. They standing of plant types and plant variations. For become highly vulnerable to the process of decom- historic gardens, the identification and retrieval position almost immediately after being removed of historic plant types is particularly important. from the water, and require perpetual, not just There is a strong need to develop databases on cyclic, attention. the types of plantings used historically. Such databases will also depend on maintaining archives Because local residents often have a major on the types of plants used historically in the stake in the subsequent use of a preservation United States. project, they should be consulted during the analysis of sites, structures, or landscapes prior to Even though historic structures were built in restoration. A variety of analytic interview tech- stages and are composed of many different sub- niques speed this process and make it more ac-

33 22 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Structural Damage curate. It is also important to gather and store interview materials properly ir archives so they may be used effectively. Participants in this assessment noted that many contemporary buildings refled inadequate knowledge of materials and construction methods. They coukl become the preservation problems of the future. It is important to give more attention both to understanding materials and developing standards for construction. Information that is collected in the investigation of historic building materials may be extremely useful for refin- ing current building techniques and developing proper maintenance plans. In particular, reinforced concrete, one of the most common of building materials, is failing in both modern and histork structures because its behavior has not been well understood. Reinforced concrete constitutes a growing and burdensome conservation problem for the future. Effective conservation treatments should be found and that information widely shared. Environmental stresses on historic structures have increased markedly in the last century. Technologies for conserving historic structures against rapidly accelerating degradation by chemicals and water in the atmosphere and soil are needed. In an effort to reduce costs, or meet local building codes, substitute materials are often employed in restoring historic structures. The behavior of these substitute materials also requires detailed analysis before they are used in order to assure that they will last and will be compatible with the original materials and appropriate to the structure. The Federal effort at stabilizing and conserving prehistoric and historic sites and strudures suffers from lack of agency coordination. Con- siderably more research needs to be done, for example, on technologies for site monitoring, and the stabilization of adobe, stone, and wood.

Photo credits: Preservation Assistance Division, National Park Service The conservation of prehistoric and historic rock art22, has received very little attention from Upper photo, brownstone deterioraiion as a result of splashback from traffic on stairs. Lower photo, 22Rock art inciudes rock painting (pictographs) and rock carv- ice damage to stone. ing, incising, and pecking (petroglyphs).

3 4 Ch. 1Summary 23

Federal agencies. Because of the importance of cies for the benefit and enjoyment of all citizens. rock art to understanding prehistoric Native Increasing the effectiveness of law enforcement American culture, a focused effort to develop for the protection of cultural resources on Fed- appropriate conservation technologies is very eral lands will require better coordination among important. Conservation of rock art is also im- Federal agencies for training and sharing of in- portant to many contemporary Native Americans formation. as it is part of their cultural heritage. Methods for protecting historic structures lo- As a result of the multitude of stresses that the cated within earthquake zones, particularly in cit- urbanization of the United States places on the ies, has begun and should continue. However, natural environment, it is more important than historic structures are more frequently lost from ever to identify and manage significant prehistoric neglect than from catastrophic events. Some are and historic landscapes. The United States is los- deliberately destroyed by their owners because ing significant numbers of historic plant species. they have little notion of why they should be In order to reduce such losses, and make it pos- preserved. sible to restore historic gardens accurately, it may be necessary to establish arboretums to Historic structures are particularly vulnerable to arson and intrusi )n. Devices designed to mon- conserve and propagate historic plant species. itor for fire and intrusion must be simple to oper- Arboretums, such as the one at Jefferson's home, ate and maintain. Those that can be operated and Monticello, and many historic gardens, could also understood only by trained experts may do more play an important role in maintaining the diver- harm than good if they malfunction or create a sity of plant species. false sense of security. Records that document the maintenance and preservation of sites, structures, or landscapes can Preservation Information be used to make informed decisions about which technologies will work best and be most cost- Efficient access to information remains one effective. Yet such important documents are often of the greatest impediments to effective man- not retained because they are considered unim- agement of cultural resources. New means of portant as "housekeeping" information. recording, storing, retrieving, and manipulating data and information promise to improve dramat- Protection From Catastrophic Losses ically our ability to identify and preserve significant prehistoric and historic sites, structures, and Prehistoric and historic sites, structures, and landscapes. The most consequential advances are landscapes are subject to a variety of catastrophic expected from the application of optical disk losses, including fire, earthquake, looting, and technology in various forms, which will allow the vandalism. Under certain circumstances, tech- storage and retrieval of prints, photographs, and nologies for the detection and surveillance of video as well as text. Optical character readers intruders and potential arsonists or vandals can for translating text to machine readable format enhance the protection of cultural resources. will improve preservationists' ability to create However, the costs of such technologies are ex- databases and enhance the flow of information. tremely high. In addition, patrols by trained law However, making effective use of such technol- enforcement officials are also necessary. Urban, ogies will require the development of standard- rural, and underwater environments require dif- ized formats for data collection and recording. ferent approaches to law enforcement. Public Improved coordination within the preservation educational and other regular and constant uses community could assist the development of such of historic properties can contribute to their pro- standards. tection by ensuring that people are often present Participants in this study expressed consider- at times of high potential risk. able concern about the long-term stability and Cultural resources on Federal lands belong to storage quality of new data and information me- the Nation and are held in trust by Federal agen- dia and equipment. It will be essential to con-

35 24 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Photo credit: Jack Boucher. Natt:al Park Service Carson House, Eureka, California

'36 Ch. 1Summary 25 tinue to study the longevity of such media and The Federal Government should take a leading equipment and to develop systems that are evo- role in educating citizens about the loss of U.S. lutionary, rather than revolutionary, in order to cultural resources and what they can do to help reduce the costs and disruption to records that preserve them. It should also demonstrate strong abrupt technological shifts might cause. management policies with respect to the properties it oversees. Museums are a major source of public educa- Public Education tion about U.S. cultural resources. Yet they often Public education and interpretation are among fail to inform the public adequately on the need the most effective means of preserving prehistoric to preserve prehistoric and historic cultural re- and historic sites, structures, and landscapes for sources. They should be encouraged to provide future generations to enjoy. Long-term storage is- better education concerning the threats to cul- sues aside, creative use of video and interactive tural resources in the United States and abroad. optical disk technologies can significantly enhance This may require modest amounts of additional the quality of preservation education and inter- funding for museums. pretation. Electronic media make possible pub- Techniques that allow the public to observe lic involvement with the educational materials safely the course of an excavation or restoration because they allow direct interaction with the add significantly to its understanding and sym- media. Programs on optical disks, especially, pathy for the goals of prehistoric and historic pres- could encourage viewers to select different paths ervation. The process itself then functions as an of information and to individualize their educa- educational tool. tional experience. Historians can provide the broad historical con- Many people are simply not aware of the threat text needed for interpreting the past. Historians, that vandalism and looting pose for this country's particularly those involved inpublic history cultural resources. Improved education concern- studies and programs, should be involved in the ing the benefits of preserving our cultural re- interpretation process from its beginning through sources would enhance efforts to protect them. production of the end product or performance.

3 7 26 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Photo credit: Robert L. Spude, National Park Service Sourdough Roadhouse, Alaska, a National Historic Landmark. This roadhouse was built on the trail from Valdez on the coast to the gold fields of Fairbanks, the trail that parallels the Alaskan pipeline today. The roadhouse has been operating continuously since ca.1905, when it was built.

3 8 lop'gx 2 Backgroun

3 9 Contents

Pa,Qc Introduction Preparation of This Report Tedinologies for Preserving Ardlaeological-;ites and St riviiire,,

-Technologies for Un(ierwater Archaeology 11)(1 Maritime Prwierviltion I Technologies for PreservingI hstoric Structures :V) Technologies for Preserving Planned Landscapes and Other Out(loor Sites 33

Technologies for the Physical Protection of Prehistoric and Historic Sites . Common Preservation Issues 34 A Centralized Conservation Facility 38 Organization of the Report 39 The Chapters 39

List of Tables Table No. Rige 2. Representative Prehistoric and Historic Archaeological Sites 31 3. Representative Disciplines Participating in Prehistoric and Historic Preservation 31 4. Areas of Significance and Activity Represented by Historic Structures 33 Chapter 2 Background

INTRODUCTION In recognition of thP growing importance of the use of technology, including methods and preserving our prehistoric and historic heritage, techniques, as well as tools and equipment, can over the last 80 years Congress has enacted a va- assist historic preservation. In this report, pres- riety of laws to protect and preserve U.S. cultural ervation technology refers broadly to any equip- resources. These laws include, among others, The ment, methods, and techniques that can be ap- Antiquities Act of 1906,' The Historic Sites Act plied to the location, analysis, interpretation, of 1935,2 The National Historic Preservation Act management, conservation, and protection of of 1966, as amended in 1980,3 The Archaeologi- prehistoric and historic sites, structures, and cal and Historical Preservation Act of 1974,4 and landscapes. The Archaeological Resources Protection Act of In order for preservation professionals and the 1979.5 The ability of Federal agencies to carry out provisions of these laws rests increasingly on dis- general public to appreciate and learn from the covering and using cost-effective advanced tech- record of past human behavior, these cultural re- niques, methods, and equipment for prehistoric sources must be preserved for both the present and historic preservation.6 and the future. As the National Historic Preser- vation Act notes: Nearly every congressional district contains fed- ... the preservation of this irreplaceable her- erally managed prehistoric and historic structures, itage is in the public interest so that its vital landscapes, and archaeological sites. This assess- legacy of cultural, educational, esthetic, inspira- ment was requested by the House Committee on tional, economic, and energy benefits will be Interior and Insular Affairs to assist the Commit- maintained and enriched for future generations tee's legislative authorization and oversight of of Americans.8 Federal preservation efforts/ The Subcommittee on Public Lands has initiated a major oversight Yet, in recent years the stresses on cultural re- review of the national historic preservation pro- sources have increased dramatically. The iden- gram. The results of this assessment should sup- tification of such stresses and the de,ire to limit port the Subcommittee's efforts to review how their deleterious effects has led to P...) increased interest in the development of technologies for prehistoric and historic preservation. 'Public Law 59-209; Stat. 335; 16 U.S.C. 431-433. 2Public Law 74292; 49 Stat. 666; 16 U.S.C. 641-467. This report provides an overview of preserva- 3Public Law 89-665; 810 Stat. 915; 16 U.S.C. 470. tion technologies. It also assesses a variety of Public Law 93-291; 88 Stat. 174. 5Public Law 96-95; 93 Stat. 712; 16 U.S.C. 470. policy options related to the use of these tech- 6See U.S. Department of the Interior, "The Resource Protection nologies and suggests improvements in imple- Planning Process." Preservation Planning Series, September 1980, menting current policy. More specifically, the re- for concepts that de(ine historic preservation. 2"The physical remains of our heritage, both prehistoric and port: 1) identifies and discusses effective current historic, are unique, non-renewable resources. It may be that new technologies for prehistoric and historic preser- methods and technologies, including some of those developed in vation; 2) evaluates promising new technologies the space program and other high technology endeavors, could be put to use to help us better understand and manage these re- that could be applied; and 3) suggests areas for sources and the information they can provide us. Accordingly, we research and development. The report also iden- ask that the Office of Technology Assessment tmdertake a study tifies and assesses nontechnical constraints on the of technologies for the identification, recordation, interpretation, protection and management of prehistoric and historic sites." From use of technologies. Finally, it explores the use the requesting letter, Sept. 10, 1985, signed by Morris K. Udall, of preservation technology in other countries. Chairman, Don Young, Ranking Republican Member, John F. Seiberling, Chairman, Subcommittee on Public Lands, and Ron oNational Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended, Sec. Marlenee, Subcommittee Ranking Republican Member. 1(b) (Purpose of the Act), para. 4. 41 29 '41 30 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

The assessment focused on technologies for: nologies used for their preservation are applica- 1) locating, identifying, surveying, and analyzing ble to structures, sites, and landscapes. The prehistoric and historic structures, sites, and land- assessment also considers technologies for stor- scapes; and 2) conserving and protecting them. ing, sharing, and retrieving historic preservation It does not address the preservation of paintings, information. books, and other artifacts, except insofar as tech-

PREPARATION OF THIS REPORT

In order to identify and refine the many pres- chaeologists to draw inferences about past hu- ervation issues discussed in this report, OTA con- man activities and behavior. In the Americas, vened a series of five workshops, held at OTA prehistoric archaeology refers to the study of cul- between December 1985 and April 1986. For tural materials from native peoples who inhabited each workshop, OTA selected participants from these continents prior to about A.D. 1500.9 government, academia, and private enterprise Historic archaeology treats materials of peoples with a broad range of expertise in the use of pres- who have lived in the historic period, for whom ervation techniques, and experience in public written records also exist. policy. Observers from a variety of Federal agencies and public and professional interest groups Although curiosity with regard to the practices also attended and contributed to the discussion. of other cultures plays a strong motivating part in the discipline of archaeology, the opportunity Each workshop identified and examined preser- to broaden our understanding of how people vation technologies appropriate to the specific have responded to the challenge of wresting a subject under discussion, and discussed impedi- living from the Earth is also important. Both pre- ments to their effective use. Workshop partici- historic and historic archaeology share the goals pants developed and discussed a long list of issues of locating, analyzing, and protecting cultural ma- related to the use of technologies for prehistoric terial. Sites, or loci of concentrated human activ- and historic preservation. They also examined ity,'° which are the focus of much archaeologi- how Federal, State, and local agencies, the uni- cal research, may range from a simple surface versities, and the private sector use preservation scatter of stone tools and toolmaking remains to technologies, and suggested a variety of options a complex of wood and stone structures cover- for improving historic preservation policy and im- ing many acres (table 2). They may be found on plementation. the surface, partially covered by earth or water, or entirely buried or submerged. All sites include, Technologies for Preserving as an important part of their makeup and mean- Archaeological Sites and Structures ing, some portion of the surrounding landscape. Many U.S. prehistoric and historic cultural resources in the United States are buried or sub- 9The precise delineation between prehistoric and historic periods merged. This workshop identified and examined varies depending on the region under consideration. technologies for locating, recording, analyzing, '°Some archaeologists have argued that because the boundaries and preserving archaeological sites. It dealt only of any given site are arbitrary, and that the definition of a site de- briefly with underwater archaeology. pends on regional analysis, the site concept is deficient as a research and management tooL See, for example, R.C. Dunnell and Wil- Archaeology is the scientific study of structures, liam S. Dancy, "The Siteless Survey: A Regional Scale Data Col- lection Strategy," Advances in Archaeological Method and The- artifacts, and other material remains of earlier ory', vol. No. 5, Michael B. Schiffer (ed.) (New York: Academic Press, peoples, and of the ways in which they adjusted 1983), pp. 267-287. Although OTA recognizes the term's limitations in adequately reflecting the object of archaeological research, to their environments and modified the land- OTA nevertheless uses it for this study in the absence of a more scape. The results of such studies enable ar- precise and generally accepted term.

42 Ch. 2Background 31

Table 2.Representative Prehistoric and Historic Table 3.Representative Disciplines Participating in Archaeological Sites Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

agricultural terraces, canals, and raised field systems anthropology geography battlegrounds archaeology geology boats architectural history geomorphology burials architecture geophysics causeways art history history cities astronomy hydrology dwellings biology (including land planning farmsteads palynology) landscape architecture fences and stone walls botany maritime history field houses chemistry materials science footpaths climatology physics gardens ecology volcanology hunting blinds engineering zoology hunting camps folklore kill sites SOURCE:Office of Technology Assessment, 1986. lithic scatters manufacturing sites mills Archaeologists have a strong interest as well as mounds and earthworkc plant processing sites a responsibility to preserve sites even after they quarries have been excavated, as archaeological data still ritual structures remain in the architecture and in the cultural de- roadways rock art sites posits not excavated in the site." In addition, con- ships siderable information may exist in the site for stone alignments and forms which extraction techniques have not been de- stone fences, corrals, fishweirs submerged villages veloped.12 trash dumps villages and towns Technologies for Underwater water control features SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1986. Archaeology and Maritime Preservation Archaeological research and preservation are Because the technologies for locating, survey- extremely complex and involve individuals from ing, analyzing, and protecting submerged cultural a variety of disciplines (table 3). They are also resources differ substantially from those used on highly labor-intensive. Much archaeological re- land-based archaeological sites, OTA convened search involves excavation in which scores of a separate workshop to consider them. This work- laborers are required to dig, sift, examine, and shop discussed the special problems related to collect a variety of cultural and environmental underwater archaeology and maritime preser- remains. Archaeological analyses require the cu- vation. ration, storage, and handling of many kinds of The specialty of underwater archaeology has information and artifacts, as well as considera- developed in the last three decades and still has tion of many different ecological and cultural relatively few qualified practitioners.13 The study variables. Prior to proceeding with fieldwork, archaeol- "As a result of the expense of excavation, as well as the desire to preserve as much information as possible for future archaeolo- ogists must develop a research rationale and plan gists to study, few sites are ever totally excavated (see Chapter 3: appropriate to the archaeological resources un- Research, for further discussion of this point). der investigation. Archaeologists depend on the "For example, archaeomagnetic dating techniques (see Chap- ter 3: Research) were not developed until the 1970s. Yet many sites development of technologies that simplify the excavated before the 1970s could yield additional information by process of gathering and processing data and im- using such techniques on them today. prove the quality of archaeological information. "Before the 1960s, less than a dozen scientists were engaged in underwater archaeological activities anywhere. Even 10 years ago Such developments are especially welcome if only two dozen archeologists directed their research toward sub- they lead to lower costs. merged cultural resources in the United States.

4 3 32 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

of underwater prehistoric and historic cultural tenance of historic structures and determination materials is possible in large part because a vari- of the causes and extent of materials failures. ety of advanced technologies have been brought to bear on the identification, recovery, analysis, Historic structures, which include house, rb- and conservation of these important remants of lic buildings, bridges, monuments, as weH U.S. heritage. Such resources may include not others represent to the general public the most only shipwrecks and their contents, but also in- obvious and important tangible reminders of the undated villages, towns, even cities, farms, ware- diversity and richness of the country's r:riltural houses, piers, and wells. They may also include heritage.15 The U.S. historic preservation move- sites that were once submerged, but are now lo- ment began over 100 years ago, when a group cated under dry land after a change in the course of private citizens, the Mount Vernon Ladies' of a river channel, or those incorporated within Association of the Union, led by Anne Pamela landfill extensions. As one archaeologist, who Cunningham, recognized that the Virginia home specializes in studying submerged cultural re- of George Washington constituted a national sources has put it: historic treasure. The association worked to acquire the property when neither the State nor ... archeological theory and philosophy en- Federal governments would accept the respon- compass all cultural remains vAerever they may sibility of caring for it. The association still holds be found, including material covered by.water. stewardship over Mount Vernon and has pre- The only difference between an underwater site vented encroachment on the grounds and sur- and a site in any other environment is the tech- rounding lands by purchasing real estate, and se- niques and methods required to investigate that site." curing easements from nearby property owners.16 Submerged and maritime resources constitute The National Historic Preservation Act, "en- a significant part of the Nation's cultural diver- courages the public and private preservation and sity. Yet, the destruction of submerged cultural utilization of all usable elements of the Nation's resources has intensified dramatically as a result historic built environment," not only buildings of increased offshore drilling for oil and gas, that have belonged to men and women signifi- dredging, pipeline laying, looting, and salvaging. cant in U.S. history. In 1976, the first of a variety Various water projects such as reservoir and dam of tax incentives to encourage the rehabilitation building have inundated dry land and buried of qualified historic structures became available, many other cultural resources. Until recently, all of which have been highly effective in promot- however, submerged and maritime resources ing the goal of preserving historic structures.17 have been largely neglected by both government Because the number of both privately and pub- and the historic preservation community. licly owned structures actually designatedas historic and listed on the National Register of Technologies for Preserving Historic Places individually or as elements of Historic Structures listed historic districts is ever increasing, thescope of the technical problems associated with restor- An important part of the historical record of the United States consists of structures (the so-called 15"A structure is a work made up of interdependent and inter- related parts in a definite pattern of organization. Generally con- "built environment"). This workshop discussed structed by man, it is often an engineering project." How To Ap- a variety of technologies that are used for the ply the National Register Criteria for Evaluation (Washington, DC: identification, physical analysis, interpretation, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, June 1982). and protection of historic structures. Among '6Albert Rains, Chairman, and Laurence G. Henderson, Direc- tor, With Heritage So Rich (A Report of a Special Committee on other things, the workshop discussion focused on Historic Preservation Under the Auspices of the United States Con- preservation techniques related to cyclical main- ference of Mayors With a Grant From the Ford Foundation) (New York: Random House, 1966). "See U.S, Congress, General Accounting Office, Fact Sheet for 14"Introduction" Underwater Archeology in the National Park the Chairman, Subcommittee on Public Lands, Committee on In- Service, Daniel Lenihan (ed.) (Santa Fe, NM: Division of Archeol- terior and Insular Affairs, House of Representatives, Tax Policy and ogy, Southwest Region, 1974), p. 1. Administration, Historic Preservation Tax Incentives, August 1986. Ch. 2Background 33

ing and rehabilitating them becomes ever more the landscape preservation effort is relatively challenging. In the absence of regular mainte- new.19 The historic preservation movement has nance, which is ultimately the best and most eco- established and refined methodologies for pre- nomic approach to saving historic structures, only serving structures and archaeological sites over a limited range of often expensive treatments and the past 50 years and has only recently begun singular skills are available. New conservation to turn its full attention to landscapes.20 The term techniques and products must undergo careful "landscape" does not even appear in the cate- testing and evaluation before being applied. gories of sites that are eligible for nomination to Table 4 represents areas of significance and the National Register of Historic Places.21 activity used by the National Register of Historic Landscapes have a profound effect on our lives. Places. These areas of significance reflect a range Throughout human history, societies have both of historical contexts within which the Nation's affected and been affected by their physical sur- development can be understood and the hisf )ri- roundings.22 The result of such interactions is a cal value of prehistoric sites, structures, and Lnd- landscape. Although different landscapes exhibit scapes can be established. distinct characteristics, because landscapes may lack clear boundaries and include structures and Technologies for Preserving Planned sites as well as natural components, landscape Landscapes and Other Outdoor Sites values may be elusive, making precise and standard definitions difficult to achieve in practice.23 Landscapes, whether in the form of highly structured designed landscapes such as parks and Establishing a progression of landscape types gardens, or less well-defined "cultural land- based on the scale of intentional human inter- scapes," such as historic farms or prehistoric vention can assist in developing common defi- shaped earthworks,18 are an important part of nitions. At one end of such a scale is the wilder- U.S. cultural heritage. In order to focus attention ness, where natural processes predominate. In on the technologies for preserving landscapes, a wilderness landscape, human activities certainly this workshop primarily examined technologies exist, but they do not appreciably modify the associated with the preservation of planned landscapes. However, it also discussed technologies for the preservation of cultural landscapes and rock art sites. '95ee the discussion in W.H. Tishler, "The Landscape: An Emerg- '8For example, see the overview of prehistoric earthworks pre- ing Historic Preservation Resource," The Association for Preser- sented in William N. Morgan, Prehistoric Architecture in the East- vation Technology Bulletin 11, No. 4, 1979, pp. 9-26. ern United States (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1980). 205ee UNESCO, "Recommendation Concerning the Safeguard- ing of the Beauty and Character of Landscapes and Sites." Adopted by the General Conference at its 12th session, Paris, Dec. 11, 1962, Table 4.Areas of Significance and Activity for a relatively early attempt to define landscape preservation values. Represented by Historic Structures 21seeJ. Timothy Keller and Genevieve P. Keller, "How To Evaluate and Nominate Designed Historic Landscapes," National Register agriculture health/medicine of Historic Places Bulletin 18 (Washington, DC: National Park Serv- archeology industry ice, U.S. Department of the Interior, in draft), for a discussion of architecture invention types of destgned landscapes. art landscape architecurel 225ee the discussion in Hiroshi Daifuku, "Introduction," The Man- commerce horticulture Made Landscape (Switzerland: UNESCO, 1977). communications law 23Part of the difficulty in defining the term is illustrated in the fol- commuffity planning and literature lowing: In general parlance, we use landscape in the broadest sense development military to mean environment (including both natural forms and those economics performing arts/theater achieved by art). However, landscapes are often considered sim- education philosophy ply the ambiance of buildings, as when we speak of "landscaping engineering/technology politics/government a building." In that sense, landscapes then become equivalent to entertainment/recreation religion nature, in spite of the fact that in order to achieve such a land- environment science scape, the natural forms must be molded to a plan. For example, ethnic heritage social history in the eyes of some observers, President Jefferson's home, Mon- exploration/settlement transportation ticello, is a landscape of which the central building is tbe most im- SOURCE: U.S. Department of Interior, National Park Service, "How To Apply the portant part. Others consider only the form and structure of the National Register Criteria for Evaluation," Washington, DC, 1984. house and ignore its ambiance.

45 34 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation landscape.24 We might call the next stage in the Technologies for the Physical progression settlement patterns, as human manip- Protection of Prehistoric ulation of the earth becomes more obvious but there is no conscious planning. As humans ma- and Historic Sites nipulate the land for particular purposes reflective This workshop identified the various human of their cultural values, such settlement patterns and natural threats to cultural resources and dis- merge into cultural landscapes. Characteristically, cussed a range of technologies that could be used the cultural landscape is the product of many to mitigate or eliminate them. A major compo- groups or individuals working interdependently nent of this workshop dealt with the educational within a broad cultural context. Finally, the de- programs and technologies for alerting the pub- signed or planned landscape,25 in which the scale lic to those threats and to the importance of of manipulation of the earth is high, is a subset historic preservation. The workshop also ex- of the cultural landscape that reflects the con- plored impediments to effective utilization of ceptual model of a single individual or small technologies for assuring the physical security of group of individuals. All of these landscape types, structures, sites, and landscapes. Technologies re- whether wilderness landscapes, cultural land- lated to the following categories were considered: scapes, or designed landscapes, mirror values of the peoples who live within them. problem identification and analysis, stress or threat evaluation and resolution, 24In most cases, it is not correct to talk about an untouched nat- public education and interpretation, and ural landscape. Even hunter/gatherer societies may have deliber- data treatment and archives. ately burned the grasses, and otherwise altered the landscape over time. For example, see Clive Gamble, "The Artificial Wilderness," Following each workshop, OTA staff summa- New Scientist, Apr. 10, 1986, pp. 50-54. rized the discussion, expanding, where possible, 28Because designed landscapes are generally thought of as deriving from a high art tradition, certain historical vernacular landscapes on the points offered by participants. These were might be overlooked or considered of less historical importance then reviewed by workshop participants as well than, for example, formal gardens. However, folk traditions are de- as by others in the preservation community. The sign traditions that involve master builders and sophisticated learning and wisdom. It is therefore extremely difficult to separate vernacular final workshop reports became the basis for the landscapes from design intention and from planning. chapters that make up this report.

COMMON PRESERVATION ISSUES

During the first four workshops OTA concluded culturalheritage(sites,structures,artifacts, that many of the issues raised are common to records, landscapfor the benefit of the Amer- historic preservation as a whole. The conclud- ican people through the application of manage- ing fifth workshop on protection enlarged on ment skills within the political process.27 It "is the these common issues. This section presents and primary Context within which most professional analyzes such common issues. or avocational archaeologists [and other preser- Cultural resources are unique, nonrenewable vation professionals] address the public nature resources subject to continual stress from human of the resources and their treatment."28 and natural agents. The recognition of the need (ed.) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 1-11, for to limit such stresses and manage the cultural re- an exposition of the relationship of historic cultural resources to human values. sources base, within the context of other com- 27L.E. Wildesen, "Cultural Resource Management: A Personal peting uses for the land, has led to the develop- View," Practicing Anthropology 2(2), 1980, p. 10. For a general ment of a body of knowledge, practices, and discussion of cultural resources management, see Don D. Fowler, "Cultural Resources Management," Advances in Archaeological techniques called cultural resources management Method and Theory 5 (New York: Academic Press, 1982). (CRM).26 CRM is the process of preserving our 28Ruthann Knudson, "Contemporary Cultural Resource Manage- ment," American Archaeology Past and Future, D. Meltzer, D. 285ee, William D. Lipe, "Value and Meaning in Cultural Re- Fowler, and J. Sabloff (eds.) (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Press, sources," Approaches to the Archaeological Heritage, Henry Cleere 1986), p. 395.

46 Ch. 2Background 35

Prehistoric and historic preservation (and there- ISSUE 1: fore CRM) rely increasingly on the application of Too few preservationpractitioners and a wide variety of technologies, many of which managers who contrad with them have suffi- are discussed in chapters 3 through 6. Technol- cient experience with advanced technologies. ogies can extend the scope of our understanding and care of U.S. cultural heritage by im- This stems from a variety of causes, principal proving the quality, quantity, type, and usefulness among which are the difficulty in obtaining relia- of data gathered. They can also improve the au- ble and accurate information about new tech- thenticity of restoration, and the long term effec- niques, the lack of educational programs to train tiveness of conservation and maintenance. preservation practitioners in their use, and their great expense. The complexity of some advanced The boundaries between the practice of archae- technologies means that most practitioners must ology and the preservation of historic structures depend on the work of trained specialists. and landscapes are becoming increasingly less distinct. Professionals in all these disciplines ap- For example, no project to restore a major ply many of the same technologies to the study historic structure can proceed without the in- and conservation of sites, structures, and land- volvement and interaction of individuals from scapes. They should be aware of the assistance several disciplinesarchitects, historians, struc- each discipline can give to another, For exam- tural engineers, and perhaps, chemists. No one ple, it is impossible for the landscape architect individual can acquire the necessary expertise to to reconstruct and rehabilitate with accuracy an tackle every task. Yet the project manager must 18th centary formal garden without the profes- be knowledgeable enough about the techniques, sional assistance of archaeologists.29 Architects methods, and equipment used to make informed can help archaeologists to understand some of decisions about their use. Acquiring such exper- the choices prehistoric peoples made in the con- tise requires additional training and accessible struction of houses and sacred buildings." sources of information. It is important for preservation professionals to keep abreast of the range A wide array of techniques and associated of increasingly more sophisticated technologies, equipment already exists for th e. discovery, anal- and who is using them. ysis, and conservation of cultural resources. A core of experienced professionals is also avail- Archaeologists and landscape architects share able. Yet a variety of educational, institutional, similar problems obtaining and assimilating in- managerial, and cost barriers inhibit the introduc- formation on new technologies. In underwater tion of new methods, techniques, and equip- archaeology, the extremely high costs of acquir- ment. Preservationists in all preservation dis- ing and using appropriate new technologies have ciplines share problems of obtaining access to severely limited the opportunities for their use in information about technologies, training, and the field. Training opportunities are therefore coordination of research on technologies. They limited as well. also share the constraints of inadequate and de- Assimilating information on new technologies creasing funding and lack of coordinated imple- requires appropriate education and training. New mentation of Federal policy. technical information becomes available almost constantly from science and industry. Yet, too few The following common issues identify and describe some of these barriers. OTA did not at- preservationists have even minimal training in tempt to list the issues in priority order. natural science and engineering. Few training programs or courses apparently offer either information or hands-on experience with technol- 29Paul Brace, "Archeological Resources and Land Development: ogies. Nevertheless, archaeologists, and historians A Guide To Assess Impact," Landscape Architecture Technical In- who specialize in the study of tangible cultural formation Series 5, No. 1, September 1984. resources and are charged with studying and in- 305ee Ralph Knowles, Energy and Form (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1974), which discusses energy-related design choices pre- terpreting a site, structure, or landscape should historic peoples have made, as revealed in the remains of their have a general knowledge of the technologies, buildings. and their capabilities and limitations.

4 7 36 a Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

ISSUE 2: overall market tends to be small, as with many Few standards exist for the use of some new archaeological techniques. preservation techniques. This is unavoidable in the research and test- ISSUE 3: ing stages of a new technique or instrument. There is a strong need for better coordination Once it becomes part of the repertoire, stand- in the use of new technologies for preser- ards should be developed and promulgated. Even vation. those preservationists who are experienced in the As noted, the basic analytical tools and a core applications of new technologies have experi- of professionals are available. However, there is enced difficulty tracking the rapid growth and no existing permanent organization of national or proliferation of some advanced techniques and regional scope with the knowledge and resources methods. Because there exists no national, cen- required to assemble a network of collaborators tral clearinghouse for critically evaluating historic and consultants prepared to tackle specific sci- preservation technical information, and no in- entific problems associated with preservation. stitution, or group of institutions, specifically Much of what is being accomplished is ad hoc charged with charting and sponsoring the re- or piecemeal, often in the universities. Although search, development, testing, and use of ad- some preservation work is of excellent quality, vanced technologies, standards have often not there is a lack of overall direction by Federal and been set State agencies, as weii as a lack of communica- At present, because few standards exist for new tion among research specialists and agency plan- archaeological field methods, in some cases, re- ners and managers. search funds are not well used. In the preserva- Because prehistoric and historic preservation tion of historic structures, the lack of adequate involves many different disciplines and many standards has led to occasional unfortunate ex- different agencies at all levels of government, co- periences with some "high-tech" solutions to the ordination of preservation activities is often dif- problems of restoring, rehabilitating, and main- ficult. The agencies with primary responsibility taining such structures (see Chapter 4: Restora- for leading preservation efforts have considerable tion, Conservation, Maintenance, and Protection independence and relatively few incentives for for examples). Many of these approaches, devel- coordinating their activities directed toward de- oped to serve other fields, have proved ineffec- veloping new technologies or funding their use. tive and unsuitable for conservation. Until the re- Even regional offices within the agencies have sults of applications made in the laboratory and great autonomy. Because agency staffs tend to the field are assessed and available, many preser- be small and underfunded, they have little incen- vationists will for the most part remain wary of tive to increase their workload by coordinating new techniques. with other offices, as they view such initiatives In cases where the volume of product sales is as difficult and time-consuming. Although such potentially large, for example, with techniques autonomy does allow regional offices to tailor for stabilizing and extending the life of wood, programs to meet their own needs, lack of ade- stone, or other structural materials in wide use quate coordination and information transfer can throughout the United States, the marketplace result in lost opportunities to apply new and more may serve to dictate the need for standards. efficient techniques. Some agencies have greater Nevertheless, even with growing private sector access to advanced technology and information interest, the preservation field would benefit from than others.31 an organization that would provide leadership for the development of standards, and stimulate research into the behavior of new products or the benefits and drawbacks of new techniques. Such 3' For example, the Army historic preservation office has access to highly capable mapping systems, not generally available in other an organization would be most useful where the agencies.

48 Ch. 2Background 37

Better coordination among Federal and State ISSUE 6: agencies would result in more effective technol- Many traditional preservation methods will ogy transfer and application of technology. The continue to be useful, effective, and eco- Federal grant awarding mechanism for support- nomical. ing state historic preservation programs could be used to further and enhance such coordination. Participants in each of the OTA workshops emphasized that certain traditional technologies for ISSUE 4: preserving historic structures will continue to be New techniques are slow to become part of useful, effective, and economical. For example, preservation research planning and research periodic or cyclical maintenance still provides the design. best line of defense against many kinds of threats. New technologies, many of which provide new In general, the more advanced, and often more categories of information,32 must be fully inte- expensive, technologies are of high utility for the grated into the data-gathering process. Difficul- discovery and documentation phases of preser- ties of integration result in part from lack of train- vation. These include nonintrusive and nonde- ing, but also from the rapid changes that take structive methods such as remote sensing, and place in some new technologies. For example, infrared and X-ray analysis. Traditional technol- the rapid changes in remote sensing technologies, ogies, including some truly historic methods, tend driven by the technology's potential for mineral to be more applicable to the restoration and con- exploration, forestry, and agriculture, are out- servation phases of the preservation process. stripping the ability of most preservationists to keep up. ISSUE 7: In certail areas, technologies used by other ISSUE 5: countries may represent significant advances The application of older, well-understood over U.S. practices. technologies is often inadequate. Many other countries, particularly those of Eur- Although certain new technologies may lead ope, have long engaged in historic preservation to advantages for preservation, too much empha- coordinated through ministries of culture, which, sis on their use may divert effort from more ef- whether regionally or nationally focused, have fective use of traditional methods and tools. For supported the research, development, and use of example, a variety of efficient, simplified tech- appropriate techniques for preserving prehistoric niques are available for organizing and storing and historic sites, structures, and landscapes. moderate amounts of records. Yet, regional Fed- Preservation efforts among the industrialized na- eral agency offices often maintain incomplete, tions, through such organizations as the United disorganized and unprotected document collec- Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cukural tions and inadequate archaeological site files, use Organization (UNESCO), International Council poor methods for curating collections, have not on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), and Inter- adequately identified cultural resources, and do national Centre for the Study of the Preservation not provide adequate protection for known sites, and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM) even with more traditional methods. have accelerated dramatically in response to growing environmental threats. Some of these efforts have resulted in the development of techniques, methods, and equipment that are more advanced than U.S. technologies. For example, archaeologists in the United King- 32For example, in archaeology, the information on ancient cli- dom and some European countries have gener- mate provided by analysis of stable carbon isotopes in wood, in- ally been highly innovative in developing ad- stead of the older, well-established technique of analyzing fossil pollens, or data on celestial alignments provided by archaeoas- vanced technologies. The universities also offer tronomy. an archaeological curriculum that includes train-

4 9 38 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

ing in the natural sciences.33 In part, this is the during its rescue.35 The Mary Rose, a Tudorwar- result of the fact that in Europe, a:chaeology is ship built in 1545, was recovered in 1982 near not necessarily thought of as a subtiiscipline of Portsmouth, England. The effort that went into anthropology, as it is in the United States, butas its preservation represents an excellent model of a science and art in its own right. The Europeans interdisdplinary research and project man- have used remote sensing methods, including agement. aerial photography and photogrammetry, since the early decades of this century.34 In addition, West German methods of recording historic the application of magnetometry and electrical structures (so-called measured drawings) are far resistivity to ground survey began earlier in Eur- more complete and result in more accurate and ope. Even some developing countries, such as detailed drawings than U.S. methods. European Indonesia, Peru, and Turkey, which lack the fi- countries have also made extensive use of stereo nancial resources for extensive preservation of photogrammetry to make high-quality drawings their cultural heritage, have made widespreaduse of buildings, monuments, and historic landscapes. of photogrammetry for documenting their public They also use photogrammetry to monitorsecu- buildings. lar changes in buildings and landscapes. Two outstanding underwater archaeological The European preservation community has and maritime conservation efforts in Sweden and been very active in using various forms of remote England are providing models for the Monitor sensing for studying landscapes. For example, the preservation project in the United States. These city of Amsterdam used an airborne infrared cam- two efforts illustrate the level of commitment, era to detect ailing trees in historic parks. Many time, energy, expertise, and funding that are nec- stresses to plants, trees, and shrubs are apparent essary in first-rate conservation of submerged cul- in the infrared before they appear at visible wave- tural resources. The Wasa is a well-preserved lengths. In the United States, such techniques Swedish warship built in 1628 and recovered vir- have been used to detect crop stress in corn and tually intact from Stockholm Harbor in 1961. It other agricultural commodities. was the first such recovery of its type and size Foreign experiences with preservation tech- ever realized and has proved the model for sub- niques, methods, and equipment should be ex- sequent ship recovery projects. Most of the ad- amined closely for possible transfer Ito U.S. appli- vances in technology for the long-term conser- cations. The 'Jnited States would ako benefit by vation of submerged materials were achieved increased cooperation with other nations in developing and testing new preservation methods.

31For example, the University of Bradford in England. 34However, within the United States, recent advances, stemming 35The MONITOR National Marine Sanctuary in Perspective, Dr. in part from the advent of remote sensing from space (in 1972) and Nancy Foster, Chief, Sanctuary Programs Division, Office of Ocean the development of the associated computer software have en- and Coastal Resource Management, National Oceanic and Atmos- hanced the U.S. application of such data for archaeology. pheric Administration.

A CENTRALIZED CONSERVATIONFACILITY The previous discussion led all five workshops opment of advanced technologies, the training to conclude that a new institution (or expansion of professionals in their use, and the dissemina- of an existing institution's mandate)or center is tion of accurate technical information. Several needed that would foster the research and devel- museums maintain first-rate analytical facilities for

50 Ch. 2Background 39 conserving artifacts, but no comparable facility ing chapter, most workshop participants agreed exists for conserving sites, structures, and land- that a center for preservatior technology should scapes. be federally supported, primarily because of the large stake the Federal Government has in foster- Chapters 3 through 6 discuss numerous pres- ing and guiding excellence in preservation. ervation problems that such a center might work on. As discussed in more detail in the conclud-

ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT During the workshops, and especially in pre- future research, interpretation, and public enjoy- paring the draft workshop reports, it became clear ment. The primary concern expressed by the that the boundaries between each broad subject many contributors to this study is the rapidity with area are becoming increasingly indistinct. Those which historic structures and landscapes, as well who seek to preserve prehistoric and historic as archaeological sites, are being destroyed as a sites, structures, and landscapes share many result of land development, vandalism, looting, problems in obtaining access to information erosion, and other human and natural causes. about technologies, training, and coordination This chapter discusses the cultural resources man- of research in new techniques. In addition, they agement and law enforcement issues related to share most of the same technologies. Finally, they such losses, and presents several advantages and all experience the constraints of ever more limited limitations of technology in mitigating them. funding and lack of coordinated Federal policy Computers are only beginning to affect pro- and implementation. Hence, it seemed appro- foundly the conduct of prehistoric and historic nriate to organize this report, which focuses on ,s-gvation technologies, around the issues preservation. Chapter 5: Preservation Information examines the part computers and other technol- raised by the technologies themselves, and how they are applied in the various stages of the re- ogies for storage and retrieval of data and infor- search and preservation process, rather than mation play in preservation. force discussion of these issues into a disciplinary Educating the public, who provide most of the mode. funding for prehistoric and historic preservation, on the results of preservation research and treat- The Chapters ments, is a crucial component of prehistoric and historic preservation. Chapter 6: Public Educa- Chapter 3: Research explores issues concerning tion addresses the role technologies play in public technologies utilized in discovering, recording, education, and making such learning enjoyable and analyzing sites, structures, and landscapes. as well as meaningful. Many of the most dramatic recent advances in The Federal Government provides much of the applying technologies to preservation, such as re- leadership for historic preservation. Chapter 7: mote sensing, geographic information systems, Technology and Preservation Policy examines the and predictive modeling, have been made dur- issues raised in the previous chapters and discusses ing the discovery stage of the research process. options for improving the implemention of cur- Chapter 4: Restoration, Conservation, Mainte- rent Federal preservation policy. It also suggests nance, and Protection explores the many tech- and analyzes new policy avenues Congress might niques, methods, and equipment required for wish to explore. Finally, it discusses State, local, conserving and protecting cultural resources for and private sector contributions to preservation.

51 40 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

OTA selected a review panel, composed of par- local agencies, the universities, private firms, and ticipants from each workshop, to review the final organizations who provided information or re- draft of the report. In addition, the draftwas sent viewed portions of this report in draft. Their help- to a variety of others, both within and outside ful and timely comments and suggestions are an of government, who reviewed selected portions. important part of this report. OTA is grateful to the workshop participants and to the many others from Federal, State, and

5 2 Chapter 3 Research

53 Contents

Page Introduction 43 Technologies for Discovery 43 Archival Research and Oral Histories 43 Remote Sensing (Space, Aerial, and Geophysical Methods) 44 Predictive Modeling 54 Identification and Survey of Submerged Cultural Resources 56 Documentation and Analysis 59 Technologies 60 Issues 70 Archaeology 70 Underwater Archaeology 72 Historic Structures 72 Landscapes 74

List of Tables Table No. Page 5. Representative Technologies for Identification and Survey 44 6. Remote Sensing Instruments 45 7. Technologies for Gathering and Analyzing Data 60 8. Technologies for Analyzing the Physical Condition of Wood 63 9. Technologies for Analyzing the Physical Condition of Masonry 64 10. Technologies for Analyzing the Physical Condition of Reinforced Concrete 65 11. Technologies for Analyzing the Physical Condition of Iron and Steel 66 12. Dating Prehistoric Sites 67 13. Major Equipment of the National Bureau of Standards' Center for Building Technology 74

List of Figures Figu re No. Page 1. Diagram of the Electrnmagnetic Spectrum 46 2. Categories of Historic Landscapes 75 C. Research 71

excavation more efficient, more complete, and to collect material such as so,, ores, and pro- more objective. Excavation methods have im- file peels, that might be an IsyLed later by micro- proved over time and ai't- increasingly designed tech niques under development today. Some ar- to preserve more of a given site from the destn!c- chaeologists have made and stored collections tion resulti-ng frorm-excavation: cf soils and cores, but this practice -,nr)ears He the exception rather than the ri st.h 2. Data recording methods shoulci be im- procedures generally taught schools proved to make them more comnplete today. Here again, archaeolog o stand more ardize the collection and rem , samples New also allow archaediogists to so material from one site may be compared with standardize r,roces,F, of gathering data so they that from another.

are less prort . to do onsite interpreta'jon that Material from each excavation is unique from could lead to9ias in their final resuits. Standard- a biophysical and biochemical point of view, so ization is espe,.. ially important as other archaeol- the requiremenis of data colledion at a site can ogists cannot a:plicate the excavation of a given become very specific. Archaeologists are well site. Even sites that are similar and located in the trained in recovering artifacts, but only relatively same geographical area are unique in many as- recently have they begun to turn their attention pects. By contrast, the science cf physics or as- to the geological, biophysical, biochemical ma- tronomy devnds on the scientist's ability to terial. They need experience in the relevant dis- check each other's work by repllcating crudal cipline to do this. It is otherwise too easy to make experiments or observations. mistakes in deciding exactly Nkhat to collect and I mprovertnts are espedally needed in tech- how to collect and process it. With advanced dat- nologies for constructing accurate th ree-dirnen- ing techniques such as radiocarbon, thermolumi- sional maps in the field in order to accurately nescence, and obsidian hydration, for example, locate artifacts found on a surface or within a it is increasingly important to know more about room, because the ,,:xact p,acement of an artifact the surrounding biochemical environment, be- may provide clu(% as to how it was used. cause techniques now in development use much more sensitive equipment that can date much One simple, relatively inexpensive technique smaller samples than in the past. for recording field data is to use bar code generators to produce bar codes in the rield for the pur- 4. Remote sensing and other locational tech- pose of characterizing artifacts. The bar code can nologies can be used by looters as well as then be attached to the artifact for identification professional archaeologists. in the lab!' Rec.c.rding the excavation with photo- Unfortunately, the same remote sensing tech- graphs or video cameras allows later interpreta- nologies that are available for preservation can tion in the laboratory.72 Orthophotographic tech- be used for increased looting of archaeological niques, which allow recording of an excavation sites because many of the data (e.g., the Landsat by mc:ans of overhead stereo cameras, need to data and most aerial photos) are available to the be made cheaper. public. As archaeologists improve their sophisti- 3. Adequate samples should be collected for cation in remote sensing techniques, so too will lacer analysis. those who wish to exploit cultural resources for personal gain. Scientific methods for archaeology are now becoming sophisticated enough that it is profitable This is particularly true for shipwrecks, given the currently clouded legal situation vis-a-vis ti- "Bar code readers and generators are now available even for tle to submerged cultural resources (see Chap- portable lap computers. Lap computers can also be used to record data and for ccritrolling processes in the field. ter 7: Technology and Preservation Policy). As 72For example, color video technology, which allows one to see long as salvors and artifact hunters are allowed changes in soil color as the excavation takes place may improve to recover the contents of shipwrecks in U.S. the accuracy of interpretation of the site. Three-dimensional holo- grams for recording excavation information might also improve the waters they will employ a variety of advanced excavation p rocess. technologies for finding shipwrecks and their con- 83 72 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

tents. At this point, those who would protect should not excavate unless they can ensure and these aspects of U.S. cultural history are not gen- specify within a research design, that the mate- erally finding these sites first and therefore can- rials recovered from the marine environment can not protect them. In States where laws against be properly housed, conserved, and maintained. the looting of historic shipwrecks within designated waters are strongly enforced, improved As one archaeologist has complained: monitoring and surveillance equipment (see In the real world of shipwreck archaeology, Chapter 4: Restoration, Conservation, Mainte- the commitment to excavation is developed be- nance, and Protection) would aid underwater ar- fore the conceptualization ofsignificant ration- chaeologists and cultural resource managers in ale for doing it. This is understandable in a CRM developing strategies to safeguard shipwreck sites [cultural resources management] milieu, i.e., from illegal intrusion. some sort of mitigation must be carried out on a site threatened by dredging or other bottom disturbing construction activities. This, however, Underwater Archaeology is actually rarely the case; usually an institutional researcher has obtained money to excavate a 1. Underwater archaeology is highly depen- shipwreck, then he may or may 7;ot develop a dent on advanced technology. comprehensive statement on why he is goir. o More than any other presrvation field, under- excavate itbut usuafly not." water archaeology depend; on a wide array of cosfly techniques and equipment. Underwater Historic Structures archaeologists confront a host of practical problems, even dangers, that their colleagues work- .Nondestructive analytical techniques need to ing on dry land do not. These problems relate be developed for studying historic structures. to underwater environmental conditions and in- Given the pace of rehabilitation spurred by clude breathing, currents, cold, depth, turbidity, preservation tax incentives and the sometimes and hostile marine animals; they also relate to rapid degradation of some materials from air and time limitations on research and the degree to water-borne pollutants, the need for more power- which remains might be buried beneath sedi- ful, nondestructive analytical techniques for de- ments or concretion. termining the nature, rxtent, causes, and results The available technologies arc generaliy ade- of deterioration and failure of materials is critical. Currently, relevant technologies range from quate to the preservation tasks but they are often too expensive. In addition, only a small core of relatively simple, inexpensive hand-held moisture professionals experienced in their use is available. meters to sophisticated neutron/gamma-ray detectors. Future research should focus on developing more sensitive, low-cost methods and instrumentation, 2. Knowledge of the behavior of historic build- and on exploiting new sources of information. ing materials is insufficient. 2. A research design is extremely important in Even many preservationists, architects, and determining the appropriate technology tc engineers have a relatively weak grasp of the apply to the study of underwater cultural re- detailed behavior of historic building materials. sources. Recognition of the need for careful, scientific test- In part because underwater archaeology is a ing and monitoring of such materials has emerged only recently. The reactions of historic materials relatively new subdiscipline of archaeology, some underwater archaeologists have given relatively exposed to certain environments have been mis- little attention to developing a detailed research plan, or design. Yet, in the absence of a detailed "Daniel J. Lenihan and Larry Murphy, "Considerations for Re- research design, including plans for curation of search Designs in Shipwreck Archaeology," Underwater Archaeol- ogy: The Challenge Before Us, The Proceedings of the Twelfth Con- excavated materials, the research project may fall ference on Underwater Archaeology, Gordon P. Watts, Jr. (ed.) (San short of its investigator's intent. Archaeologists Marino, CA: Fortran Eight, 1981).

8 4 Ch. 3Research 73

and, therefore, the least durable stones were placed incorrectly at the tops of buildings or within_cornices where they became highly vulnerable to weathering. Poor construction methods, inadequate craftsmanship, and general cor- ner-cutting were almost forced by timeframes and budgets. The installation of incompatible materials in clo-e Proximity to each other has resulted in serious problems. For example, oxidation both stains and damages masonry in contact with iron, steel, and copper. Also, changes over time in building shapes toward flattened facades anc; profiles have all but eliminated highly effective moisture-cnntrolling design features such as project- ing string and belt courses, pediments, and water ..,11114,111311111, )1, r tk tables. "Most systems and products were devel- Syr good 91fradace fm h. oped through trial and error. It was an age of ex- ploitation of building materials and systems. Un- fortunately, we are left with that legacy."74 The National Bureau of Standards' Center for Building Technology is applying some of the most advanced technologies for characterizing the microstructure and the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of organic, inorganic, and composite building materials. They employ an array of complex instruments (table 13) to determine and measure the mechanisms of the degradation and decay of building materials. Photo credit: D. Dwomlk, U.S. Geological Survey 3. Preliminary research into the physical his- Oxfoliation of gypsum crust. Georgia marble baluster atter 75 years of exposure in Washington, DC. The tory of the structure can focus the use of black crust containing gypsum is a result of sulfur technology. dioxide attack on marble. Where construction and repair/rehabilitation documentation has been retained, a search of understood, which has resulted in some serious those records can give basic information on conservation problems today. Corrosive interac- which to build a technological testing program. tions introduced into the environment through For instance, the names of quarries for the vari- new and not yet fully monitored industrial and ous types of stone in many of the monuments lo- chemical processes are compounding these cated in the Mall area of Washington, DC, came problems. from construction documents saved by the Army in addition, many of the Nation's historic build- Corps o! Engineers and the National Park Serv- ings erected between the 1880s and early 1940s ice. In a few cases, the specific vein at the quarry were the results of intense competition among could be identified. This information allows product manufacturers, architects, and builders, many of whom closely guarded the secrets of "See Baird M. Smith, "Diagnosis of Nlonstructural Problems in their proprietary designs and processes. This was Historic Masonry Buildings," Conservation of Historic Stone Build- a very active period in building. Because buildings, Report of the Committee on Conservation of Historic Stone ing materials were not generally tested, their Buildings and Monuments, Nlational MaterialsAdvisory Board, Com- mission on Engineering and Technical Systems, Nlational Research strengths and shortcomings were not fully under- Council (Washington, DC: Nlational Academy Press, 1982), pp. stood. Often, for example, the most easily carved 212-214. 85 74 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Table 13.Major Equipment of the Landscapes National Bureau of Standards' Centerfo Building Technology The survey of U.S. prehistoric and historic land- scanning electron and light microscopes scapes is still in its infancy. In part as a sult of X-ray diffractometer the lack of adequate survey, the con= :icy for thermal analyzers locating and preserving significant hi, i)r land- ultraviolet visible and Fourier transform infrared spec- trophotometers scapes has not yet developed fully, though it is mechanical testing machines giJwing.75 An interdisciplinary team approach is environmental cabinets needed in which anthropologists, archaeologists, accelerated weather;ng chamber:, gel permeation chromatograph architects, and historians work together with ion and gas chromatographs landscape architects in conducting a broad-based digital data-collection systems survey of American landscapes.76 minicomputers and microcomputers image analyzer There are three basic steps in identifying his- SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment. toric landscapes: 1. identifying and accessing records of the managers to use chemical testing much more spe- known resources; cifically because the material has been so closely 2. identifying previously unidentified historic identified before the testing starts. landscapes; and 4. The sharing of technologies can make more 3. recording, storing, and augmenting the newly advanced documentation and analysis of acquired data. historic structures available. After being identified (see figure 2), the signifi- (.:ulf Islands National Seashore, for example, cance of the landscape must be evaluated against hz.s cooperative agreements with many Horida criteria developed for the National Register of State bureaus to carry out sophisticated exami- Historic Places." nations on their historic structures. Participants in this assessment raised the fol- 5. Historic structures frequently include addi- lowing issues related to the discovery and anal- tions or have lost portions that reflect an on- ysis of prehistoric and historic landscapes: going process of use and change. 1. Public officials and individuals are often un Technologie; that can help to illuminate that aware of the value and significance o: process of development over time by showing historic landscapes. where and how changes and additions have been Traditionally,historic preservationists have made will help to reveal the richness of social and worked from the grassroots. They have built lo- cultural change. The documentation and analy- cal constituencies that have insisted on the value sis of those changes can also be used to commu- of a given structure or archaeological site and nicate the story of the structure to a wider audience through information developments. "See, for example, Eleanor M. Peck, Keith Morgan, and Cyn- thia Zaitzevsky (eds.), Olmsted in Massachusetts: The Public Legacy 6. Historic structures should be viewed and (Brookline, MA: Massachusetts Association for Olmsted Parks, 1983), analyzed in the context of their seitirrT, for an example of a State inventory of a specific class of designed landscapes. rather than as single buildings divorced from 7601msted Historic Landscape Preservation Program: Guidelines their milieu. and Criteria for Implementation (Boston, MA: Commonwealth of Massachusetts Office of Environmental Affairs, April 1985). Thus, many of the techniques involved with "Timothy Keller and Genevieve P. Keller, "How To Evaluate and landscapes (see below) can be applied to struc- Nominate Designed Historic Landscapes," National Register of Historic Places Bulletin 18, U.S. Department of the Interior, Na- tures and sites as well. tional Park Service, in press. Ch. 3Reseerch 75

Figure 2.Categories of Historic Landscapes

Treatment .2a to

a) aCo Typical landscape 0 preservation projects Mary 1A,Pr hington House, Fredericksburg, VA Residential grounds GWSM The G. Club of Virginia Statue of Liberty, New York, NY Monument grounds p- p- Norman T. Newton National Park Service Original Governor's Mansion, Helena, MT Public building grounds p- Richard E. may& Montana State Parks Division Stratford Garden Restoration, Potomac River, VA Garden GWSM, The Garden Club of Virginia Minor public grounds Pioneer Square, Seattle, WA (e.g., town square, parklet, traffic circle) Jones & Jones City of Seattle Sannonburg Gardens, Canandaigua, NY Botanical garden P° Noredo A. Rotunno Sannonburg Gardens Committee Fort Stanwix National Monument, Rome, NY Fort ,-- ,.... t,. Dureya & Wilhelmi, P.C. National Park Service Rosebud Battlefield, Montana Battlefield Richard E. Mayer Montana State Parks Division Cemeteries, New Harmony, IN Dernetery t,. t,. Kane & Carruth, P.C. \ Main Street Project, Hot Springs, SI) Preservation/Urban/Design, Inc. Streetscape t,. t,. National Trust Chicago Mid-West Office Gamble Plantation, Manatee County, FL Estate r t,. t,. Lane L. Marshall & Associates, Inc. State of Florida Cherokee Park RestonAtion, Louisville, KY Park t,. t,. t,. Johnson, Johnson & Roy, Inc. Louisville Metropolitan Park & Recreation Board Old World Wisconsin, Eagle, WI Workirg farm William H. TIshier Sta.e Historical Soclay of Wisconsin Williamsburg, VA Shurcliff, Hopkins, Parker, Barton & Belden Museum village I, I, I, Staff Landscape Architects Colonial Williamsburg Foundation Heritage Square, Los Angeles, CA District Merrill W. Winans Cultural Heritage Foundation Town of New Harmony, New Harmony, IN Town Kane & Carruth, PL. Cahokia Mounds, near East St. Louis, IL Prehistoric site I, I, Edward J. Keating Illinois Department of Conservation Survey Olmsted Parks System, Buffalo, NY Path..la M. O'Donnell Park system Highways, Parks & Recreation Historical Preservation Division & Landmark Society of the Niagara Frontier SOURCE: Landscape Architecture January 1981. 76 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

sought State or National help in preserving it. of the fact that they are settings for historic str uc- However, in landscapes, the local constituency tures. In some cases, the landscape may have that identifies landscape value often do not ex- greater significance than the structure. ist, in part because adequate information is not available. For example, in the case of designed The contents of the National Register are now historic landscapes, most people are unaware 'n a computer database, which should make it that they were designed, and why it may be impossible to locate nearly all landscapes listed in portant to maintain the integrity of that design. the National Register. Improving local and na- For cultural or vernacular landscapes, the local tional databases and making historical data gen- constituency may appreciate their significance erally more available should improve the qual- the least just because they are so familiar. ity and extent of landscape preservation. Where a constituency has developed, it has 3. Landscape study is highly interdisciplinary. often acted to enlarge the scope of historic dis- The study of prehistoric and historic landscapes tricts. For example, in Jefferson County, Ken- requires the use of a variety of information sources, tucky,78 a site consisting of a few farm houses and including folklore, oral history,79 historic maps, auxiliary buildings was nominated to the Regis- drawings, and paintings, climate information, tax ter. However, the local people realized that the records, and ethnohistorical accounts. Analysis houses had little to do with the significance of draws on a variety of techniques, including so- the area. They considered the agricultural pat- ciological techniques, environmental design, and terns, the associations of the families, the stone- a variety of geographical techniques developed work, the fences, and other components as sig- for the analysis of land cover and landforms. This nificant. The local people, working through their characteristic is one of the strengths of landscape certified local government (CLG), did the research preservation. Because landscapes often transcend necessary to expand the scaof the nomination political boundaries, they may be profitably stud- to a 400- to 500-acre .)istrict. 11- : landscape ele- ied on a regional, as well as multidisciplinary, ba- ments became major (.cmpor -h. , imparting sig- sis. The study of landscapes and the study of ecol- nificance to the distri.;:t ogy both share such a regional scope.80 As citizens become ,.noreare of the influ- 4. Landscapes are subject to a variety of stresses ence of historic larrsc 0; tnziir hes and land- that change their condition and character over scapes' importance zole history of the Niz,tion, time. nominations to the National Register of kitorir ?laces are likely to increase in number Because landscapes can change so radically over time as a result of urban development, the growth of bushes and trees, and wind and rain 2. Landscape records are often poorly stored erosion (see Chapter 4: Restoration, Conserva- and cataloged. tion, Maintenance, and Protection for discussion One of the important components of survey- of such stresses), it may be extremely difficult to ing the States for additional significant historic locate the full extent of cultural and historic de- landscapes is to be aware of those already cata- signed landscapes in the midst of radically altered loged. Uniortunately, the state of knowledge of surroundings and successive changes. Landscapes sites ,;o idenAied is quite poor; until quite re- may either increase or decrease in significance cently, P- wa, not possible to use even the Na- depending on their integrity and surroundings. tional Register of Historic Places as a source to compile a iist of significant landscapes because the Register does not list them as landscapes but "See, for example, MaiHufford, "Culture and Cultivation of Nature: Th.:: Pinelands National Reserve," Folklife Annual 1985 structures, if at all. In many cases, landscapes (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1985). are included on the National Register by virtue "For example, several rivers that start in the Blue Ridge Moun- tains of Virginia empty into the Atlantic in North and south Caro- 78Timothy Keller, Land and Community Associates, personal com- lina. The environmental problems caused by human use of these munication, 1986. rivers are indeed regional.

88 Ch. 3Research 77

One of the biggest technical problems in un- original extent, form, and contents. For example, derstanding cultural landscapes is that different the existence of the terraced garden associated cultural components of the same landscape are with the Paca House, the winter home of Wil- generally associated with several different periods liam Paca, one of the signers of the Declaration of history. Both cultural and ecological factors can of Independence, in the city of Annapolis, was cause irreve:sible changes that further complicate- well known from 18th century historical ac- study of the landscape. Disentangling these vari- counts. However, when restoration of the Paca ous components and understanding how different House began in 1965, the original garden was ages shaped the landscape to fit their purposes buried under a parking lot and only a few details can be a formidable task. Unless researchers can of its extent, form, and contents were provided untangle the various components of different in these writings. No drawing of the garden ex- periods it is nearly impossible to reconstruct a isted. The current Paca garden is a conjectural landscape perfectly for any one period.81 reconstruction developed from detailed archaeol- For example, one study82 of the historic land- ogy of the immediate area and considerable his- scapes around Mont Dardon in southern Bur- torical research on the types of flowers, shrubs, gundy found that the pre-Christian era Celts re- and trees that Paca would have likely planted.83 sponded to the land much differently than their 6. The techniques appropriate to different size Roman conquerors, who altered the landscape landscapes are different. to suit their military needs. The Celts preferred to live on the more easily defendable heights, but Cultural Landscapes.Computer modeling the Romans forced them to move into the val- and remote sensing techn:lues provide a power- leys where their army could control them more ful s,:_1 of tools for the interpretation and evalua- easily. Inhabitants from the Middle Ages and the tion of cultural landscapes, which may exten ' modern periods in their turn dramatically altered over hundreds or thousands of acres. An impor- the Roman landscape. Even in North America, tant goal of the investigator of a prehistoric or where written recorec, are only a few hundred historic landscape is to be able to "read" the years old, cultural manipulation of the landscape landscape for the clues (or signatures) it gives to may involvE many different cultures extending the relationships human sock:lies bear to the land more tha:, 1:.:,000 years into the past. and how they interact with and alter it over time. Technology can aid that process by making the 5. Approt ie application of existing technology varieties of information about landscapes much is imporrant. more accessible. Such systems can be used to The loc.:ions of many designed gardens or plot the potential changes to a landscape as a re- parks are known because they are part of local sult of plant growth, grazing, forestry, and other lore. However, they may be buried, or so altered temporal alterations of landscape components. in appe2rance that they are unrecognizable. In In discussing the use of such advanced tech- these cases, landscape arrhiteccs and historians niques, participants in this study noted that many employ well-known, standaH a-chaeological and administrators who control the purse strings re- historical research technique-) Lc) determine their gard GIS, remote sensing, and othei advanced methods as expensive, yet for large areas, it can 81For example, 17th century Salem, MA, had stcuctures and land be one of the cheapest methods for gathering use patterns which originated in, and were characconstic of, the data, especially because it allows access to in- 16th century. formation impossible to retrieve in any eiher way. 82Carole L. Crumley, "Archaeological Reconnaissance at Mont Dardon, France," Archaeology, May-June 1983, pp. 14-17, 20; and Public administrators need to understand how re- Scott L.H. Madly, "Remote Sensing in Archaeology," Archaeol- mote sensing may b.,- "''ve in certain ap- ogy, May-June 1983, pp. 18-19. They used reote sensing and com- plications. They alsu iderstand the limi- puter analysis, as well as traditional historical and archaeological research methods, to investigate the patterns of two millenia of settlement and land use in the area. Their goal was to illuminate the ways in which different cultures have defineJ and used the local McDougald, 'William Pau.' s Colonial Gard2o," landscape. Living, May 1984.

8 9 78 Technologies tor Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

William Pace House and Garden, Annapolis, MD

1 'MVT:r31,

Photo credit: Rey A. Williamson After being buried under a 200-room hotel, a parking lot, and bus station, this 18th century garden was restored in the 19705 based on the results of careful research by archaeologists, architects, landscape architects, and historians. tations of such technology in order to avoid priate to a given historic period and region is one applying it inappropriately. of the major tasks facing landscape proserva- tionists. Their task is complicated by the fact that Designed Landscapes.For historic parks, plant taxonomies have changed radically over gardens, and other designed landscapes, remote time. In addition, thousands of varieties of trees, sensing and GIS find less application. Searches shrubs, and plants have been introduced into the of historical records and traditional archaeologi- United States from other parts of the world over cal and botanical techniques are the techniques the past 200 years. Certain varieties, such as the of choice. Many of these techniques may be im- American chestnut, have virtually died out. Fi- pr9ved through the innovative use of computer nally, locating historic varieties is rendered more I dware and software. (See, for example, Chap- intricate by the fact that many varieties now sold ter 5: Preservation Information.) are hybrids. There is a critical need to develop appropriate databases on the types of plantings Historic landscape analysis and evaluation also used in historic times, and current sources of require the identification, study, and retrieval of historic plant stock. There is also a strong need historic plant types. Identifying the plants appro- to encourage growing the stock itself.

9 0 Ch. 3Research 79

tote/141(111MM 4,'t.ilf,r4mAae PO0900000 Of!' A. 41,t4'.44

iff 'iff1111-.11111111,10,1

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Photo credit: Jon D. Findley Cultural landscape: the Find:ey Homestead, Dallas County, Iowa, early 1980s.

7. Qualitative techniques have an important 8. Known technologies can be adapted for role in the study of landscapes. computer and other applications. In analyzing a landscape for such purposes as One of the major tasks facing landscape preser- restoration or park redesign, it is important to be vationists is to adapt known technologies to new aware of the varied cultural values of the local settings. For example, the use of pinbar registra- citizens. Qualitative anthropological or historical tion techniques to produce overlays is well techniques, such as interviewing, can be used to known to architects and landscape architects. understand the values of the different constitu- Such merlay drafting techniques allow landscape encies to relate them to the needs of the entire architects to produce different drawings for differ- community. For publicly owned landscapes, such ent landscape components (e.g., structures, walls, techniques applied ir, conjunction with those of trees, and shrubs) and then overlay them on one the landscape architect or designer may signifi- another. Because they are line drawings, pinba, cantly enrich the quality of the preservation ef- drawings can easily be digitized for manipulation fort.84 in a minicomputer or microcomputer using computer-aided design software. They can be used to compare historical drawings with the current "See Scott S. Weinberg, "Environmental Quality Points: A Land condition of the landscape. With the computer, Management System," Landscape Architecture Magazine, May/June and the appropriate software, it is possible to vary 1985, pp.97-98. For a iliore complete treatment, F.ee Scott S. Wein- berg, "Environmental Quality Points," manuscript, Sch 1 of Envi- the scale, add and subtract components, and ronmental Design, University of Georgia, 1985. print out the results on a variety of printers. ChapRer 4 Re or on9Cons rmantn, kdenefiro r 'Rea(0)

9 2 Contents

Page Introduction 83

Threats_ to Cultural Resources 83 Human Threats Natural Threats 87 Restoration, Conservation, :ind Maiiin ince 89 Archaeology 92 Underwater Archaeolo 93 Historic Structures 95

Landscapes. 99 Pretejon From Dehbera Destruction 101 ftchnologies for Secur0 101 Law Enforcement 103

93 Chapter 4 est r'lion, Conservation, ainterlace rotection

INTRODUCTION

The United States possesses myriad striking, sig- cause. Akhough each discipline involved in the nificant prehistoric sites and structures, restored preservation process has its own specific inter- historic houses, public buildings, monuments, ests and requirements for technology, success- bridges, parks, and landscapes. Yet it has lc ful long-term cukural resource protection include many more of these important cultural resourcf- three basic components, each of which uses a which were just as reflective of significant historic variety of technologies: values and became the victims of neglect, delib- 1. identification and analysis of the primary erate destruction, or of conflicting community threats to cukural resources; values. 2. evaluation, resolution, or mitigation of spe- Preservation of cultural resources involves res- cific threats; and toration, conservation, and maintenance. It may 3. public education and involvement. require extraordinary means, such as diverting Each component must be integrated with an a streambed to protect properties from severe overall set of strategies for confronting, manag- erosion or law enforcement procedures to appre- ing, and reducing the enormous stresses on hend and prosecute looters and vandals. This America's cultural resource base. Pubhc educa- chapter identifies the primary human and natu- tion, which is an essential part of the Nat;on's ral threats to cultural resources, and discusses the preservation effort, is discussed in chapter 5. technologies that can be brought to bear to slow, reduce, or eliminate the damage such threats

THREATS TO CULTURAL RESOURCES U.S. cultural resources are subject to a multi- dug for ancient pots, baskets, or other salable tude of human and natural stresses (tables 14 and items.2 15). The United States is entering a critical period Economic pressures in other areas have com- when the many forces operating to destroy im- pelled property owners and real-estate devdopers portant cukural resources may outweigh the ef- to achieve the "highest and best," use of land. forts to preserve them for future generations. As That has often meant the most immediately prof- one archaeologist noted, "The next generation itable use. Until the first of several preservation cannot study or preserve what has already been tax incentives became avaHable in 1976, the high d,ntroyed."1 For example, fewer than 10 percent costs of maintaining historic buildings often meant of the known prehistoric Mimbres sites in south- their demolition and replacement with modern, western New Mexico are still intact. Southeast- low maintenance structures that were often out ern Utah has experienced sustained losses of its of place in the neighborhood. Urban parks, prehistoric resources More than 60 percent of which contain both landscape and structural ele- the ancient Anasazi sites of the region have been ments, are subject to increased visitation, both

'Charles McGirnsey, Public Archaeology 3, 1972. See also testi- 2Carol Ann Bassett, "The Culture Thieves," Science '86, uly/Au- mony in hearings on Archzeological Resources Protection Act, 1979. gust 1986, pp. 22-29.

83 9 4 84 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Table 14.Human.Generated Threats to ronmental causes. All of these threats can be sig- Cultural Resources8 nificantly reduced by the appropriate application Agriculture q1ect of technology. Beautification C,o111 ;air and water) Construction Pint...ation activities Demolition n al technologies Human Threats (e.g., cilroad vehicles, Energy generation metal detectors, etc.) Visitation Fencing Rehabilitation or retrofitting Fire Site compaction Over time, visitor amenities, even the wear and Firefighting Timber cutting tear of visitors' shoes, can do enormous damage Fire rehabilitation Theft to the integrity of any archaeological site, historic Grazing Vandalism Mining Visitation structure, or landscape. Managing such stresses SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment. to cultural resources requires attention to the va- rietiff of inadvertent harm visitors do and the devt.lopment of methods to mitigate them. Cultural Table 15.Natural Threats to Cultural Resources :,-soult:e managers must often balance the on- Climate Freeze/thaw cycles ,osing requirements of :ncouraging visitors by Salt air in coastal Subsidence ..idIng amenities for their safety and comfort, environments Pests discouraging them from imposing varieties Moisture Blight Erosion Fire inadvertent harm to the resource. Earthquakes Violent storms (tornadD, Floods hurricane, etc.) Occasionally, historical accuracy must be sac- allot listed In priority order. . itir-Pd to protect certain original features, such as flooring and staircases from wear and deterioration caused by heavy visitation.3 minor and major vandalism, and arson. Incre:KPrl development in urban, suburban, and eve 1i- ,For example, research revealed that the floors at the Paca House ral areas, and (until quite recently) increased oil in Annapolis, MD, home of William Paca, one of the signers of the and gas exploration, have put enormous pres- Declaration of Independence, were never covered, painted, or var- nished; site interpreters, for authenticity, kept them so. However, sures on what is a finite cultural resource base. heavy visitation is causing some wear and has necessitated the adop- The severity of threats to cultural resources tion of protective measures. varies depending on the type and the region of the country in which they are found. In the West and Southwest, looting and vandalism are among the most serious threats to archaeological resources. In the Midwest and East, erosion and construction projects tend to cause more damage. Underwater archaeological resources are un- Mt- der severe stress from salvors and uninformed sport divers. The life expectancy of historic structures, as well as some archaeological sites and landscar is threatened by acidic moisture, generated by the pollutions of an urban, industrial society. In- adequate identitication, visitation, inadequate managerial/maintenance policies, and malicious , destruction are the greatest threats to most land- Photo credit: Hugh C. Miller, National Park Service scapes. Far more serious damage is caused to Minute Man National Historical Park, Concord, cultural resources by human agency, both inten- MA. Structures such as the North Bridge are often tional and unintentional, than by natural, envi- subject to extremely heavy pedestrian traffic. 95 Ch. 4Restoration, Conservation, Mainter,ance, and Protection 0 85

Photograph taken in 1965 of carrara marble capital severely eroded by environmental pollutants. Part of the Merchants Exchange, independence National Historic Park, Philadelphia, PA, erocted 1824.

Inadequate Managerial/Maintenance Practices Managing visitation stresses, maintenance, and restoration requires continuous attention to the needs of the place being preserved. A variety of technologies, including microcomputers, are available to improve such practices and make them more cost-effective. Photo credit: Pugh C. Miller, National Park Service Acid rain monitor at the El...onhower National Historical An Increasingly Acidic Environment Site, part of the Gettysburg Natlooal Military Park, Gettysburg, PA. Prehistoric and historic structures and landscapes which were built before the industrial revolution, were created in an environment now Looting and Vandalism altered by acid depositions. In some cases, this threat may override the separate effects of mois- Illegal activities, including looting and vandal . ture, temperature, and pollutants. The effects of ism, are marked threats to archaeological re- acid precipitation on tangible cultural resources, sources, particularly on public lands in the South- although experienced worldwide, are not yet well west and West. As the pressures of urbanization understood. Preservationists cannot wait for so- h:-..ve increased markedly, so have looting and ciety, government, and/or industry to alleviate the vandalism, in iarge part because of the high value problem, but must help to develop the materi- placed on prehistoric Native American artifacts als, designs, and techniques necessary to within national and internationa/ art markets.' Recent stand an increasingly acidic environment.4 law enforcement investigations reveal that illegal activities on pubhc lands are not solely the work of local individua:s who maintain their own

5lan Graham, "Looters Rob Our Past," National r7eographic, April 4M. Del Monte and 0. Vittori, "Air Pollution and Stone Decay: 1986, pp. 452-460; and Gillett G. Griffin, "In Detense of the Col. The Case of Venice," Endeavor, New Series, vol. 9, No. 3, 1985. lector," National Geographic. April 1986, pp. 462-465.

96 86 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Looters search out and destroy Indian burials because they often yield significant artifacts. They may unearth the bones, leaving them for animals and birds, and often break and scatter archaeological items of low economic value. Unfortu- nately, many of the discarded items can yield

<- more information about past societies than the pots, baskets, and other collectors' items. Yet when ripped from their context, they lose most of their informational content. Participants in OTA's Workshop on Technol- ogies for the Physical Protection of Prehistoric and Historic Sites expressed deep concern about the destruction of U.S. prehistoric and historic sites that results from national and international trafficking in items stolen from public lands. They noted that the problem is worldwide and will require both domestic and international legal action and cooperation. The original location, or provenience, of most stolen Kchaeological artifacts is impossible to prove, making it extremely difficult to stem the sale of illegal artifacts.° The application of law enforcement technology will only slow down the loss of these items. The Convention on Cultural Property Imple- mentation Act9 prohibits importation of stolen cultural property documented as belonging to the inventory of a public monument, museum, or similar institution within a State that is a party to Photo credit: Fred Blackburn, Whits Mesa Institute, Blanding Utah the UNESCO Convention on the Means of Pro- Human skull and bones at looted Anasazi burial site hibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export in southeastern Utah. Graves are attractive sites for and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property pothunters because they may yield high value artifacts. (see Chapter 7: Technology and Preservation Pol- icy). It also restricts archaeological or ethnologi- collections, but may also be sponsored by pri- cal materials from other countries on their request vate museums, collectors, and dealers.° Looters and subsequent agreement by the United States. often have the mechanical means and logistical In the United States, many people who believe capabilities, including four-wheel drive vehicles, that public land should be free to be exploited two-way radios, even light planes, helicopters, by individuals, contribute to the protection prob- and other "recreational" equipment to venture lem. In many areas, individuals have been col- far and quickly into the hinterland. They search lecting from sites on public lands for years.'° out, often quite knowledgeably, the sites with the greatest potential for cultural items and indis- criminately rip them apart,7 sometimes with ex- 8See Graham, op. cit., for an extremely rare case in which an pensive excavation equipment such as backhoes artifact obtained illegally from Rio Azul in Guatemala was traced to that site as a result of decipherment of the Mayan glyphs inscribed and bulldozers. on the piece. 9Public Law 97-446. 6Jim Robbins, "The Great Artifact Grab," Chicago Tribune Maga- "Although southeastern Utah has been the focus of attention re- zine, Aug. 10, 1986. cently (see, for example, Bassett, op. cit.; and Robbins, op. cit., such 7Bassett, op. cit. looting is common in many other States.

97 Ch. 4Restoration, Conservation, Maintenance, and Protection 87

Some families in southeastern Utah were even uals engaged in legal pursuits during the day ap- encouraged to do so earlier in the century by pear to turn to looting and vandalism after work. rnuseurn-based archaeologists and received train- For exarnple, in areas of southeastern Utah where ing in how to dig and what to take out." Some seisrnic tests and explorecory drilling for gas and residents in these areas tend to be highly resis- oil have increased recently, so have the reports tive to Federal or even State interference in their of darnage to sites.13 Federal rnanagers rnay also "recreational" activities. Inconsistent irnplemen- inadvertently contribute to such illegal activities tation and enforcement of national laws often in- by failing to rnonitor properly the le3al uses of c-ease their frustration and contempt for Federal the land. efforts to stop illegal activities. Yet such attitudes could change if Federal managers maintained Hurnan disturbances and technology itself are accelerating the destruction of prehistoric and closer relationships with State and local agencies and with the general public in local comrnuni- historic places. For exarnple, off-road recreational vehicles (four-wheel drive and dirt bikes) both in- ties. In particular, cooperative educational and crease access to remote areas and tear up the sur- research prograrns conducted on federally man- face of the soil, which then erodes rnuch more aged lands and facilities could be effective. readily as a result of wind and rain.14 In addition, One author has noted that in addition to re- some rnodern building techniques and rnateri- search on the rnethods for protecting cultural re- als actually hasten the destruction of historic sources, more inforrnation about the detailed na- buildings (see below). ture of hurnan and natural causes of damage is Most public land is subject to a variety of uses, necessary. She also suggests that behavioral re- sorne of which are more destructive than others. search on vandalisrn rnight lead to the develop- In order to rnake informed decisions concerning ment of more effective strategies to protect against this highly destructive threat to U.S. cultural re- the culturo I resources under their care, managers need better access to inforrnation (see also Chap- sources. Finally, it is important systernatically to ter 5: Preservation Information). They ako need study the results of various atternpts to protect cultural resources in order to improve on pro- to incorporate the results of research on stresses to sites into their managernent plans. Better in- tective design.' 2 formation concerning the docurnented distur- Other Human Threats bances to sites, structures, and landscapes and rnitigation strategies based on such inforrnation Although extremely serious, rnost of the other will also aid rnanagers in presenting their case to threats caused by humans, either intentionally or others. unintentionally, are subject to a variety of Fed- Studies on cultural resource protection should eral controls. Federal and State laws and agency be published in journals and other widely distrib- regulations atternpt to mitigate the effects of corn- rnercial tirnber cutting, grazing, rnining, power uted sources so they will be available to a wicler corn m u nity. generation projects, and oil-and-gas activities on public lands. Natural Threats Unfortunately, many of these controlled activities increase the access to public lands by pot- Erosion hunters and vandals, by creating new roads and Erosion frorn wind and water is a significant nat- tracks into rernote areas. In sorne cases, individ- ural threat to cultural resources. Both historic and prehistoric settlers have chosen to live as close "See Winston B. Hurst, "The Kerr Collection Study: An Archaeo- to water 30U rces as possible, leaving their habitats logical Tale of Woe, and a Study of Burial-Associated Anasazi Cer- amics From the Westwater Drainage," Edge of the Cedars Museum, and associated belongings vulnerable to flood- Blanding, UT, in manuscript. 12Leslie E. Wildesen, "The Study of Impacts on Archaeological Sites," Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 5 (New "OTA site visit, March 1986. York: Academic Press, Inc., 1982), p. 82 ""Wildesen, op. cit., p. 75. 98 88 Technoigies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Table 16.Surficial Bank Deterioration Mechanisms ing and erosion. One of the most devastating forms of erosion is the failure of streambanks.15 Mechanism/description Table 16 presents a list of the mechanisms lead- Abrasion: Solid materials carried by wind or flowing water collide with an dislodge surface soil particies. Abrasion ing to strearnbank erosion. also occurs during shiting of winter ice covers. Biological ianimals): Examples are bank surface destruction Moistuie during overgrazing and by animal burrows and trails. Biological (vegetation): Vegetation normally is conducive to Moisture from the ground and the air in rain surficial stability; exceptions occur during decay of root and humidity of coastal zones is the most dev- material and by tree falls or vegetation patterns that con- centrate or cause turbulence inoverbank flows or astating threat to historic structures.Moisture streamflows. encourages the growth of bacteria and fungi as Chemical:Water and acids in water affect cohesive and other well as insect infestation. Insects, such as termites types of particle-to-particle bonding; bank materiel is removed by dissolution. and beetles, live in wet wood and consume its Debris: Debris gouges, or scrapes material from, bank sur- cellulose, causing its disintegration. In addition, faces as well az causing turbuience and flow concentration. condensation; plumbing leaks fi.om bathtubs, Flow (water): Soil particle remo /al by overbank flows and streamflows Is a major cause of bank surface deterioria- shower stalls, sinks, and water pipes; and im- tion. Quantity of flow, transport capacity, turbulence, properly vented appliances can, if not treated, secondary currents, and wave action (see description be- ruin a structure. Residences, still largely of framc: low) contribute to the rate and location of surficial particle removal. Seepage flows remove surface particles as construction, might constitute major conserva- well as contributing to mass bank failures. tion problems in the future. Poor building prac- Freeze-thaw: Cyclic temperature changes cause fracture due tices are leaving wooden structural and exterior to excessive contraction and expansion and spelling due to successive freezing and thawing of moisture within the members susceptible to moisture.16 Wooden corn- bank. ponents of new construction should be properly Gravity: The stable slope of a cohesionless bank cone.sporyls treated with preservatives, pesticides, and fun- to gravitation stability; for steeper slopes, sal.ace cies roll downslope (raveling). gicides. Human actions (on bank): Certain human actions attack the bankloosening the bank surface material by farming or Moisture can also be of significant concern in other mechanized operation is one example. Other actions landscapes. For example, Monk's Mound in Ohio, may influence natural mechanismsthe deltruction of a the largest prehistoric earthen mound north of protective vegetation cover by livestock overgrazing is one example. Many actions are possible. Mexico, has recently suffered significant damage Human actions (stream channel): Examples of direct actions as a result of rising moisture in the mound. Ris- ate dredging and sand or gravel mining of channel sedi- ing moisture in structures may cause significant ments. ExamWes of indirect actions ate structures and yes- se:propeller motion that cause turbulenceInthe damage to stone." It may also adversely affect streamflow. Many actions are possible. the preservation of prehistoric and historic rock Ice: Ice contributes to abras'ion and debris (sea descriptions art18 (see app. B). above). Ice jams restrict a channel and affect stream and overbank flows. Precipitation: Surficial destruction occurs due to impact by ,5"Final Report to Congress, the Streambank Erosion Control rain or hall as well as during periods of high streamflows Evaluation and Demonstration Act of 1984, Section 32, Public Law and overbank flows. 93-251" U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1981, for a discussion of Waves: Waves due to wind or stream vessel treffic cause sur- some of the major mechanisms and thelr mitigation. ficial deterioration oV the bank ne,..r the stream water ,6Harry B. Moore, Wood Inhabiting Insects in Houses (Washing- surface. ton, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture); Finding and Keeping a Wet-dry: Alternate wetting and drying cause stress and chem- Healthy House, Southern Forest Experiment Station, U.S. Depart- ical effects (see description abore) that result in surface ment of Agriculture, Forem. Service General Technical Report 50- soil particle loosening. 1, 1973. Wind:Surface deterioration by wind is normally small as com- E. Winkler, Stone: Its Properties and Durability in Man's Envi- pared with water flow; however, waves due to wind (see ronment (New York: springer-verlag, 1975). description above) contribute to surficial deterioration. d5ee the extensive discussion concerning moisture damage to souncE: u.s. km/ Corps of Engineers, "Final Report to Congress," The Stream- rock art in Constance S. Silver, The Rock A ,t of Seminole Canyon bank Ercalon Control Evaluation and Demonstration Act of 1974, Sec- State Historical Park: Deterioration and Pr: ispects for Conservation tion 32, Public Law 91251, Exhibit y114, (Austin, TX: Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. February 1985).

9 9 Ch. 4Restoration, Conservation, Maintenance, and Protection 89

RESTORATION, CONSERVATION, AND MAINTENANCE Preservation decisions are influenced by two Systematic, Long-Term Maintenance broad considerations. First, at the level of the site, This is one of the most effective methods of structure, or landscape, cukural resource profes- slowing deterioration from natural and human sionals must generally decide before beginning agencies, because systematic maintenance (fig. excavation or restoration, on the best conserva- 3) can prevent minor problems from becoming tion plan. At a broader ievel, managers charged major ones. It is crucial to the conservation of with preserving cultural resources must consider sites and structures, or the elements of a land- the various goak of preservation and choose scape. Quality of maintehance is as important as appropriate technologies accordingly. Is preser- its regularity.2° vation for future research, for public examination aid appreciation, or is it to satisfy certain legal The designers and builders of many historic requirements? These considerations affect the landscapes, such as parks and gardens, and his- management of sites and the expenditure of toric houses, expected that they would be main- funds. tained by adequate numbers of skiHed personnel. Today, especially when so many historic Although the preservation of artifacts was not properties are owned and maintained by public the subject of this assessment, it is nevertheless agencies, the gardeners and other maintenance important to use the best museum technology to personnel may not have acquired adequate ex- preserve the artifacts and Jther research mate- perience or training. Likewise, contracting stipu- rial that is removed from a property. Some of the lations which limit governmental agencies with- technologies used in conservation of artifacts are out in-house expertise to accepting the services transferable to sites, structures, and landscapes. of lowest bid competitors often result in substand- However, the applications are quite different. 7or ard groundskeeping and maintenance practices. one thing, artifacts in a museum can be maintained in a controlled environment, modifying Because maintenance tends to be labor-inten- light, temperature, and humidity. The much sive, it is important to find ways to reduce the larger scale of sites, structure,, and landscapes, amount of labor required.21 Maintenance stand- and their outdoor settings, bring with them a set ards and plans must be developed and carried of problems not faced in conserving artifacts.19 out by managers professionally trained in tend- ing historic properties. As noted below, the in- Restoration of a designed landscape often increased use of personal computers and specially volves rehabilitation of existing elementsprun- designed software could be extremely helpful in ing and rejuvenation of trees and bushes, dredging of ponds, reconstruction of bridges and walks. It is frequently difficult to find workers who are "Cyclical Maintenance for Historic Buildings, J. Henry Cham- adequately trained to do such work to the stand- bers, AIA, Interagency Historic Arc.hitectural Services Program, Of- ards required in historic settings. Many of these fice of Archaeology and Historic F-!.eservation, National Park Serv- historic skills are being lost. ice, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1976. 21Sleepy Hollow Restorations, in New York State, has reduced its total labor force by developing a program of maintenance that employs two levels of skills. For the basic grounds, the orga n;.zation uses grounds maintenance employees with only moderate train- 19A striking example of this is seen in the Maya carvings from Yu- ing and skills.It employs college graduLtes for maintaining the catan. Mexico. Maya cities were co.ttructed from limestone, the historic gardcns. AV.nough the latter command higher salaries, their predorMaant structural material found in the Yucatan. When, in higher skill and vofessional interest in historic gardens more than the course of excavation, the limestone is exposed to the atmos- repays the extra ;nvestment. In the winter, when maintenance needs phere, it begins to deteriorate. In many cases, bas-relief carvings are less demanding, these workers carry out research projects that exposed at the turn of the century and left onsite have virtually they can apply to improving the historic gardens (e.g., searching disappeared as a result of constant exposure to the elements. By out the original garden plantings and determining modern sources). contrast, those from the same era that were stored in a museum Because such workers generally possess higher communications context have been maintaine ' in new .y the same condition in which skills, they are also more effective in communicatir.g required main- they were found. (Peter Schmidt, Museo Regional Instituto Nacional tenance tasks to outside contractors who trim the large trees and Antropologia y Historia, Yucatan, personal communication, 1986.) do other specialized work. 100 90 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Figure 3.The Maintenance Cycle

Inspection daily monthly annually weekly quarterly bi-annualy recognize and analyze faults and symptoms continuous monitoring as required

Implementation Programming execution of the work priorities specifications supervision research estimates site changes planning money documentation construction drawing final inspection Scheduling operationalmaterials, equipm-mt, people whc, what, when, how with wnat, what else?

SOURCE: National Park Service. improving the quality and quantity of main- Site Management.Maintenance planning and tenance. management computer software can assist in long-term maintenance. For example, a computer- Computer Technology ized management plan for a landscape would allow landscape managers to factor in a number The computer can be an extremely effective of tasks on a cyclical basis. Each different spe- tool for predicting possible effects uf stresses to cies of tree, shrub, and plant requires a different an area, planning for the management of main- treatment. Structures such as houses, barns, tenance, and enhancing restoration and rehabili- bridges, pavilions, and interpretive centers re- tation. quire yet a different set of maintenance strate- Visitation.By using a computer to examine gies. The computer allows computation of needed the wear patterns caused by known human traf- labor resources based on assumptions about fic in given areas, technicians can develop pa- maintenance standards and landscape systems, rameters of wear under a variety of conditions. and provides the capacity to match up such Managers car then ask the computer to simulate needs with available labor. It also enables man- the amount of wear different areas of the land- agers to develop a schedule for maintenance that scape or structure might sustain as a result of the takes into account the level of education and same amount of traffic. Such information might skills of the maintenance personnel. then be used to predict how best to channel vis- Expert systems (see Chapter 5: Preservation In- itor traffic. or which areas might better handle formation) might be especially effective for c!e- expected park visitors. signing plans for certain maintenance tasks, espe- Vandalism.Experience with a particular his- cially those that call for highly specific, readily toric property provides a variety of clues about describable techniques. which parts suffer the greateFt risk of vandalism. Computer-Aided DesigniDrafting (CADD). Such information can be introduced into a com- This technology is aiding architects and engineers puter model that can then be used to predict involved in historic structural restoration and re- other areas of great risk from vandalism. habilitation through the Federal Government's Ch. 4Restoration, Conservation, Maintenance, and Protection 91 historic preservation tax incentives program. O driftwood facing, Their proposals, supported by drawings, plans, O sandbags and woven fabric, and specifications, must undergo strict assess- o GEUWEB, and ment for approval by the various design review O vegetation around underwater sites. groups within local preservation committees, Although many of the above methods would State Historic Preservation Offices, and the Na- be unsuitabk . for the long-term preservation of tional Park Service. Drawings and views in per- certain hictoric landscape features, the use of tem- spective are time-consuming and expensive to p^rak y n.dthods such as the emplacement of cer- prepare but constitute important components of tam forms of woven fabric, the use of tire mat- the rehabilitation certification process. tresses, or fencing, might prove i...ppropriate in CADD software enables designers to complete some locations until vegetation growth resumed. three-dimensional computer models of the build- The historic earthworks at Fort Foote, MD, were ings on which they are working, simulating or stabilized in this fashion. rotating to any selected view of height or dis- tanLe perspective or isometric. All perspectives Cultural Resources Monitoring can be reproduced on a line plotter with or with- Monitoring of archaeological resources, struc- out "hidden" iines. This technology dramatically tures, and landscapes is essential for their efficient cuts the time and expense routinely associated management. The specific appropriate technol- with completing hand renderings. For example, ogy will differ for each type of cultural resource, CADD allows one practitioner to produce over but the overall goal is the sameto contribute a dozen drawings in 1 day. Normally, three pro- to the protection of the resource. fessionals require 3 days to produce three architectural drawings.22 As noted in Chapter 3: Research, because many archaeological sites are not adequately surveyed, Technolcs for Reducing Erosion and their condition is unknown. Even known sites are Stabilizing Landscapes and seldom monitored periodically. The numbers of Ai chaeological Sites sites and sheer size of western landholdings ren- der traditional patrol mothods unfeasible. Remote As noted earlier, whether it occurs from over- sensing, either from the air o from ground-based flowing streams, the variation in water level of cameras, may help to establish a baseline. Once reservci -s, or from wave action, erosion is one a baseline condition is determined, environmental of the most serious natural threats t') landscapes and other sensors might 4.-ised to monitor sites and to archaeological sites. "The methods avail- in acute danger, either from natui al or human able for archaeological site stabilization differ very threats (see Protection From Deli5erate Destruc- little from those which have been used for stream- tion, in this chapter). Education of tourists and bank maintenance and general erosion con- the local population is also an important com- trol."23 Comparatively little research has been ponent in site monitoring (see Chapter 6: Public carried out on the use of such methods, The fol- Education). Often volunteer help is crucial in lowing methods, among others, have been used looking after sites, especially those in out-of-the- with varying success for site stabilization: way or difficult-to-access areas. stone riprap, In historic structures, it is often necessary to * concrete pavement, monitor the moisture content or the acidity of the o gunite, atmosphere in order to determine what treatment used iire mattresses, may be appropriate. For example, monitoring the overplanting, condition of roofs or cracks and other signs of movement in masonry walls24 is important in 225ee Karen Kershaw, "Looking Back, a Historical Perspective," Architectural & Engineering Systems, March/April 1986, pp. 34-35. 24J. Henry Chambers, Using Photogrammetry to Monitor Mate- 23Robert M. Thorne, "Preservation is a Use .. . Experimental Ar- rials Deterioration and Structural Pioblems in Historic Buildings chaeologicl Site Stabilization in the Tennessee Valley," Tennes. (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Perk see Valley Authority Publications in Anthropology 40, 1985. Service, Preservation Assistance Division, no date). n o 92 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

deciding when additional shoring, repair, or replacement may be necessary. The following discussion takes up technologies and issues that are more 3pecific to archaeology, historic structures, and prehistoric and historic landscapes. As in earlier chapters, underwater archaeology is broken out for separate treatment because of the highly specific nature of the issues related to it.

Archaeology Comparatively little work has been done on the conservation of adobe, stone, and wood for archaeological use. However, some of the methods that are being developed specifically for historic structures are applicable to archaeological preservation (see below, discussion of technologies for structures). Today, the Federal Government seldom re- stores archaeological sites after excavation, espe- Photo credit: Ray A. Williamson daily in climates where they have deteriorated National Park Service employee inserting stabilizing mortar in sandstone wall of Pueblo Bonito, Chaco significantly or disappeared from the surface. Canyon National Historical Park, NM. Such restorations must generally rely too strongly on conjecture about the site's original form and construction. In addition, they are normally ex- ing site-specific mixes.26 N PS now uses a chemi- tremely expensive. Instead, the excavation is cal called Roplex, which it adds to the mortar "backfilled" with earth. Where feasible, sites used for stabilizing the prehistoric sandstone found above ground are stabilized to prevent structures in the Southwest. Roplex extends the them from further deterioration.25 Prime exam- life of the stabilizing mortar which closely resem- ples of such sites are the prchistoric Anasazi bles the original mortar in color, texture, and con- buildings and villages in Navajo National Mon- sistency. ument, or Chaco Canyon National Historical Not every site can be stabilized with the re- Park. sources at hand. Some sites have eroded to grade The National Park Service (NPS) has conducted level or are reasonably protected (for example, research on the stabilization of many different cliff dwellings) and need little additional stabili- kinds of structures in many different soil condi- zation. Because stabilization tends to reduce their tions. Even in relatively narrow regions of the archaeological integrity, other sites may lose Southwest, the soils originally used as mortar or more of their research value by attempts at sta- for adobe vary considerably from place to place. bilizing them than if they were simply left ex- Appropriate mixes of portland cement (for posed to natural forces of erosion.27 strength and durability) and native soil (for color and elasticity) clt rive from testing the chemical and physical properties of the soils and develop- 265ee, for example, Dennis Fenn and George J. Chambers, Lab- oratory Assessment of Soil-Cement Mortars Used in Rehistoric Ruins Stabilization to the National Park Service (Tucson, AZ: National Park Service Western Archeological Center, January 1978). 'sit is NI'S policy to preserve sites as they are when they are in- 27For example, at one Anasazi site in southeast Utah, stabilizing herited by NI'S, as opposed to just letting them deteriorate or re- mortar appears to have been used to fill in small ports originally storing them. in the walls of one structure. OTA site visit, June 1986.

1n.q Ch. 4Restoration, Conservation, Maintenance, and Protection 93

Sites most in need of stabilization are those that are highly exposed to natural and human threats. Such judgments are often made by archaeologists and other cultural resource professionals, few of whom are experienced in analyzing the need for the treatment. Therefore, there is a requirement for basic guidelines and available stabilization options.28 There is no known long-term way to stabilize adobe. Ifleft uncovered, it requires periodic maintenance. Therefore NPS has often resorted to building shelters over adobe or mud structures, such 7 s the remains of prehistoric pit houses. Al- though such measures protect the structures, they are often esthetically displeasing. Much more can and should be learned about how to stabilize existing prehistoric structures. Structural engineers and architects could be of help in investigating Photo credit: Ray A. Williamson better stabilization methods. Ancient Pueblo IndI:in petroglyph pecked on basalt outcropping south of Santa Fe, NM. The quartered Site Burial circle to the right of the flute player may represent the sun. The quartered circle is a common rock art motif After excavation, unless sttuctures are to be in the Southwest. stabilized or reconstructed, sites are commonly filled with sterile soil. Such a practice tends to turies.31 Relatively little effort has been expended preserve the remaining unexcavated material. on efforts t? preserve these important cultural re- Sites have been buried by concrete or asphalt un- sources (see app. B). der parking lots, or by rocks, backfill, or water in efforts to save them for future research. How- Site Avoidance ever, the long-term effects of various site burial techniques are not well understood and should In many areas, this is considered the method be studied.29 of choice in preserving archaeological sites. Al- though in some cases, such a strategy is appro- Rock Art Preservation priate and feasible, in many other cases avoid- ing the site simply puts off for a few years an Prehistojc and historic rock art contain signif- inevitable conflict with cther legitimate uses of icant cultural information. For example, in Cali- tne land, and the necessity to make decisions fornia, numerous rock art panels have been stud- about active preservation. iedineffo;Lsto explore the astronomical observations and knowledge of California Indian Underwater Archaeology groups." In New Mexico, careful examination of the distribution of images among rock art panels Conservation and protection of underwater cul- along the Rio Grande has demonstrated the tura! resources, like other underwater archaeo- movement of certain ideas from Mexico into cen- logical procedures, tend to be expensive and re- tral New Mexico during the 14th and 15th cen- quire extremely specialized knowledge and faciiities. Concreted metal, waterlogged wood, 288m Trott, National Park Service, personal communication, 1986. and other organic materials such 2S leather or fab- 29See Thorne, op. cit., for a discussion of several methods of site burial. "Tom Hoskinson and Arlene Benson (eds.), Earth and Sky: Papers From the Northridge Conference on Archaeoastronomy (Thousand 3l Polly Schaafsma, Indian Rock Art of the Southwest (Albuquer- Oaks, CA: SlOw Press, 1985). que: University of New Mexico, 1980). ,104 94 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

oriented organizations and individuals who be- tray a lack of knowledge of appropriate conservation methods. The following approaches represent the range of conservation treatments available.

Full-Scale Conservation This approach calls for the stabilization and continuing care of all waterlogged objects taken from underwater, including ship's hulls. This is ,* the most complex and expensive method, but permits scholars and the public to examine thoroughly historic shipbuilding techniques and any culturally significant contents removed from the vessels. This approach necessitates fully staffed conservation facilities with completely controlled Act.. environments (humidity, t2mperature, light, etc.). ' NO' Conservation processes are time-consuming and tedious and demand a long-term commitment on the part of any agency or institution that assumes -174. c-, = the responsibility for applying them. For example, the Swedish Government has -4ys- . assumed responsibility for the Wasa, a well- preserved 17th century Swedish warship, for the past 26 years at a cost of over $20 million. The Mary Rose Trust is in the early stages of conservation of the /Vary Rose, a 16th century English warship.HarvardUniversity's Snow Squall k"1177 Photo credit: National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration project (located in the Falkland Islands) is currently recovering the first 30 feet of the clipper's Concreted anchor from the U.S.S. Monitor (sunk Dec. 31, 1862). Anchor recovered 1977. Such a large and hull. Everyone except the trained conservator is heavy artifact excavated from underwater constitutes a vo4inteer. The Mariner's Museum in Newport a substantial conservation challenge. News, Virginia, has taken on the Ronson Ship bow in New York City using private funds, in con- ric begin almost instantaneously to deteriorate trast to the other groups which rely largely on when exposed to the open air after having been public funds.32 submerged or buried under sediments. They must Even thoroughly stabilized materials remain ex- be immediately reintroduced into salt or fresh tremely fragile. Polyethylene glycol is the com- water, via holding tanks, or wet-packed for trans- monly used wood consolidant and is very costly. port to permanent conservation facilities. Con- However, recent successful experiments using su- servation means perpetual maintenance under crose promise to lower some stabilization costs. controlled conditions. Sucrose is very cheap and seems highly stable.33 In the United States there is a shortage of conservation facilities as well as a dearth of trained, "Sheli Smith, Mariner's Museum, Newport News, VA, personal competent conservation personnel to deal with communication, 1986. the ever-increasing numbers of cultural materi- "James M. Parent, "The Conservation of Waterlogged Wood Using Sucrose," Proceedings of the 14th Conference on Under- als being recovered from the deep. In addition, water Archaeology, Calvin Cummings (ed.) (San Marino, CA: many projects are directed by non-research- Fathom Eight, 1986). Ch. 4Restoration, Conservation, Maintenance, and Protection 95

Combined Conservation and These alternatives represent different emphases Documentation in terms of costs, commitment, and conservation facility readiness and capability. Realistic consid- This approach involves stabihzinF all small, eration of the pros and cons inherent ,n each of portable waterlogged culturalmaLerials and the above conservation methods should be ex- documenting large objects such as the hull; it dra- plicitly reflected in project research plans or ar- matically reduces conservation costs. Though a chaeological investigations will have only unsatis- significant amount of study is still feasible, some factory databases and poorly conserved artifacts. technical knowledge is lost. However, these articles must still be housed in properly staffed conservation facilities. For example, the State of Historic Structures Maine conserved the small artifacts recovered The following reflects the current ethic govern- from the Defence and made detailed drawings ing the conservation, restoration, and mainte- of the hull for only $20,000. The Canadian Gov- nance of historic structures. "Deteriorated ar- ernment conserved all the small objects from the chitedural features should be repaired rather San Juan, molded sections of the hull, and than replaced wherever possible. In the event recorded the remaining sections with drawings.34 replacement is necessary, the new material should match the material being replaced in Conservation Through Technology composition, design, color, texture, and other This technique, as yet unadopted, would in- visual qualities."35 volve recording all small artifacts with holo- A variety of techniques and materials can be graphic techniques and all large artifacts through applied to historic buildings to conserve and molding and documentation. It would require maintain materials and systems. They include only holding areas and seasonal conservation chemicals to slow the deterioration of glass, staffs. The host institution's commitment would wood, and metal; or to clean masonry; tech- be minimal because its staff can easily transport niques for shoring up structurally weakened or and store all information. There is a drawback unsound buildings; and paints to protect surfaces. to this approach in that it does not yield any tan- The following issues describe some of these tech- gible artifacts. nologies and discuss a variety of problems preservationists face in applying them to best effect. No Action This approach leaves sites submerged or bu- Both the Misapplication and ried beneath sediments. Deterioration of ship- Nonapplication of Existing Technologies wrecks and other objects is slow and advances It is important that architects, engineers, and in conservation technologies may significantly im- construction personnel be thoroughly trained in prove our ability to conserve artifacts taken from traditional building technologies and the causes a submerged environment. This approach post- of structural materials failure. It is essential that pones the acquisition of knowledge about a site. they understand the characteristics of the mate- Future technologies might enable the analysis and rials to which they are applying protective interpretation of certain buried underwater ar- treatments. chaeological components in situ. The Turkish Government has left several shipwrecks at Yassi Historic Buildings.Well-designed old build- Ada uninvestigated. The State of Maine selected ings are systems possessing their own metabolic one ship for study after a survey of the entire processes, which have achieved a kind of sym- Penobscot fleet. The Commonwealth of Virginia biosis with their environment. The history of reburied the Revolutionary War period Corn- wallis Cave wreck in anticipation of more infor- 35The Secretary of the Interior's Standards for Rehabilitation and mation on the scuttled British fleet. Guidelines for Rehabilitating Historic Buildings (Washington, DC: Preservation Assistance Division, National Park Service, U.S. De- 345m1th, op. cit. partment of the Interior, 1983). 106 96 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

the Waverly Mansion, a 19th century historic tain walls may pose a danger because of failing wooden house located in Mississippi, illustrates clip angles. As these buildings age, preservations this point. The house stood vacant for over 50 will confront a growing variety of extremely high- years. However, because its builder had under- risk building systems. stood the effects of a hot, humid climate on wood and had designed an adequate ventilation sys- For example, Alcatraz, formerly a Federal tem, the structure, even though uninhabited and prison, but now a National Historic Landmark, unmaintained for so long, exhibited virtuallyno contains a cell-house (1909) constructed of po- deterioration of its members. rous reinforced concrete. The local marine aero- sol environment is causing its reinforcement rods A firm understanding of a structure's site, sur- to corrode. Eventually the exfoliating forces37 of roundings, and construction can prevent im- the rust could cause the entire structure to self- proper rehabilitative treatments for adaptive use. destruct. It constitutes an almost insurmountable Louisiana plantation houses, whose living floors conservation problem. Conservationists face sim- were routinely raised about 10 feet from ground ilar problems with the huge population of high- level, had first floor masonry walls treated with risk concrete structures built from the period of whitewash, instead of paint, to permit passage World War I to the present day. Besides build- of moisture or rising dampness. In some cases, ings, such structures include bridge decks, ele- such houses have been rehabilitated by removing vated highways, and parking garages. the whitewash and replacing it with waterproof paint. However, the paint does not allow suffi- The National Bureau of Standard's Center for dent moisture to escape from inside the founda- Building Technology, among other research tion and hastens the deterioration of the wooden groups, is directing much of its investigation and walls and other structural members above.36 testing toward reinforced concrete structures. Such activity could significantly affect the direc- Modern Buiidings.The need for information tion of both modern and historic reinforced con- on materials failures and remedies is not limited crete structures design and maintenance, allow- to historic structures. Even many modern building some progress toward managing what looms ings from the 1960s and 1970s, as well as some as an almost intractable conservation challenge.38 still under construction, exhibit potentially serious flaws that could lead to the failure of certain Historic Masonry Conservation structural elements, notably, steel shelf or clip angles, and reinforced concrete, today's mostprev- A major preservation problem relates to the alent construction material. proper identification of the various kinds of deterioration to which historic masonry, which in- Many reflect poor building practices and mis- cludes every type of natural stone, brick, terra understanding of existing information; some dem- cotta, and adobe is vulnerable. Trapped moisture onstrate unsuccessfu! attempts at innovation. from the ground or atmosphere, salts, freeze- Such structures present important lessons to thaw climatic cycles, pollutants, abrasive clean- preservationists who can benefit from determining, poor repair, retrofit, and rehabilitation, use ing why they are failing, and working closely with of incompatible mortar in repointing, improper trade and professional associations to encourage bedding, and weathering can pose serious threats better comprehension of construction techniques, building materials, and structural systems. These buildings represent prevailing attitudes 37The expansion and contraction of trapped moisture, weather- with regard to contemporary architecture and ing, or chemical action such as the rusting of metal cause exfoliation of stone's surface, that is, flaking, scaling, or peeling in thin engineering that tend to place extremely low em- layers. See Anne E. Grimmer (compiler), A Glossary of Historic Ma- phasis on long-term maintenance of reinforced sonry Deterioration Problems and Preservation Treatments (Wash- concrete and exposed metal shelf angles. Cur- ington, DC: Preservation Assistance Division, National Park Serv- ice, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1984). 381984 Building Technology Publications, U.S. Department of 36Terry L. Amburgey, Assuring Long Service Life From Wood Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Special Publication 457-9 Structures, Forest Products Laboratory, Mississippi State University. for the range of coverage regarding structural concrete. Ch. 4Res:oration, Conservation, Maintenance, and Protection 97

Historic Metals Conservation Problems associated with the deterioration of' metals in America's historic buildings and structures are numerous and complicated. Over a dozen metallic materials are present in this cultural resource base, which includes nails and flashing, bridges, elaborate fences and staircases, fountains, finials, outdoor statues and monuments, structural supports, roofing, and store- fronts.40 The conservation of zinc, lead, tin, tinplate, copper, bronze, brass, nickel, as well as wrought and cast iron present formidable challenges. Weathering or the result of exposure to the many interactions among chemical and physical ele-

-4111111' ments in the atmosphere may be more damaging Photo credit: Ray A. Williamson to historic metals than the separate effects of individual agents. The combination of humidity, The Reynolds Tavern, Annapolis, MD. This 18th century historic inn, which once served as the Anne Arundel temoorature, salts, dirt, grime, acids, and even County Library, has been restored and refurbished and 'nci other animal droppings threatens the is once again being used as an inn. fgi itv of structural as well as decorative or surir;netallic materials. Corrosion and degra- to historic masonry. Stone's natural inconsistency dation are taking place more quickly and exten- and layered composition can also hasten its de- sively, most dramatically because of acid precip- terioration. Adobe or sun-dried brick, prevalent itation. Mechanical breakdown seen as fatigue, in the American Southwest, is particularly suscep- creep, and abrasion is also a difficult conserva- tible to standing rainwater or splash. tion issue. The stress, weakening, deformation, How best to treat historic masonry is still highly and buckling of metals as a result of of fire have complex and problemmatical. Many new prod- meant the loss of much of the Nation's urban uctsintroducedintothemarket,suchas landscape. moisture-proof coatings and consolidants, touted The recent restoration of the copper skin of the as cure-alls for the problem of stone deteriora- Statue of Liberty and the replacement of its metal tion are being developed, principally for new skeleton, its internal support highlighted the dam- construction. They are, however, often applied age wrought by the failure of architectural me- inappropriately and unevenly to historic mason:), tals to connect. Bolted, riveted, pinned, or and, in many cases, do substantial, even irrepara- welded metal structural members can become ble damage. Historic masonry r quires breath- disconnected by corrosion, overloading, or able coatings and consolidants ,t allow for the fatigue. migration of moisture and salts through internal spaces, cracks, and cavities to its surface. lt is crit- Protecting metals in historic structures is ideally ical that careful testing and monitoring of the ef- realized through long-term, regular maintenance fects of new products which could be applied to coupled with sound knowledge of the behavior historic masonry be undertaken. Preservationists of architectural metals within physical environ- firmly believe that historic buildings themselves ments. Trapped moisture and abrasive cleaning "should not be viewed as testing grounds for un- are as damaging to historic metals as to stone or tried methods."39 wood. It is important to find and improve meth-

39Baird M. Smith, Mc -ture Problems in Historic Masonry Walls 4°Metals in America's Historic Buildings: Uses and Preservation Diagnosis and Treat-I:mat (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Treatments, U.S. Department of the Interior, Heritage Conserva- the Interior, National Park Service, Preservation Assistance Divi- tion and Recreation Service, Technical Preservation Services Divi- sion, no date). sion, 1980. 96 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

the Waverly Mansion, a 19th century historic tain walls may pose a danger because of failing wooden house located in Mississippi, illustrates clip angles. As these buildings age, preservations this point. The house stood vacant for over 50 will confront a growing variety of extremely high- years. However, because its builder had under- risk building systems. stood the effects of a hot, humid climate on wood and had designed an adequate ventilation sys- For example, Alcatraz, formerly a Federal tem, the structure, even though uninhabited and prison, but now a National Historic Landmark, unmaintained for so long, exhibited virtuallyno contains a cell-house (1909) constructed of po- deterioration of its members. rous reinforced concrete. The local marine aero- sol environment is causing its reinforcement rods A firm understanding of a structure's site, sur- to corrode. Eventually the exfoliating forces37 of roundings, and construction can prevent im- the rust could cause the entire structure to self- proper rehabilitative treatments for adaptive use. destruct. It constitutes an almost insurmountable Louisiana plantation houses, whose living floors conservation problem. Conservationists face sim- were routinely raised about 10 feet from ground ilar problems with the huge population of high- level, had first floor masonry walls treated with risk concrete structures built from the period of whitewash, instead of paint, to permit passage World War I to the present day. Besides build- of moisture or rising dampness. In some cases, ings, such structures include bridge decks, ele- such houses have been rehabilitated by removing vated highways, and parking garages. the whitewash and replacing it with waterproof paint. However, the paint does not allow suffi- The National Bureau of Standard's Center for dent moisture to escape from inside the founda- Building Technology, among other research tion and hastens the deterioration of the wooden groups, is directing much of its investigation and walls and other structural members above.36 testing toward reinforced concrete structures. Such activity could significantly affect the direc- Modern Buildings.The need for information tion of both modern and historic reinforced con- on materials failures and remedies is not limited crete structures design and maintenance, allow- to historic structures. Even many modern building some progress toward managing what looms ings from the 19605 and 1970s, as well as some as an almost intractable conservation challenge.38 still under construction, exhibit potentially serious flaws that could lead to the failure of certain Historic Masonry Conservation structural elements, notably, steel shelf or clip angles, and reinforced concrete, today's most prev- A major preservation problem relates to the alent construction material. proper identification of the various kinds of deterioration to which historic masonry, which in- Many reflect poor building practices and mis- cludes every type of natural stone, brick, terra understanding of existing information; some dem- cotta, and adobe is vulnerable. Trapped moisture onstrate unsuccessful attempts at innovation. from the ground or atmosphere, salts, freeze- Such structures present important lessons to thaw climatic cycles, pollutants, abrasive clean- preservationists who can benefit from determining, poor repair, retrofit, and rehabilitation, use ing why they are failing, and working closely with of incompatible mortar in repointing, improper trade and professional associations to encourage bedding, and weathering can pose serious threats better comprehension of construction techniques, building materials, and structural systems. These buildings represent prevailing attitudes 37The expansion and contraction of trapped moisture, weather- with regard to contemporary architecture and ing, or chemical action such as the rusting of metal cause exfoha- tion of stone's surface, that is, flaking, scaling, or peeling in thin engineering that tend to place extremely low em- layers. See Anne E. Gfimmer (compiler), A Glossary of Historic Ma- phasis on long-term maintenance of reinforced sonry Deterioration Problems and Preservation Treatments (Wash- concrete and exposed metal shelf angles. Cur- ington, DC: Preservation Assistance Division, National Park Serv- ice, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1984). 381984 Building Technology Publications, U.S. Department of 36Terry L. Amburgey, Assuring Long Service Life From Wood Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Special Publication 457-9 Structures, Forest Products Laboratory, Mississippi State University. for the range of coverage regarding structural concrete.

1n7 Ch. 4Res:oration, Conservation, Maintenance, and Protection 97

Historic Metals Conservation Problems associated with the deterioration of metals in America's historic buildings and structures are numerous and complicated. Over a dozen metallic materials are present in this cultural resource base, which includes nails and flashing, bridges, elaborate fences and staircases, fountains, finials, outdoor statues and monuments, structural supports, roofing, and store- fronts.40 The conservation of zinc, lead, tin, tinplate, copper, bronze, brass, nickel, as well as wrought and cast iron present formidable challenges. : Weathering or the result of exposure to the many interactions among chemical and physical elements in the atmosphere may be more damaging Photo credit: Ray A. Williamson to historic metals than the separate effects of individual agents. The combination of humidity, The Reynolds Tavern, Annapolis, MD. This 18th century historic inn, which once served as the Anne Arundel temoorature, salts, dirt, grime, acids, and even County Library, has been restored and refurbished and nd other animal droppings threatens the is once again being used as an inn. fgi itv of structural as well as decorative or surc,-iro ;netallic materials. Corrosion and degra- to historic masonry. Stone's natural inconsistency dation are taking place more quickly and exten- and layered composition can also hasten its de- sively, most dramatically because of acid precip- terioration. Adobe or sun-dried brick, prevalent itation. Mechanical breakdown seen as fatigue, in the American Southwest, is particularly suscep- creep, and abrasion is also a difficult conserva- tible to standing rainwater or splash. tion issue. The stress, weakening, deformation, How best to treat historic masonry is still highly and buckling of metals as a result of of fire have complex and problemmatical. Many new prod- meant the loss of much of the Nation's urban ucts introducedintothemarket,suchas landscape. moisture-proof coatings and consolidants, touted The recent restoration of the copper skin of the as cure-alls for the problem of stone deteriora- Statue of Liberty and the replacement of its metal tion are being developed, principally for new skeleton, its internal support highlighted the dam- construction. They are, however, often applied age wrought by the failure of architectural me- inappropriately and unevenly to historic mason:), tals to connect. Bolted, riveted, pinned, or and, in many cases, do substantial, even irrepara- welded metal structural members can become ble damage. Historic masonry r quires breath- disconnected by corrosion, overloading, or able coatings and consolidants ,t allow for the fatigue. migration of moisture and salts through internal spaces, cracks, and cavities to its surface. lt is crit- Protecting metals in historic structures is ideally ical that careful testing and monitoring of the ef- realized through long-term, regular maintenance fects of new products which could be applied to coupled with sound knowledge of the behavior historic masonry be undertaken. Preservationists of architectural metals within physical environ- firmly believe that historic buildings themselves ments. Trapped moisture and abrasive cleaning "should not be viewed as testing grounds for un- are as damaging to historic metals as to stone or tried methods."39 wood. It is important to find and improve meth-

l 11Q 98 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Photo credit: Nicolas Veloz, National Park Service Photographs of the New Jersey Memorial, Valley Forge, PA showing staining and corrosion of bronze outdoor sculpture and subsequent cleaning. Such discoloration may signify a substantial loss of surface material ods for inhibiting and treating corrosion, clean- manent, such as slave quarters or farm out- ing surfaces, and to develop appropriate protec- buildings. tivemetallic, ceramic, or organic coatings. the structural integrity of steel frame and Architects should be fully aware of the load bear- curtain walls and unreinforced masonry ing capabilities of structural metals, and proper buildings in earthquake zones. According to mechanical repairing strategies, such as splicing, structural engineers, unreinforced masonry patching, and reinforcing. buildings are among the most dangerous structures during earthquakes. The weight Other Major Preservation of their exterior walls would mean definite Research Challenges separation from structural framing in the event of tremors.41 However, they are im- Some of the other preservation research chal- portant cultural resources and account for lenges are: a sizable portion of the central business dis- the maintenance and stabilization of fragile 41Guidelines for the Evaluation of Historic Unreinforced Brick Ma- historic structures constructed of poor qual- sonry Buildings in Earthquake Hazard Zones (Los Angeles, CA: ity materials and never intended to be per- A.B.K., A Joint Venture, 1986).

1 0 9 Ch. 4Restoration, Conservation, Maintenance, and Protection 99

tricts and commercial centers in towns piles, used to support the foundations of most of throughout the American west. Recomrr .n- Boston's historic structures, have been decaying dations for treating them in earthquake as a result of a dropping groundwater table. Such zones has ranged from wholesale demolition piles are permanent and stabie only when they to a degree of seismic upgrading and retro- are waterlogged and can repel fungi and dry rot. fit that would be prohibitively expensive and New construction techniques are reducing and destructive of significant historic fabric.42 even eliminating the problem. For example, in the philosophical dilemmas relating to mod- the Bentonite Slurry Trench method, retaining ern building and structural codes, public walls placed around sites prevent the seepage of safety, and politics, a need for a realistic view water into construction areas below the ground- of "risk and regulation" in historic preser- water table and concomitant lowering of the lo- vation. Some historic buildings have been so cal water level.43 altered to meet modern code requirements that they have been stripped of much of their Substitute Materials significance. There is a range of views within preservation concerning the use of substitute materials. In Eur- Maintenance Information ope many preservationists advocate that replace- Detailed information on protective treatments ment materials be the same as the original. There undertaken over the life of a structure is most im- is such aversion in much of Europe to substitute portant to its long-term health. A history of both materials that preservationists reopen old stone interior and exterior actions enables informed and marble quarries to obtain replacement ma- conservation and maintenance. Past Federal terials from the same sources as the originals. In agency maintenance and restoration records the United States, however, some building seis- should be retained to this end. Federal records rnic codes require the use of new lightweight sub- managers, many of whom have routinely dis- stitute materials to replace heavy stone pieces, carded such records, have only recently recog- such as cornices. Other codes allow the use of nized their value to preservationists. replacement materials matching the originals only to a specific height, then require the lightweight Environmental Monitoring substitutions beyond the level at which casual observers would not detect the difference. There is need for improved technologies to permit monitoring of the effects of other environmental impacts to which structures are exposed. Landscapes Monitoring such as that being carried out by the Conservation and Restoration Decisions energy industry to determine the effects of seal- ing structures to prevent loss of heat, and those Who determines conservation goals and de- having been 'applied in Boston, Massachusetts, cides the extent and authenticity of restoration to assess changes in groundwater levels reveal for landscapes? Who decides which public land- much concerning the behavior of buildings and scape projects receive priority for preservation? materials. These questions are of concern because few landscapes serve only one function. They also are Building foundations, subway, and under- owned or controlled by a wide variety of public ground utility delivery systems such as sewers suf- and private organizations, or by individuals. Cul- fer serious deterioration if groundwater tables are tural landscapes, especially, generally have mul- lowered or raised through altered drainage pat- tiple owners. terns, water removal at new construction sites, or heavy use of deep aquifers. Below the ground- Parks and other public spaces were created as water table, soil is saturated. Untreated wooden a result of the public need for open space in ur-

42Mchael E. Durkin, "Improving Safety in Unreinforced Masonry 43Flarl P. Aldrich, Jr., "Preserving the Foundations of Old Build- Buildings," Ekistics 51, November/December 1984. ings" Technology and Conservation, 1979. 100 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

ban settings. They are used by the public for a managers need inventories of plants grown in a variety of recreational, social, and educational region or area at different periods of history, and activities. Other prehistoric and historic land- sources from which those plants may be ob- scapes may be subjected to a variety of stresses tained. In turn, the restored landscapes them- as a result of changing land use patterns and sdves can become an important repository for development, including mining, drilling, and ur- historic species and thereby assist the mainte- banization. Local residents who wish to use a nance of biological diversity within the United property may see its value and the goals of pres- States." ervation in a much different light than preservation professionals. For example, residents might The United States is losing important collections rather build a swimming pool or skating rink in of historic plant materials. Yet we often are not a historic park than maintain a scenic view. Or, fully aware of which plants growing today in the public might complain if grassy areas in a historic landscapes are authentic historic mate- historic battlefield were kept trimmed to historic rials. England has met such problems in part by standards, attributing the higher grass of the insisting that historic gardens and other historic historic period to lack of maintenance, rather landscapes be replanted using historic species, than historic authenticity. even if it means that the landscape managers may have to defer certain plantings because plant Because restoration and conservation are gen- stock is unavailable at the time they wish to plant. erally expensive and funding for historic preservation increasingly limited, priorities must be set, Although many species may still remain in pri- taking into account local values for current use vate collections and smaller commercial nurser- as well as those of preservation professionals on ies, there is inadequate knowledge of what ex- the significance and degree of deterioration of ists and little control over the disposition of such the landscape. In addition to seeking advice from stock. It may be necessary to establish arbore- the local community, the landscape architect and tums designed specifically to save, nurture, and other preservation professionals may have to edu- propagate historic species. Because of the re- cate the community about the long-term value gional nature of plant h:'Hess and adaptabil- of preserving the local landscape (see Chapter 6: ity, such arboretums wc ave to be regional Public Education). in scope. Sleepy Hollow ReAorations has already started searching out and growing historic plants; Landscape Management Monticello recently announced that it was establishing a historic plant center. However, a cen- Landscapes change so rapidly that manage- tral clearinghouse for historical horticultural and ment becomes almost as important as restoration. botanical information, with a computer accessi- Managing the growth of vegetation is a particu- ble database, would also be important in increas- larly important issue. For example, rampant spe- ing our ability to restore, conserve, and maintain cies, such as honeysuckle and poison ivy, must be historic landscapes. controlled without doing harm to other species or other parts of the environment. There is a strong It is also important to maintain centers where need to find alternatives to herbicides and pesti- a number of different specialists are working on cides. NPS, for example, has banned the use of landscape problems. For example, the National both except as a last resort. Such special cases Park Service's National Capitol Regional Center require extensive documentation to support the for Urban Ecology maintains a staff of experts in need for chemicals. agronomy, urban soils, and urban wildlife.

Horticultural or Botanical Technologies "See OTA's background papers entitled Grassroots Conserva- tion of Biological Diversity in the United States, Background Pa- Authentic restoration and conservation of per #1, OTA-BP-F-38 (Washington, DC: February 1986; and Assess- historic landscapes depends on the ability to iden- ing Biological Diversity in the United States: Data Considerations, tify, locate, and use plants appropriate to the his- Background Paper # 2, OTA-BP-F-39 ( Washington, DC: March 1986), for a discussion of biological diversity. Both papers are avail- torical period of interest. Landscape restorers and able from the U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.

1 1 1 Ch. 4Restoration, Conservation, Maintenance, and Protection 101

PROTECTION FROM DELIBERATE DESTRUCTION Although education is one of the most effec- tential for containing important culturalre- tive deterrents to deliberate destruction of cul- sources. These areas, the likely targets of pot- tural resou rces (see Chapter 6: Public Education), hunting and other vandalism, should be better a variety of other protective measures are nec- known to agency specialists and managed for essary to conserve significant parts of our heritage their cultural resource values. The appropriate for future generations to appredate and learn use of predictive locational modeling techniques fro m .45 would be especially useful (see Chapter 3: Re- search). When law enforcement personnel have Technologies for Security requested lists of sites that should be monitored, the sites tend to be those that have already sus- Detailed Inventory of Cultural Resources tained damage. Those untouched sites that are Detailed inventory and systematic monitoring unknown to the agency may contain much more of sites are two of the best available protective information of scientific value than those that measures. For other measures to work effectively, have been damaged. Yet, being unknown, they agencies need to know what resources they have. are left vulnerable to potential looters, who find Yet, the larger land managing agencies in the greater time (and the economic incentive) to west46 have inventoried relatively few of the ar- search them out than do agency archaeologists. chaeological resources, historic structures, and landscapes they manage. In most cases, archaeo- Protective Barriers, Including Fences, logical sites on public lands are found because Gates, and Boulders To Restrict development is proposed, land-exchange with a Access to Sites non-Federal institution is initiated, or cases of de- The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) has struction are discovered. found that fencing and placing signs at Pony Ex- Further, most agencies have not instituted a press Stations in western Nevada has virtually program of systematic inspection and routine eliminated vandalism over the past 8 years. In maintenance of their cultural resources. A num- another example, BLM's installation of fencing ber of OTA workshop participants pointed out surrounding the site of several Anasazi towers that Federal agencies tend to respond to threats overlooking Comb Ridge in southeast Utah seems to cultural resources in reaction to a clear imme- to have reduced the incidence of vandalism in diate danger rather than planning ahead for po- recent years. However, it also reduces the visual tential problems. quality of the site.47 In addition, in certain cases, fencing and signs may attract vandalism by call- Comprehensive, systematic, and complete in- ing attention to the sites, so such methods must ventories of all Federal lands would be cost- be used in ways appropriate to the terrain and prohibitive, because of the extensive area in- the need for protection. volved. However, many areas, more restricted in size, but currently unsurveyed, have high p0- Burying Archaeological Sites Methods include using top soil, wire mesh, 455ee especially, Paul R. Nickens, Signa L. Larralde, and Gordon rock asphalt, or concrete to make sites less visi- C. Tucker, Jr., "A Survey of vandalism to Archaeological Resources in Southwestern Colorado," Bureau of Land Management Cultural ble and accessible. Although such methods are Resources Series 11 (Denver, CO: Bureau of Land Management often effective in protecting sites from vandals and Colorado State Office, 1981); and Dee F. Green and Polly Davis, looters, little research has been done on the ef- Cultural Resources Law Enforcement: An Emerging Science (Albu- querque, NM: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, fects of site burial on the long-term condition of Southwest Region, 1981). the buried resource.48 46Ruthann Knudson, "Contemporary Cultural Resource Manage- ment," American Archaeology Past and Future, D. Meltzer, D. Fowler, and J. Sabloff (eds.) (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Press, 470TA site visit, June 1986. 1986) 48Ibid. 102 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

,;04";:r. A _....."_ft/7t":.-"t17.S.4,:l,m01+)/E4.1,2_1r: 4 Photo credit: Ray A. Williamson Example of Bureau of Land Management fendng In southeast Utah. In the background are the remains of several ancient Pueblo Indian towers, constructed of sandstone blocks.

Use of Interpretive Signs Propagation of Vegetation, Including Interpretive signs have the effect of indicating Noxious Weeds to the visitor that someone cares about the site Planting or encouraging such weeds as poison or structure. In addition to giving some informa- ivy and poison oak on site surfaces as well as tion about the site, such signs may include warn- plants covering underwater sites, keeps most peo- ings of penalties for vandalism and theft. New, ple away, and reduces not only vandalism and inexpensive, vandal-resistant materials have en- looting, but also damage as a result of visitor traf- hanced the effectiveness of signs and messages. fic. This is particularly effective, but only for sites Individuals have had good results in protect- where the environmental conditions will support ing sites by placing informal interpretive notes to the growth of such plants. Nettles are effective explain the meaning such sites have to individ- protectors at Plains Indians' bison jump sites. uals and why they should not be disturbed or damaged. They are discovered, read, and sometimes added to by other visitors.49 New plastics Permanently Affixing Large Historic Artifacts or Monuments make possible the development of nearly inde- A structible tags that could be written on and placed Bolting, cementing, or otherwise attaching ar- on sites for future visitors. tifacts or monuments to the Earth tend to be ex- 49Fred Blackburn, White Mesa Institute, personal communica- pensive, but such methods are generally effec- tion, 1984. tive in preventing theft and major vandalism. Ch. 4Restoration, Conservation, Maintenance, and Protection 103

Law Enforcement Sting Operations Measures such as those just discussed, that ei- In certain, well-defined cases, it may be possi- ther Nstrict access to sites or warn the potential ble to catch looters or middlemen by conduct- looter of the legal penalties, have been partially ing a "sting" operation for stolen artifacts. successful in protecting sites. However, determined pothunters or vandals can penetrate nearly Unarmed Rangers any obstade, making law enforcement measures Prospect Park, in New York, has successfully necessary. In many respects, their methods and used unarmed, uniformed rangers to patrol the rationale are similar to wildlife poachers and they park. They have the power to issue summonses can be apprehended in similar ways. Catching for "quality of life" violations.52 looters and vandals committing a crime is primarily a matter of happenstance, although law en- Adopt-a-Site forcement officials have had some limited success using monitoring equipment. The following Local residents are often willing to monitor sites techniques are used by cultural resource man- or structures, especially rural ones, on a regular agers and law enforcement officials. basis and report suspicious activity to law enforcement officials. They become the eyes and Regular and Irregular Patrols ears of the agency in the area. in return, how- by Agency Personnel ever, such individuals should be kept informed about the results of their work and about agency This remains the most effective way to protect interest in the sites. cultural resources, though it can be quite expensive, especially over large areas. Evening, week- Electronic Monitoring Devices end, and holiday coverage (when it is generally most necessary), is especially expensive. In addi- Much of this technology has been developed tion, law enforcement officers have other duties for the Immigration and Naturalization Service, in addition to protecting cultural resources, and the Department of Defense, or to serve other na- are often assigned other caseload work, which tional needs. In the preservation community, the reduces their ability to protect cultural resources. use of these devices is increasing as technologies evolve, and become cheaper and better known Informants and Secret Witnesses to it. Both magnetic and seismic incrusion detectors are available. However, they are still quite Individuals who have witnessed or participated expensive, and require trained personnel to in looting or vandalism may for a variety of rea- maintain and use them. Furthermore, in remote sons be willing to give information to law enforce- areas, law enforcement officials often cannot ment officials that leads to convictions on the gen- reach the site quickly enough to be effective even eral charge of destroying government property when intruders have been detected by sensors. or for ARPA violations.50 Informal, noncommer- In addition, such devices pick up legitimate visi- cial "pothunters" may be the people most likely tors who are there to sightsee or study the site, to become informants. Obtaining their help will as well as those with less benign intentions. require a change in attitudes among Federal agency officials and archaeologists.51 Still, such devices can be effective in providing officials with information concerning patterns and cycles of unwanted intrusions at high value sites, thus enabling them to position personnel nearby at critical times. In other words, they must be used in a coordinated fashion. °Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979, Public Law 96-95, Secs. 6 and 7. °See, for example, the discussion in Thomas F. King, "The °Tupper Thomas and Paul C. Berizzi, "Prospect Park: Rebuild- Pothunter as an Ally, Not an Enemy," Early Man, Summer 1982, ing the Past for the Future," Parks and Recreation, June 1985,PP. pp. 38-40. 24-30. 114 104 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Remuto Cameras used because they may violate first amendment Photographic or video cameras that can sur- rights. vey a scene and can be started by electronic sensors may be extremely effective in gathering Alarm Systems needec evidence on looting or vandalism at Both fire alarm and break-in a la rm systems are selected sites. These devices are also expensive generally used in historic structures. To be most and generally vulnerable to destruction by the effective, they must be simple to use and to main- very looters and vandals they are attempting to tain. Otherwise, they may be ignored or im- monitor. properly used. Listening Devices Listening devices are available and veIatively inexpensive compared tG video, yet they are not Chapter 5 Preservation Information

11 6 Contents

Page Introduction 107 Technologies for Archival Research 107 Issues 109 Technologies for Preservation Information 109 Optical Disk Systems 109 Computers 110 Databases 111 issues 115 Technologies for Conserving Records 116 Document Preservation and Copying 117 Maintaining Noncomputerized Information 118 Information on Underwater Archaeological Resources and Technology 118

Table Table No. Page 17. Preservation Information 107

11 7 Chapter 5 Preservation Information

INTRODUCTION

The preservation of prehistoric and historic cul- Table 17.Preservation Information tural resources depends substantially on the use bookshistories, novels, poems, etc. of historical records and technical information charts that exist in a variety of forms and are stored and catalogs maintained in a variety of places. Decisions con- newspapers, journals, magazines construction/repair/maintenance reports cerning the restoration and maintenance of his- field records toric landscapes are highly dependent on histori- documentsletters, diaries, administrative correspon- cal maps and landscape designs. Historians and dence, tax records, insurance records, deeds, wills, etc. architectural/landscape specifications/drawings/blueprints architectural historians depend on drawings, his- pattern books toric photographs, and written records for their electronic and video recordings. optical disks research. Archaeologists may find ethnologies, films historic maps, or even insurance records' useful maps in their investigations. The Library of Congress plats (LOC); The National Archives and Records Ad- photographsaerial, terrestrial machine-readable recordstapes, computer disks, micro- ministration (NARA); The National Park Service fiche, phonographs (NPS); The Smithsonian Institution; The National analog/digital remote sensing data Technical Information Service; and other Federal, artworkpaintings, drawings, prints recorded and sheet music State, and local agencies acquire and maintain SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment. a wide variety of information on prehistoric and historic sites, structures, and landscapes. various statutes and public laws2 affecting the dis- One of the most critical problems confronting position of Federal agency records, are acces- historic preservation involves the storige, re- sioned by NARA. However, the reality of records trieval, and dissemination of technical and other management by the Federal Government does information on prehistoric and historic sites, not necessarily reflect adherence to these laws. structures, and landscapes (table 17). How all of !n another context, it was noted that, "the United these varied materials are conserved and made States is in danger of losing its memory."3 To help available for research is of vital importance. prevent the loss of preservation's memory, agen- Much of the information of interest to historic cies should make every effort to keep track of preservationists is housed in Federal agencies. their active records and to transfer their retired Out-of-date Federal records, according to the records in a timely manner to the National Ar- chives. 'See William M. Kelso, "Mulberry Row: Slave Life at Thomas Jefferson's Monticello," Archaeology 39, 1986, pp. 28-35, for an account of the use of historical records in an archaeological inves- 244 U.S.C. 2101-2114, 2901-2909, 3103-3107, 3301-3314; U.S.C. tigation. See also Theodore J. Karamanski, "Logging, History, and 2071; Public Law 95-416 and Public Law 95-440. the National Forests: A Case Study of Cultural Resource Manage- 3Report of the Committee on the Records of Government, Wash- ment," Public Historian 7, 1985, pp. 27-40. ington, DC, March 1985.

TECHNOLOGIES FOR ARCHIVAL RESEARCH Once the records are transferred, however, the organized by subject like library books. Govern- most important point to understand about ar- ment records housed in the NARA system (which chival records is that in many cases they are not includes regional branches throughout the coun-

107 1 1 Q 108 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

try) are organized by the principle of provenance, 1820, and a geographical area defined as approx- which means that records created by one gov- imating the boundaries of colonial New Spain, ernment unit are not mixed with others. For ex- the research tools created include a master in- ample, the files of materials created by the Bu- dex and separate biographical and geographic reau of Indian Affairs are not mixed with the files. BIOFILE Southwest consists of a master list records originated by the War Relocation Author- and additional indexes of relatives and household ity, even if the subject (Indian removals during members; occupations and titles; and a BIODEX World War II)is the same. which indexes over 44,000 names culled from Provenance, however, may be supplemented secondary sources. While the collection is not by a subject system because of technological yet definitive and comprehensive, it makes re- developments. That happens, for example, in na- search in materials relating to colonial New Spain tional networks in which any number of institu- easier. tions (as diverse as LOC and NARA, and the uni- In addition, some projects are considering ways versities Stanford, Harvard, Cornell, Wisconsin, to use location information. With a set of coordi- and Michigan on one system) add descriptions nates that pertain to a site, or a region, or other of their holdings with any number of keywords. physical location, the researcher can receive a These can combine books and archival records. print-out of library and archival materials related As archivists re,;iink their collections for purposes to that physical spot. GEOFILE Southwest is an of adding the information to these databases, they alphabetical gazeteer of almost 65,000 Southwest are also rethinking descriptive practices and sup- place names that is correlated with three sepa- plementing the principle of provenance. In addi- rate geographical references. Research for proj- tion to the collections of documents in archives ects that cover a wide geographical area would and manuscripts in libraries, such other materi- clearly be more practical with this means of ac- als as collections of maps, films, photographs, and cessing information. architectural drawings can be described through this method. This can provide a finding aid to The need to establish intellectual control over make a rapid scan of the content and location materials crucial to research projects has led to of the collections at the start of a project. developments of importance to preservationists. Archivists are developing record exchange for- Developments in optical character readers mats to be used for individual projects to stand- have potential for archival use. One, tested re- ardize (as far as that is possible) the documen- cently using the 19th century ledgers of the Bu- tary research for resource investigations. reau of Indian Affairs, can recognize handwrit- ing. It was apparently 92 percent accurate before Such developments make the process of orga- corrections were made.4 Optical disk storage gives nizing a research project more efficient. Being a clearer, higher resolution version of materials able to handle information electronically has also than can microfilm technology, and it is faster and changed the materials to be used for research. more efficient to use and to store than current For example, the Afro-American Communities forms. Project housed in the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History has used In addition to developing more efficient ways varied sorts of local civic, economic and religious to locate and house research materials for indi- records, as well as newspapers, private writings, vidual projects, technology allows access to a and national surveys such as census records to wider range of materials. Some projects have de- trace the migration, living, and working patterns veloped databases such as the Documentary Re- of free black people before the Civil War in ma- lations of the Southwest (DRSW) project based jor American cities like Boston, Cincinnati, and at the Arizona State Museum in Tucson. With San Francisco. Combined with archaeological in- documents running chronologically from 1520 to formation, the project explores internal household activities such as food consumption. Furni- ture inventories and similar lists of household 'Thomas E. Weir, Jr., National Archives and Records Adminis- goods help to re-create a picture of everyday life tration, personal communication, 1983. in a complex black community. Ch. 5Preservation Information 109

Issues systems may receive the bulk of the research attention because their holdings are more acces- Storage of databases that arise from individ- sible and thus easier to use than those not yet ual projects.It will be important to develop on the system, could discriminate against groups some means of keeping track of these databases, whose historical records lie in smaller deposi- like the "grey literature" of archaeology, because tories. such a record might prevent the re-doing of research. On the other hand, the materials so accu- It will be important to develop means of pay- mulated might be useful only rarely. ing for the development of finding aids and databases.Developing the finding aids and Only a few institutions may receive the bulk databanks from the archives and manuscript de- of research attention.The possibility that insti- positories is labor intensive. It will require the de- tutions with the money to be involved in these velopment of new sources of funding.

TECHNOLOGIES FOR PRESERVATION INFORMATION This section identifies and discusses several im- ing towns.6 With interactive optical disks they portant technologies or classes of technologies have: related to preservation information. recorded scenes of the same building in Optical Disk Systems different seasons, along with contemporary and historic views, designing a sequence that Optical disk systems offer a number of features allows the investigator to pursue various well suited for storing, retrieving and manipulat- levels of research detail and, in effect, enter ing preservation information. They are capable a building to study its functions; of storing audio, full motion video, still images, allowed the investigator to switch back and and text. Data for microcomputers can now be forth between still and live action images; stored digitally on optical disks; such disks can and store up to 1 billion bytes of data. Disks can be allowed the investigator to move down a quickly and easily searched; any informationon street and choose different routes with no a single disk can be recovered within 1 second. perceptible interruptionin the flow of Optical disk technology also promises to lower images. the cost of recording and accessing data dramat- This technology is promising not only for sur- ically. However, it raises important questionscon- vey but training as well. The Department of De- cerning longevity (see section below "Longevity fense (DOD) uses this new technology to teach of records stored on new technologies"). electrical and mechanical processes too complex For example, the Connecticut State Depart- to be explained via the typical training manual, ment of Transportation recently recorded images such as those for new tanks or aircraft. A mix- of much of its highway system on laser disks. With ture of text, still, and action imagery allows stu- merely 15 disks the Department has replaced an dents, through a series of procedures, to learn entire roomful of film cabinets.5 the consequences of both wrong and right decisions. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology has pioneered the use of the technology for survey- 6Andrew Lippman, "An Application of the Optical Videodisc to Computer Graphics," Proceedings of the SIGGRAPH '80 Seventh 5John Myers, Georgia Institute of Technology, personalcommu- Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Tech- nication, 1986. niques, Seattle, WA, July 1980.

1 110 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

For the purposes of historic preservation, an Networks optical disk training package on cleaning building exteriors could present a menu containing Preservation professionals in the universities certain treatment selections. The program could tend to make little use of the available univer- then demonstrate the results of those selections. sity mainframe networks such as BITNET and The effects of destructive applications such as ARPANET. Yet, they can be sources of free in- sand blasting or inappropriate chemical cleaning formation and software. Few preservation profes- could be revealed and emphasized immediately sionals are mainframe computer users and the through a time-lapse sequence, showing how a network systems are relatively new. building would look after 1 year, 15 years, etc. For micro computer users, commercial infor- An optical disk the size of a long-playing rec- mation services such as Compuserve and Dialog ord holds approximately 54,000 single images on are available. However, only a few of the major each side; the master disk costs around $2,500 publications in the several preservation disci- per side to make. Each disk can be copied for plines are available in commercial bibliographic only about $15.00 (±20 percent) and can thus data bases. be widely distributed. Although optical disks have markedly decreased the time consumed in ac- Expert Systems cessing information, overall costs are still high. Technological development has not only in- Mastering a disk does not include the extensive creased the computer's capacity for receiving, labor required to accumulate the images for the storing, and presenting enormous amounts of disk, nor any supportive text. It also does not in- data; it has also resulted in the application of ex- clude disk preparation, labeling, or cataloguing. pert or knowledge-based sytems. Expert systems These costs can be expected to decrease rapidly are a subset of " 'artificial intelligence,' a term as production volume increases. that has historically been applied to a wide variety of research areas that, roughly speaking, are Computers concerned with extending the ability of the computer to do tasks that resemble those performed Computers have become an important part of by human beings."7These systems are developed historical research. The proliferation of minicom- to aid d9cisionmaking in certain kinds of practi- puters and microcomputers has made it possible cal tasks such as diagnosing diseases, repairing for the preservation community to record, store, mechanical systems, or analyzing molecular retrieve, and manipulate a wide variety of data structu re. on prehistoric and historic sites, structures, and landscapes. Although computer technology is still Expert systems store the inferences governing undergoing rai5id change, it has already become rules, steps, or procedures which model or de- more powerful, less expensive, and available to scribe the way experts approach tasks. Expert sys- more people in the workplace and at home than tems interact with users to solve problems by ask- it was just a few years ago. Yet, preservationists ing a series of questions and suggesting possible have only recently begun to exploit computer courses of action. Although currently expert sys- technology in acquiring and disseminating infor- tems can be designed for use within rather nar- mation. Primary constraints to widespread use by row specialties, they offer greater promise than preservation professionals include high costs of any automated technology thus far for giving hardware and data entry, which is extremely meaning to stored information. This capability time-consuming and labor-intensive; lack of stand- could be very important in historic preservation ards for documenting historic preservation infor- because of the scarcity of knowledge and the mation; inadequate coordination among Federal, State, and local agencies in harnessing computer 75ee U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Informa- technology; and lack of familiarity with the tech- tion Technology: R&D Critical Trends and Issues, OTA-CIT-268 nology itself. (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, February 1985). Ch. 5Preservation Information 111 intense demand for information, decisions, and archival records retrieval and may eventually judgernents in dealing with materials and struc- change the way preservation professionals col- tures.8 Expert systems can also be designed for lect and process data.

65ee NBSIR 85-3186, Development of Durcon, An Expert Sys- Such systems may be useful for problems that tem for Durable Concrete: Part 1, James R. Clifton, Bhalchandra are extremely well-defined, or bounded, such as C. Oltikar, and Steven K. Johnson, U.S. Department of Commerce, Nlational Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD, July 1985. This the choices of specific technologies forconserv- is the first of a series of four progress reports to be completed on ing stone or wood. However, most other research recommendations for constituents for durable concrete. The reports problems in preservation are so difficult to limit will iddress the problems (freeze-thaw, sulphate effects, reinforcing steel corrosion, and cement/aggregate interactions) associated that they are unlikely to yield to expert systems. with concrete, the most widely used man-made construction material.

DATABASES

One of the most significant advances of the last 1984. It contains information on over 45,000 pre- decade in the development of databases is the historic and historic structures, objects, and sites invention and proliferation of inexpensive micro- in the United States, both listed and determined cnmputers and their associated software. As they eligible for listing. have become increasingly more capable and ch- iper to acquire, individuals and small insti- The Computers Committee of the National tt... As can develop their own powerful databases, Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers communicate, by telephone and modem, has, since 1983, attempted to standardize cer- 'her databases around the world. tain elements of the State-Federal preservation program. The committee's effort will link individ- , ie leration of databases is one of the most ual State computer databases with the National critical aspects of computer use for information Register Information System and aid those pres- storage and retrieval. The simplest and most im- ervation offices in the early phases of computeri- portant database for all intellectual activity is bib- zation. This initiative will greatly facilitate, with liographic. Therefore, it is necessary to develop the adoption of common data fields, each pres- as complete a bibliographic database as possible. ervation office's ability to engage in information Databases are crucial to the efficient use of in- exchanges and cooperative studies. In addition, formation. The following sections list some of the it will give greater uniformity to the year-end important preservation databases known to OTA. reports the State offices must submit to NPS in They are representative and not meant to be in- order to receive Federal historic preservation clusive. funds. National Archeological Database. This data- Federal Preservation Databases base will store data on archaeological contract work. Most of this is composed of the so-called For the most part the regional offices of the vari- "grey" literature and includes approximately ous land managing agencies have traditionally 150,000 contract reports on archaeological sur- operated with great autonomy. This autonomy vey, salvage, and other work. has resulted in a fragmented approach to applying computer technology to historic preservation A Proposed Database of Databases. NPS is de- information. Regional offices would benefit greatly veloping an index of cultural program databases from compatible hardware, software, and stand- within its Washington, DC, office. The base will ardized formats. provide data fields and descriptions. NPS will make its databases available through the State The National Park Service.The National Reg- preservation offices to any legitimate user. NPS ister of Historic Places's National Register Infor- will therefore depend on State preservation of- mation System has been operational since May fices to screen potential users. 112 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Box B.The National Register of Historic Places, U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service The National Register of Historic Places is the official list of the Nation's cultural resources worthy of preservation. Authorized under the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, the National Register is part of a national program to coordinate and support public and private efforts to identify, evaluate, and protect our historic and archaeological resources. The National Register is administered by the Na- tional Park Service under the Secretary of the Interior. Properties listed in the National Register include districts, sites, buildings, structures and objects that are significant in American history, architecture, archaeology, engineering, and culture. These resources contribute to an understanding of the historical and cultural foundations of the Nation. The National Register includes: all historic areas in the National Park System; National Historic Landmarks which have been designated by the Secretary of tl:e Interior for their significance to all Americans; and properties significant to the Nation, State, or community which have been nominated by the States, Federal agencies and others and have been approved by the National Park Service. The National Register of Historic Places Listing in the National Register has the following results which assist in preserving historic properties: Recognition that a property is of significance to the Nation, the State or the community. Consideration in the planning for Federal or federally assisted projects. Eligibility for Federal tax benefits. Consideration in the decision to issue a surface coal mining permit. Qualification for Federal assistance for historic preservation, when funds are available. National Register properties are distinguished by having been documented and evaluated according to uniform standards. The Secretary of the Interior's National Register criteria for evaluation and documentation standards are used by every State and Territory and by Federal agencies to identify important historic and archaeological properties worthy of preservation and consideration in making planning and development decisions. The National Register program provides Federal, State, and local governments and the general public the following: National recognition of the value of historic properties individually and colic ctively to the Nation. Eligibility for Federal tax incentives and other preservation assistance. Assistance in cultural resource planning.

SOURCE: National Park Service.

The Cultural Resources Management Bibliog- The List of Classified Structures contains data raphy (CRBIB) and The List of Classified Structures relative to each property's name, level of signifi- (LCS). Both databases contain evaluated infor- cance (national, State, or local), National Regis- mation concerning properties under NPS man- ter status, location, type or function, material agement. Significant archaeological sites as well composition, age, physical condition, level of as prehistoric and historic structures are listed. conservation and maintenance requireu, level of The first base contains 23,000 entries, the sec- documentation, kinds and severity of impacts and ond, 7,000. These computerized lists are intended stresses, etc.9 as planning aids to National Park Service managers and cultural resource professionals through- q"User Manual for Cultural Resource Databases, List of Classi- fied Structures Cultural Resources Management Bibliography," out the system and as information sources to the Alicia Weber (compiler), Park Historic Architecture Division, Au- general public. 5t 1986 (draft). Ch. 5Preservation Information 113

The Cultural Resources Management Bibliog- and archaeological sites, their age, type or func- raphy contains comprehensive information rela- tion, cultural affiliation, and the environmental tive to the kinds of publication, report, or study attributes of the areas within which they are sit- carried out on each property. uated. Itis accessible accessible not only via The Historic American Building Survey/Historic mainframe but mini- and micro-computer systems and provides data not only on public lands American Engineering Record (HABS/HAER) Com- puterization Program.Data on historic sites and but private holdings as well. structures delineated through the National Park Service's Historic American Buildings Survey The Library ol Congress (LOC) (HABS) and Historic American Engineering Rec- The National Union Index to Architectural ord (HAER) are available via computer from both Records.This database can be accessed by the the NPS and the LOC. Measured drawings, pho- name of the architectural firm; partner; name or tographs and supporrng research information location of a building or structure; as well as by compiled by HABSfr.ri 1933 to 1982 and HAER building type. Also, LOC's Optical Disk Pilot Pro- from 1969 to1985 cover thousands of gram represents an attempt to identify costs, ben- propertiesover 16,000 buildings and 1,200 sites efits, strengths, and shortcomings associated with of significance in the Nation's industrial and tech- this technology for storage and retrieval of the nological development. Entries are listed alpha- Library's collections. The technology holds great betically by State code and numerically by county promise in addressing problems concerned with code. They provide property or site location, access to fragile, rare, and deteriorating collec- HABS or HAER number, quantities of drawings, tions materials. photographs, and supporting research information.In addition, entrigs indicate where all The database for the National Union Index to documentation is housed, either permanently Architectural Records is maintained by Cooper- within LOC or temporarily within NPS, in prep- ative Preservation of Architectural Records (CO- aration for eventual transmittal to the Library. The PAR). COPAR was established to encourage the computer index is accessible at terminals located collection, maintenance, and interpretation of within the Library and the HABS/HAER office records threatened with loss or destruction, and within NPS. to serve as a national and international clearinghouse of information on the location, preserva- The Census of Treated Historic Masonry Build- tion, and cataloging of these documents. To ings to Maintain Long-Term Records on Treat- achieve these goals COPAR offers guidelines for ments to Historic Buildings.With the Center for the establishment of local and State groups, pro- Architectural Conservation, Georgia Institute of vides technical assistance and information to Technology, the Service is developing microcom- professionals and the general public. In addition, puter programs in order to create accessible mi- COPAR maintains the data for a national union crocomputer databases on such subjects as lab- catalog of architectural records, and it accepts oratories, products, training, organizations, special and provides information about them. collections, consultants, and print and nonprint material. Non-Federal Databases The Intermountain Antiquities Computer Sys- State Databases.All States via the State His- tem (IMACS).Begun 11 years ago by the U.S. toric Preservation Offices maintain the most sys- Forest Service, this cooperative cultural resource tematic lists on archaeological sites and prehis- data mzinagement system serves its Intermoun- toric and historic structures within the States and tain Region, one of nine within the system, as well Territories. OTA queried each State Historic Pres- as the Bureau of Land Management, and the State ervation Officer, requesting descriptions of new Historic Preservation Offices of Utah, Nevada, technologies being applied to locating, analyz- Idaho, and Wyoming. It contains information on ing, and protecting their cultural resources. The all classes of cultural resources. It provides loca- letters specifically requested information on his- tional and conditional information on structures toric preservation computer database develop-

1 9 A 114 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation ment and whether the SHPOs take part in other Underwater Archaeological Databases databases on the National or State level. Sixteen Of all cultural resources areas, underwater and States responded to OTA's inquiry. Replies re- maritime materials are the least inventoried and vealed that some States have experienced eas- stored in computer. The Texas Antiquities Com- ier access to the technology than others and have, mission has begun a computerized shipwreck therefore, made more progress in entering loca- reference file, which could serve as a model to tional and descriptive information on their pre- States that have not yet begun their own mari- historic and historic structures and archaeologi- time and submerged sites surveys. It is based on cal sites. For the most part, the State Historic information culled from both historic and con- Preservation Offices do not take part in other temporary sources such as maps and field reports. State or in National databases, but look forward The file represents an effort to determine more to gaining access to the National Register Infor- effectively where likely unidentified wrecks might mation System. On-line access to the National be situated and to aid research. Not all wrecks Register Information System will begin in 1987 indicated have been located because not all his- on a trial basis. toric references are totally reliable. However, this The University of Maryland's Architecture and resource file allows the State to demonstrate the Engineering Performance Information Center. possible existence of a historic shipwreck within It has started to track structural faili in build- a particular geographical area. The file often helps ings. Although not specifically prest, :ation ori- justify the employment of nondestructive remote ented, it might serve as a model for preservation sensing surveys before a potentially destructive or contain useful information on reasons for activity, such as dredging or harbor facility ex- failures in historic buildings. pansion begins. The Getty Museum.As part of its program to Since 1972, over 1,000 shipwrecks have been develop an art and architectural information listed, of which approximately one-half have thesaurus, the Getty Museum is attempting to been determined historic. Recently the Commis- standardize some of the language used in com- sion elected to augment the file with maps and puter programs. At present, the research and ar- navigation charts. The States, because they have chitecture sections are the most complete, but not made much headway in applying computer not yet available. Over 9,000 entries are specific technology to maritime inventories, can initially to architecture. Another 4,000 entries are terms achieve a substantial degree of consistency by shared by the fine and decorative arts. The Getty working together in developing compatible data- Museum is also incorporating the database com- bases and efficient computer networks.1° piled by the Canadian Conservation Institute. Underwater archaeologists and maritime pres- The Centre for the Study of the Preservation ervationists could make excellent use of com- and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM). puter technologies to establish as quickly as pos- This database, residing in Rome, considered sible a mechanism that permits the ongoing the most complete bibliographic database in the revision of statistics on the condition of all classes preservation field, is now on a mainframe com- of known submerged cultural resources. Such sta- puter and also available in printed form. ICCROM tistics can dramatically and meaningfully convey has embarked on a project to convert it to micro to the public a sense of the relative health of such computer for easier access. At present, it is vir- resources. At present, there is no broad-based, tually inaccessible by outside computers. consistent quantification of the rate of loss of sub- The National Association of Corrosion En- merged cultural resources. gineers/National Bureau of Standards.This corrosion database is a collaborative program to collect, evaluate, and disseminate corrosion 'OJ. Barto Arnold, III, "Underwater Cultural Resource Manage- data. It includes a user-friendly computer data- ment: The Computerized Shipwreck Reference File," Underwater Archaeology: The Proceedings of the the Eleventh Conference 3n base of evaluated data on the rate and stability Underwater Archaeology, Calvin R. Cummings (ed.) (San Marino, of metallic materials. CA: Fathom Eight, 1982), pp. 85-95. Ch. 5Preservation Information 115

Landscape Databases The Library of Congress.ItsNational Union The preservation community should support Index to Architectural Records (see above) con- efforts of the Library of Congress; the National tains information about landscapes. Archives; and other Federal, State, and local ar- The National Park Service (BIBSCAPE).This chives to identify and maintain records of land- is a database of all the landscapes within the na- scapes because,at present, no national land- tional parks. It is separate from the LIST OF CLAS- scapes database exists. A first important step will SIFIED STRUCTURES. The Service is also employ- be to create a database listing deposits of rec- ing interns to examine its published documents ords and collections throughout thecountry. for substantial references to landscapes. This ef- The following databases contain some informa- fort has yielded 200 items out of 6,000 pub- tion about prehistoric and historic landscapes. lications.

ISSUES 1. The problems of preservation faced by vari- olack of Federal level leadership and com- ous archives often begin in the field, when re- mitment regarding the improvement of search and other records are created."Most field preservation data management, researchers lack a basic knowledge of the archival G lack of computer networks for historic pres- principles and techniques that contribute'to rec- ervaCon, and ord longevity."" Many preservationists fail to costs. maintain records of their fieldwork, believing that a well-documented published paper will suffice. Although computers have reduced the costs Yet, generally, the best sources of original data of storing and retrieving information, putting rec- are the field records themselves. Even records ords on computers remains relatively expensive that have been carefully stored may be lost be- because it is generally labor-intensive. Volunteers cause they have been created on media that have and student interns can be helpful in entering extremely short lifetimes. Paper, inks, magnetic data on computers. However, the help of volun- tape, film are all subject to degradation.In or- teers upon which museums and other public in- der to improve the ability of archives to store stitutions depend is not entirely risk free. Vol- and retrieve records, it will be important for unteers must acquire adequate training to be preservationists working in the field to be aware effective. of theadionsthey can take to create and maintain long-term records. Training volunteers takes staff time from other important projects. It is important to interview 2.A number of impediments exist to the ap- individuals closely, train them carefully, and thus plication of computer technology to historic ensure that they perform their tasks properly. preservation information needs: For certain applications, an automatic optical lack of communication and coordination scanner for transferring printed text to a computer among database designers, leading to database could lower certain labor costs, once duplication of effort, the capital cost of the equipment is borne. * lack of standardization in data systems and language, 3.Standardized formats are essential for con- "Mary Anne Kenworthy, Eleanor M. King, Mary Elizbeth Ruwell, venient and reliable access to databases.Yet, ex- and Trudy Van Houten, Preserving Field Records (Philadelphia, PA: cept in the world of research libraries, there has The University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, 1985). Al- been little or no attempt to standardize or strictly though this report was developed specifically for archaeologists and anthropologists, it contains much information of use to all preser- define the various data elements or to create vation disciplines and offers practical advice for preserving field compatible formats and terms that would provide records. common access to documentation for individual 116 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation sites or structures.12 Included in such databases Computers Committee has, thus far, completed should be nonprint records stored on optical a list of fields for rehabilitation tax credit data- disks or other high capacity media." bases, fields for bibiographies, and an overview 4. The preservation community needs a vari- of database design. ety of information on preservation technologies The same institutional structure (such as a Pres- and sources of expertise, delivered expeditiously. ervation Technology Board) that would strengthen One of the most important needs related to tech- communication among historic preservation nology is for critically evaluated information on professionals and their colleagues in the sciences the conservation, restoration, and maintenance (see Chapter 2: Introduction and Chapter 7: Tech- of historic structures. A centrally maintained nology and Preservation Policy) could play a co- technical database could provide such informa- ordinating role in identifying improvements in the tion. Among other things, such a database could various computer databases for studies of historic strengthen communication among preservation structures and other cultural resources. professionals and their counterparts in natural science and engineering fields. However, before de- The Library of Congress, along wfth the Na- livery of such information is possible, it will be tional Archives and Records Administration, and necessary to develop a nationally accepted for- some university manuscript collections specialists, mat within which existing and new information are working toward establishing a Nationwide can be incorporated. One step in that direction database. However, they face potential problems would be to create a centralized database that relating to the development of common stand- provides listings of specialized databases. ards. The National Archives houses retired Fed- eral records. 1.: is not clear that Federal Agencies Databases should be made useful and acces- themselves are striving to achieve commonality sible to developers, planners, and others outside in studies being done for the purposes of com- the professional preservation community. In the puter-based data storage and retrieval. absence of a national preservation information network, interested parties are confined to con- Although the goal of coordinating the volumi- ducting their research within individual States. nous amount of existing preservation information They should have access to a database that lists and creating a national database for historic pres- the relevant databases in the United States and ervation might be attractive for reasons of sim- other countries. However, certain privileged data, plicity of research, a national database looks nei- such as the locations of archaeological sites, ther technically feasible nor affordable in the should be accessible only on a limited basis. short run. Because the field is multi-disciplined and fragmented, it is not bound by one accepted One of the difficult problems faced in such an set of terms. effort is the establishment of comparable search and store parameters. It is important to resolve There is a need to provide data to a variety of the way a database answers specific sets of ques- preservation practitionersscholars, Federal man- tions, yet allow it to remain compatible with agers, architects, scientists, and craftsmen. There- others. The NCSHPO, for example, is facing this fore efforts might be better expended on the tech- problem in attempting to achieve compatibility nically easier task of establishing a network of between the SHPOs' databases, of varied qual- links and keys to tie multiple databases together. ity and completeness, and the database designed for the National Register of Historic Places. The Technologies for Conserving Records Although the focus of this study is technologies 12For instance, by name, geographic or geo-political location, sub- for sites, structures, and landscapes, conserving ject, date, or design history. historic records is an important facet of the pres- 13The LOC Prints and Photographs Divkion, as part of LOC's Op- ervation process. Assuring the availability of his- tical Disk Pilot Program, is storing thousands of images from several collections. See Joseph Price, "The Optical Disk Pilot Program toric records will require finding appropriate meth- at the Library of Congress," Videodisc and Optical Disk, 4 (1984): ods to convert deteriorating paper, film, and other 424-432. media to less ephemeral media. Ch. 5Preservation Information 117

One potentially serious problem in the devel- Document Preservation and Copying opment and use of new data storage technologies, such as optical disks, is their long-term sta- Architects and landscape architects frequently bility. First, the longevity of the recording media need to consult archival documents to under- themselves is unknown." Second, because the stand the intent of a designer and to determine technologies are changing fairly rapidly, in the the integrity of a restoration. Yet, landscape ar- future it may be difficult to find the equipment chitectural drawings are typically large (up to 25 to "read" certain records made in the last 50 feet long) and archivists have little experience years. For example, only a few institutions main- with bulk conservation or copying of oversized tain the devices to play back cylinder recordings documents. The sinks, drying racks, humidity made in the early part of the cer.tury. Yet record- chambers, and other specialized equipment for ings such as those in the American Folk life Center's conserving large items are not readily available "cylinder project" provide Native Americanmu- and must be custom designed and fabricated at sic that is rarely sung today. great expense. In the 1930s, LOC sponsored a major survey In general, architectural and landscape archi- of the Architecture of the South, funded by the tectural plans were intended for short-term use Carnegie Foundation. As it was to be an archival and little or no thought was given to the possi- collection, they used the best safety film of the bility that they might later be placed in an archive. day from Kodak. However, in the 50 years since Many of the plans are, therefore, fragile. Many they were originally made, the photographs have kinds of prints are often extremely faded andno faded and cracked. Recently, LOC spent $60,000 known treatment exists to restore or stabilize copying 8,000 8x10 prints from the collection. them. The best that can be done is to copy them. However, because of the large format, poor im- In addition to copying aging and threatened age quality, or low contrast of the print, image records, new technology can be used to make enhancement may be required. records previously inaccessible available. Inor- der to make its collection of 25,000 glass plate New document conservation technologies are negatives available to the public, LOC staff filmed needed.15 Mary letters contained in the Olmsted them, reversed the polarity electronically, and Association's correspondence file within the Li- recorded them on an optical disk. Now the Li- brary of Congress have faded so badly that they brary is linking the optical disk to its automatic are nearly illegible without enhancement. Cost- information retrieval system. effective methods should be found for copying, enhancing, and disseminating visual information. LOC staff have expressed concern over how Preserving faded or outsized records is also labor- long the optical disks and the disk players will intensive and generally requires skilled person- last. Optical disk technology is still being im- nel.It may be appropriate to set up regional proved and is, therefore, constantly changing. centers specializing in the conservation of archi- Most players now are built to National Television tectural drawings of structures and landscapes.16 Standards. Yet, foreign standards are higher, and manufacturers are working on systems that will provide twice as many lines on a screen. Upgrad- ing to higher standards later will entail greaterex- penditure.

"For exarnple, furnigation of records with ethylene oxide was 145ee Preservation of Historical Records, Corn mittee on Preser- standard practice until recently when it was discovered to be un- vation of Historical Records, National Materials Advisory Board, safe and the forbidden by Occupational Safety and Health Adrnin- Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems, National Re- istration regulations. No satisfactory replacement has been found. search Council (Washington, DC: National Acaderny Press, 1986). "See Williarn H. Marquardt (ed.), "Regional Centers in Archaeol- This study indicates that such rnaterials as rnagnetic tape and disks ogy: Prospects and Problems," Missouri Achaeological Society, Re- are too perishable and unstable for archival purposes, with an esti- search Series 14, 1977, for a discussion of regional centers applied mated life span of no rnore than 20 years. to archaeology.

1 2Q 118 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Maintaining Noncomputerized some headway in developing state-wide com- Information puter-based architectural record systems. Most of the current archival material is com- Other Federal agencies, such as the National posed of drawings, photographs (negatives and Park Service, have been attempting recently to prints), phonograph recordings, magnetic tapes, "unbury" approximately 6,000 technical reports and texts. The problem of loss and misfiling of by microfiling or microfiching those completed drawings and other necessary noncom puterized before 1965 (after they have been critically evalu- research documentation has become severe. For ated as correct and up to date). Those reports example, many Federal agencies cannot recall completed since 1965 have been sent to the Na- files for reference on construction or maintenance tional Technical Information Service and are now projects completed years before because they available to the public. have become lost within vast records storage areas. There are often no finding aids associated Information on Underwater with document storage systems. Archaeological Resources and Technology Many Federal agencies, over the last several years, have discarded a variety of housekeeping The types of information relevant to under- documents relating to properties under their water archaeology and maritime preservation are stewardship. Thus, a valuable source of informa- extremely varied and widely scattered through- tion on past maintenance, repair, and restoration out such sources as libraries, Federal, State, and schedules and procedures has been lost for refer- local agencies, and oil, gas, and mineral indus- ence to today's conservators and historians. All try survey inventories. A national repository such new information should be carefully docu- within which new research findings could be in- mented and kept until such time as it can be com- corporated, and which provided locational aids puterized. for sources of maritime and submerged cultural resource information, would aid underwater ar- A formidable amount of available information chaeological research and preservation immeas- and original documentation, such as tax records urably. within State and local governmental offices and business and insurance records from company Underwater archaeologists have made rela- and corporate archives, still must be organized tively little use of the information filed with the and retained because they are extremely useful Minerals Management Service. The Service re- to historians. It is important for preservationists quires all oil, gas, or mineral exploration com- to apprise business and corpovate leaders of the panies to conduct archaeological surveys of any potential historical value of such holdings. In three-mile lease blocks they want to lease. The addition, archival photographs are valuable as companies must bear all survey costs of, for ex- records of past landforms in an area. They should ample, shallow, sub-bottom seismic survey, mag- be preserved on stable film. netometric survey, and side-scan sonar survey. They must allow archaeologists to review all of Some progress has occurred lately in correct- the data generated and recommend to the coming the problem of misfiled and mislaid records panies where to and not to drill. The companies within storage systems by the LOC Committee have processed a tremendous amount of data for the Preservation of Architectural Records, from off-shore areas, but archaeologists have syn- which has a computer locator and tracking sys- thesized very little of it for the purposes of un- tem. Massachusetts and Pennsylvania have made derwater archaeological research.

1 29 Je4deqo 9 UORB*VIPE

OCT Contents

Page Introduction 121 The Technologies 122 Interpretive Labels, Signs, and Other Written and Graphic Information 122 Interpreters 122 Taped Walking or Driving Tours 123 Electronic Media 123 Interpretive Structures/Visitor's Centers 124 Accessible Interpretation 124 Designing Access to Sites 125 Community and Public Education and Awareness 125 Issues 126 Chapter 6 Pu lic Education

INTRODUCTION Public education is an extremely important of its interest in interpreting natural settings and component of the preservation process because values to its park visitors.2 NPS sees cultural re- most funding for historic preservation projects de- source management and interpretation as com- rives from the public, either through taxes, or plementary. "Interpretation communicates the

through entrance fees at sites and museums. Pub- significance and value of the resource to. .. 'the lic education and preservation research seek to public'."3 Interpretation also assists in "develop- answer the question: what can we learn from our ing support for preserving" the parks' resources, material past? Information conveyed to the pub- including cultural resources.4 As the director of lic is directly tied to what we learn from the study NPS recently observed, "the preservation of the of archaeological sites and historic structures and tangible evidence of this [our] past insures the landscapes. Preservation professionals have a re- preservation of the knowledge base. [It is] a base sponsibility to report their research findings to the that can help us understand the fundamental rela- public as well as to colleagues at professional tionships of men to each other and of men liv- meetings and in published articles. ing in communities to their environment as a Public education is most effective when, in whole." Research results are an important part addition to reporting research results clearly, it of the significance and value of cultural resources, also helps the public understand the broad mean- and often form a part of NPS interpretative presentations. ing of prehistoric and historic sites, structures, and landscapes. Fully realized public education ex- Hundreds of private, nonprofit organizations plores the prehistoric and historic context for ex- contribute greatly to the public's understanding perience, actions, and events. It evokes an un- and appreciation of preservation goals. Many of derstanding of our relationship to those who these organizations promote community and in- preceded us as revealed in their cultural material. dividual involvement in research or restoration. Accessible, clearly presented information ena- For example, the Crow Canyon Center for South- bles the public to understand, for example, that western Archeology in Cortez, Colorado, prohistoric structures or designed landscapes are vides the opportunity for individuals, from ele- more than reflections of famous people or per- mentary school age children to senior citizens, sonal esthetic values, but are the products of a to spend time participating in an archaeological multitude of complex cultural forces that include dig, experiencing the varieties of tasks and tech- economic, political, and social values as well. For example, information concerning prehistoric sites =Barry Mackintosh, Interpretation in the National Park Service: A Historical Perspective (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the can assist in understanding the cultural and sci- Interior, National Park Service, 1986); see also Heather Huyck and entific achievements of Native Americans) Dwight T. Pitcaithley, "National Park Service: Historians in Inter- pretation, Management, and Cultural Resources Management," in Among Federal agencies, the National Park Public History: An Introduction, Barbara J. Howe and Emery Kemp Service (NPS) has a long history of educating the (eds.) (Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Co., 1986), pp. 371-387. 'Cultural Resources Management (Washington, DC: U.S. Depart- public about cultural resources, which grew out ment of the Interior, National Park Service, NP5-28), ch. 3, p. 34. See also Interpretation and Visitor Services Guideline (Washing- ton, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 'Thomas J. Schlereth, "Material Culture Research and Historic NPS-6). Explanation," The Public Historian 7, 1985, pp. 21-36. See aiso, 4"The Role and Responsibility of Interpretation in the National Ray A. Williamson, Living the Sky: The Cosmos of the American Park Service," position paper attached to a Memorandum from Wil- Indian (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1984), for an extensive dis- liam Penn Mott, Jr., NPS Director, to NPS Regional Directors re- cussion of prehistoric structures that display evidence of Native garding Interpretation, Feb. 10, 1986. American interest in the motions of the celestial sphere. 5Ibid., p. 8.

1 1) 0 121 122 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation niques of archaeology.6 Other institutions, such learning in a preferred area of education and as the White Mesa Institute, College of Eastern work."8 Utah in Blanding, Utah, may combine the experi- Not only should public education focus on the ence of research with a regional educational results and interpi.3tation of research, it should tour.7 The Alexandria Urban Archeology Program also include discussion of research techniques. of the City of Alexandria, Virginia, has developed Often the public is unaware of the part new tech- a highly structured program for involving the nologies play in the analysis of prehistoric and citizens of Alexandria in their city's past. The historic sites, structures, and landscapes. Yet, hours spent by the volunteers count toward fund- many of the techniques are of interest in them- raising by helping to secure matching research selves. Demonstrating the analytical process grants, and "the volunteer program also provides could contribute to a deeper understanding and a vehicle for participants to conduct their own appreciation of the complexities of research. However, as is true of the research process, lack of availability of information has impeded adequate public understanding of this important facet of preservation. 65ee Ricky Lightfoot, "The Duckfoot Site," Archaeology, March/ April 1986, pp. 68-69 for a description of Crow Canyon's goals and °Steven J. Shepard and John F. Stephens, "The Volunteer Pro- some recent research results. gram: Developing a Symbiotic Relationship Between the Profes- 7Ray A. Williamson and Fred Blackburn, "The Living Earth and sion and the Public," Approaches To Preserving a City's Past (Wash- the Outdoor Museum," paper presented at the conference, Is the ington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service Earth a Living Organism? Amherst, MA, August 1985. Preservation Planning Series, April 1983), pp. 61-68.

THE TECHNOLOGIES In addition to the traditional means of convey- interpretative material are essential for curious ing information about prehistoric and historic visitors to derive the maximum benefit from visit- preservation,includingbrochures,displays, ing a historic site. Without such aids, visitors may museum exhibits, photographic slide presenta- be able to experience the ambience of the site, tions,9 films and other media, techniques for in- but remain uninformed about what they are see- terpreting research on cultural resources now in . ing. Such information can be provided on two clude video, holographic images, and optical or three levels of complexity, depending on visi- disks. Public television programs based on video tor interest and involvement. footage taken during an excavation or renovation can be particularly effective in conveying a One way to increase public awareness of sig- sense of the excitement of research. In addition, nificant landscapes is to provide interpretive signs allowing the public access to components of a along the highways, such as are used for historic collection is useful for conveying the shape, size, routes, buildings, and monuments. The presence and manufacturing details of the artifactual ma- of a sign may entice a few to stop and invest the time to learn about the property. France, for ex- terial. ample, has an effective program to call travelers' attention to historic sites, including landscapes, Interpretive Labels, Signs, and Other using explanatory signs along the side of the road. Written and Graphic Information At some locations it is even possible to obtain in- These take a variety of forms, including bro- formation pamphlets. chures, maps and diagrams with points of interest highlighted, signs, or labels. These kinds of Interpreters

9Nancy E. Malan, "Producing Professional Quality Slide Shows," Trained individuals who can explain the his- Technical Report 2, American Association for State and Local His- tory and significance of a site, structure, or land- tory, 1985. scape are most effective at sites. Such interpret- o Ch. 6Public Information 123 ers can react immediately to visitors' questions. Electronic media make possible greater pub- As noted above, NPS provides education to the a lic involvement with the educational materials be- public concerning cultural resources. NPS inter- cause they allow direct interaction. Optical disks, pretative personnel provide tours, give slide especially, allow viewers to select different paths shows, and a variety of informative talks concern- of information and to individualize their educa- ing Park cultural and other resources. Effective tional experience. For example, the American use of technologies, such as tape recordings, Folldife Center at the Library of Congress has de- movies, and shde shows, can enhance the abil- veloped a documentary optical disk describing ity of such interpretive staff to convey meaning- life on a cattle ranch in Paradise Valley, Nevada.'° ful information to the public. On one disk, the producers have included fuH motion video with sound, a large, still picture ar- Taped Walking or Driving Tours chive (with captions) and oral histories in the form of filmed interviews that users can examine Many museums, and some historic sites, offer quickly and easily. taped tours of exhibits so that visitors may experience them at their own pace. Such equipment In underwater archaeology, as in other pres- could be easily used for a variety of prehistoric ervation areas, demonstrating the analytical proc- and historic sites, structures, and landscapes. ess could greatly contribute to a deeper under- Some could be provided by the private sector. standing and appreciation of the complexities and For example, a private nonprofit group allied with importance of underwater archaeology and mar- Fredericksburg-Spotsylvania National Battlefield itime preservation. However, research resuks Park provides tape cassettes on a rental basis for have not always been available in a timely man- battlefield driving tours. ner, or in a form appropriate to public consumption.

Electronic Media "The Ninety-Six: A Cattle Ranch in Northern Nevada, American Folk life Center, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, 1985. See Most sites contain far more information than "Videodisc: The Ninety-Six Ranch," Folk life Center News 9, 1986, can be conveyed to the public using traditional pp. 8-11. signs and written materiak. Video tape, optical disks, and computers not only deliver information in new formats, they make it possible to treat a wide variety of information. Such devices can be used not only to impart information on the site, structure, Of landscape at which they are located, they store and share a wide variety of contextual or comparative information. For example, the staff of the Frederick Law Olmsted Historic Site in Brookline, Massachu- setts, are developing a computer database that J will soon be able to generate a list of properties designed by the Olmsted firm within or near a ' given area code. Visitors will be able to learn W"? whether Olmsted properties are located near +14.'7. their homes. Eventually, the interpretive staff at . . .4.4 the site hopes to be able to call up and display Photo credit: National Park Service Submerged Cultural Resources Unit, images of such properties on a video monitor. Santa Fe, NM For comparative purposes, such an arrangement Underwater video cameras provide a degree of information could display site plans, historic photographs, and retrieval not easily duplicated by divers alone. These cameras have become essential tools of underwater archaeology modern views of the site. Clearly, this technol- because they enable immediate and detailed images ogy could ako serve as an effective research tool. for nondiving researchers. L.134 124 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Color video has become a very versatile tool over speakers placed at either end of the main in both high and low visibility underwater envi- exhibit area of the visitors center. ronments. It is relatively inexpensive and easy to use and capable of high resolution images. In U nfortunately, visitors entering the building too addition, powerful new lighting systems can over- frequently found themselves under verbal fire: come the limitations on color balance and differ- ".. .the exhibit did not work. ,.The shouting entiation that occur 20 meters below the water's match between the Loyalists and the Patriots con- fused visitors... surface when ambient light is reduced. These " Although therecordings began as the visitors entered the building, the ac- techniques are among those which have been applied in the project to record and stabilize the companying visual exhibit was not necessarily Monitor. synchronized with the sound. Insufficient testing clearly left the public with a far too real percep- The irrwginative use of the various photo-imag- tion of Revolutionary confusion and strife.12 ing systems, such as stereo photography and video, can convey the essence of the underwater experience to those who do not possess the ca- Interpretive Structures/Visitor's pabilities to dive themselves. The elderly and Centers handicapped, for example, should be able to One of the most effective interpretive devices share some aspects of the underwater experi- is a separate structure or pavilion that allows for ence. In some cases it may be possible to view the use of a variety of mediawritten, graphic, historic shipwrecks through submerged glass- and video display. However, such structures may ned compartments set into specially built tour- intrude on a historic site or landscape, so great ist vessels. care must be exercised in placing them to avoid Video cameras are particularly effective in- visual conflicts and to ensure that their design is terpretive devices because they are relatively incompatible with the setting. Existing structures expensive and require only moderate training for can often be adapted to serve interpretive acceptable results." Interpretive staffs can use purposes. them to tailor presentations to meet specific local needs, and to document the park's holdings. Accessible Interpretation They are also able to exhibit information about sites, stru-:tures, and landscapes that may be Consideration of provisions for handicapped closed to visitors because they are too fragile or access to designed landscapes and structures is too difficult for the average visitor to reach. important for public education. However, for some historic public properties it may be diffi- Audiovisual techniques can enhance visitors' cult to provide access without impairing the his- experiences enormously, but it should be noted toric integrity of the building or designed land- that they must be planned for and tested care- scape.13 A designed landscape whose only access fully. At Kings Mountain National Military Park, is a long flight of steps, or a historic structure with South Carolina, a creative audiovisual approach extremely narrow staircases are possible exam- misfired. Kings Mountain commemorates a bat- ples. The Eugene O'Neill house in California has tle between American loyalists and revolution- a brick sidewalk far too narrow for wheelchairs aries during the Revolutionary War. NPS featured or walkers that is part of the house entrance vista. this civil conflict by playing recorded arguments In many cases, it may be possible to make part of the property accessible. In these cases, appro- "Staff members of the NPS Submerged Underwater Cultural Re- sources Unit have made effective use of video cameras to docu- "Mackintosh, op. cit., p. 44. ment underwater resources in the National parks for management 13Charles Parrott, Access to Historic Buildings for the Disabled: and protection. Park managers have also found that the footage Suggestions for Planning and Implementation (Washington, DC: so acquired can be used to display and interpret the rPsources to Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service Technical Preser- park visitors. vation Services Division, 1980). 135 Ch. 6Public Information 125

Photo credits: Ray A. Williamson Interpretive structure and sign, Mule Canyon Ruin, southeast Utah. This structure is located to the side of the path leading to the stabilized and protected ruins of an ancient Pueblo Indian dwelling and sacred kiva. priate educational tools and structures are espe- the visitors' experience of imper:ant landscape cially important and should be designed and pro- features. Some zoo designers have been particu- vided as an integral part of the site design or larly effective in creating settings that channel vis- visitation process. itor traffic and screen certain critical areas. Video technology can be especially useful in assisting the handicapped to view a landscape or Community and Public Education see the interior of a distant room because it is pos- and Awareness sible to set up video cameras in such a way that the handicapped can scan them from one or Creating awareness of the value of historic prop- more fixed locations. I n any case, all interpretive erties within local communities is an important signs and labels should also be written in Braille. part of public education and preservation. In Recorded tours can be keyed to activate at points addition to providing information to the news me- of interest and describe what can be experienced dia, managers of historic properties may find it there. beneficial to provide public lectures and other events for the local population either at the historic site or in the community.14 Designing Access to Sites For landscapes, one of the most important ''For example, Sunnyside, in New York State, sends its interpre- amenities the landscape architect can provide is tive staff into the local community to make citizens aware of their a system of pathways and viewpoints to maximize local history.

1 '1 126 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Obtaining the involvement and support of the tour guides dressed in period costumes) 6 The is- local community, with participation in setting sue of costuming interpreters, however, like that project goals, is one of the most important aspects of presenting demonstrations or "living history" of public education. Involving the local commu- at cultural sites, is controversial within the profes- nity gives its citizens a sense of contributing to sion. Such activities can, perhaps inadvertently, the aims of the prehistoric or historic place, and misrepresent the past by substituting charm, clean- imparts in them an interest in preserving the re- liness, or nostalgia for historical reality. source because they have contributed to it. General support can also be gained by form- For example, the park staff at Cahokia Mounds ing "Friends of..." groups whose members can State Historic Site in Illinois depends on close in- assist with maintenance, fund raising for special volvement of individuals from the nearby com- projects, and staffing sales and information desks, munities to assist in educating park visitors. as well as serving as trained docents. Volunteers suggest projects that would make the park experience more enjoyable and partidpate with park rangers and interpretative personnel in carrying out these programs. They assist in archaeological excavations, the development of interpretive displays, and even publish a Park news- letter, The Cahokian. residents in historic festivals centered around historic landscapes, buildings, and monuments. See Malcolm G. Wood, "The Market- Some historic sites involve the community by ing and Interpretation of England's Heritage," paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New providing opportunities for local residents to par- Orleans, Apr. 23-27, 1986. ticipate in historic festivals,'s or to volunteer as I6Such volunteers work out best for the organization when they receive apprnpriate onsite training. The volunteers, in turn, gain IsEnglish Heritage (The Historic Buildings and Monuments Com- the opportunity to learn more about the historic property and its mission for England) has made particularly effective use of local historic relationship to the local community.

ISSU ES

ISSUE 1: In addition to affecting public attitudes toward Education is an effedive means of increasing cultural resources on public Ian is, such programs protection of cultural resources. may also educate private larriowners to protect The excavation and collection of historic and rather than dig up cultural resources on their own prehistoric artifacts from both public and private land. Prehistoric or historic cultural resources on private land are unprotected under current Fed- land is a serious problem for cultural resource eral preservation law. Such programs would also specialists. Fascinated by artifacts of earlier eras reduce the ease with which professional "pot- and other cultures, amateur collectors have made hunters" loot sites and could enable easier con- artifact collecting part of their recreational activ- victions under the Archeological Resources Pro- ity. Often, they are unaware of the damage their tection Act (ARPA). Public outrage at the losses collecting inflicts on the available resource. Edu- sustained by such activities is likely to increase cational programs that describe the preservation if the public were more aware of the economic research process and convey an understanding losses that can be incurred with looting and van- of the significance of prehistoric and historic cul- dalism. tural resources to the public could play an important part in reducing damage from such activ- A variety of technologies exist for education, ities. Educational programs that actively involve but they need to be used more effectively in or- the public and draw public input are likely to be der to affect significantly the retention of pre- most effective. historic and historic resources. Most interpretive Ch. 6Public Information 127 displays or other educational materials lack in- ting. Yet interpretation, both for research pur- formation concerning the protection of sites and poses and for public education, requires detailed what the loss of those sites means in human or knowledge of the local environmental context in cultural terms. The Louisiana program, designed which rock art and historic landscapes occur. and excecuted by the Louisiana Division of Ar- Museum displays, however, tend to tell one story, chaeology, serves as one important example of instead of providing the multidimensional, mul- what can be done, at relatively little cost, to edu- tivalent explanation that designed and cultural cate the public about protection issues (box C). landscapes call for. The appropriate use of optical disks or video might make possible a more ISSUE 2: dynamic, contextual approach that would include Museums have an important role in contrib- opportunities for the visitor to see a landscape uting to the public's understanding of pres- or historic structure from different angles and at ervation goals. different seasons. Museums play a unique role in public educa- Museum curators tend to regard the museum tion because they rely largely on the use of origi- as a facility for conserving prehistoric and historic nal natural objects or artifacts. They also employ artifacts and educating the public concerning ph Dtographs, drawings, or video for interpreta- their function and meaning. Most curators have tion. Although museums have re-created whole not taken an active role in educating the public historic rooms, or even dwellings inside their about the need to preserve cultural materials not walls, in most cases it is impossible to recreate in museums.' 7 However, most of the same tech- a rock art site or a landscape in a museum set- nologies that are used for interpreting museum collections to the public could be employed to alert it to the problems of protecting and preserving resources not yet in museums. Protection issues need to be included in interpretation."

ISSUE 3: Restoration and conservation techniques should be included in public education plans. Although certain conflicts and uncertainties over the interpretation of prehistoric sites will continue, interpretive schemes would better serve the public if they explicitly incorporated information on the process of preserving sites. At York Minster" in England, preservationists planned to close the structure to carry out massive multi-year restoration, but were ultimately convinced to

"Curators of materials from a marine environment are familiar with the need to educate the public about protection issues because their artifacts are so fragile. '8For example, in 1984 the Denver Museum of Natural History mounted a small exhibit about Colorado Archaeology. A pamphlet distributed as part of the exhibit not only listed the major public Photo credit: Ray A. Williamson archaeological sites in the State, but also included a warning about plundering archaeological sites and cited the State and Federal laws Ancient Pueblo Indian petroglyph of shield and warrior against collecting artifact on public lands. See "Colorado Archaeol- (on basalt) south of Santa Fe, NM. Native Americans ogy: Riddles and Resources," Denver Museum of Natural History, pecked, carved, or painted many thousands of images 1984. on stone outcroppings throughout North America. '95ee Bernard M. Feilden, Conservation of Historic Buildings (Lon- Long known and admired for their beauty, they have don: Butterworth Scientific, 1982), for more information on the res- only recently been studied and interpreted. toration of York Minster. 128 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Box C.Louisiana's Public Education Strategies for Archaeology About 85 percent of Louisiana's land is privately Number of People Affected by Various Projects owned. Archaeological sites on private land have no formal protection under Louisiana law. Thus, in order to increase site protection in the State, the State's Division of Archaeology has embarked on a formal program to increase public understand- 150 ing and awareness of archaeology. Louisiana's ef- .. forts demonstrate that not only can such a program reach a wide audience, it has a direct positive ef- 50 fect on the preservation of archaeological sites on 0 private land.' 0 40

Time Required To Develop Various Projects 30

500 20

400 10

0, 300

Booklets Newslette sLibrary School Curriculum 200 exhibits exhibits guide

SOURCE: Louisiana Division of Archaeology. 100 With only one person to coordinate and over- flHFl see its activities, the Division of Archaeology has Booklets Newsletters Library School Curriculum exhibits exhibits guide developed the following set of educational materials: SOURCE: Louisiana Division of Archaeology. An illustrated booklet seriesabout 30 pages long, each booklet is written byan archaeol- The Louisiana program has attempted to commu- ogist who is an expert on t;ie topic. Booklets nicate the following information inexpensively and are advertised in newspapers and archaeolog- in a manner that would not threaten landowners ical newsletters and distributed free to anyone who may own significant archaeological sites: requesting them (average cost per copy, $0.50). private landowners may have significant ar- Newslettersthese are 4 pages long and are chaeological sites on their property, distributed free to about 2,000 individuals, archaeological resources provide important public libraries, and schook (average costper and interesting information about past inhabi- copy, $0.08). tants of the land, Exhibitsfor libraries and small museums. scientific archaeological techniques provide They include artifacts, display captions,maps, the means to obtain the best information about photographs, and original illustrations. They archaeological sites, and are shipped to borrowers in an aluminum suit- not preserving resources results in the perma- case (average cost of materials per exhibit, nent loss of information. $600). For classroom use the Division prepares smaller exhibits with artifacts that students can handle, 'The information in this box was derived from Nancy W. Hawkins, maps, illustrations, and suggestions for classroom "Louisiana's Public Preservation Strategies/' paper presented at the An- nual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans, activfties (average cost cf materials per exhibit, LA, Apr. 25, 1986. $180). Ch. 6Public Information 129

Cost of Time and Materials of Various Projects Curriculum materials-169-page curriculum Divided by the, Number of People Affected guide designed for use in junior high school classes, (average cost-per copy, $0.90). 30 Workshops'-'7the Division offer, workshops for teachers around the State to introduce teachers to the materials and techniques they can tise to teach about archaeology and site preservation. 261 io Slide showsfor the workshops and in conjunction with exhibits.

Booklets Newsletters LibrarySchool Curriculum Finally, the division has "encouraged archaeol- exhibits exhibits guide ogists receiving federal grant funds to include pub- SOURCE: Louisiana Division of Archaeology. lic participation in their projects."

Photo credit: Courtesy Dayton Museum of Natural History A reconstructed prehistoric Indian house at the Incinerator Site in Dayton, Ohio. This thatched-roof dwelling represents archaeologists' interpretation of the original house forms at this location. It was built primarily with volunteer help from local citizens.

140 130 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation leave it open to the public who were able to view A building, group of buildings, or a landscape the work's progress in safety. The restoration gen- can be historically significant for one or several erated a great deal of visitor interest and finan- reasons21for a single event, day, or person, for cial support, and provided a unique educational outstanding design, craftsmanship, or artistic experience. value, for representing a particular type, period, or method of construction, etc. Changes in use Likewise, in the United States, NPS has kept and occupancy may have wrought alterations some historic buildings, among them the Clara that have assumed significance in their own right. Barton House in Glen Echo, Maryland, open for visitors during restoration and rehabilitation. Site Buildings, for example, can demonstrate tech- managers can increase the public's concern over nological change over time, the history of build- the continued "health" of historic structures by ing technology itself. It is often important for the illuminating the process that preserves them. history of changes in the use and function of historic structures to be incorporated into interpre- Reconstructions of prehistoric or historic structures in a manner that preserves as much of the tive presentations. For example, the interpreta- original methods as possible can be a source of tion of a structure such as the Old Post Office in particular enjoyment and instruction to site visi- Washington, DC, owned by the General Services tors. In one recent example, in which the recon- Administration, and recently rehabilitated to com- struction of a Paleoindian house in Virginia was bined public and private office and commercial carried out with volunteers using replicas of pre- use, could include more information about its historic tools, the house and the construction past function.22 tools are now available for visitor inspection.20 "See How To Apply the National Register Criteria for Evaluation, U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Washing- "The Thunderbird Museum and Archaeological Park in Front ton, DC. Royal, VA. See "Indian Dwelling Rebuilt," Archaeology 39, 1986, "Page P. Miller, Nation Coordinating Committee k the Promo- p. 78. tion of History, personal communication, 1986. Chapter 7 Technolo reset vatF.n Policy Contents

Page Introduction 133 Federal Policy 134 The Federal Preservation Budget 134 Applying Technology to Prehistoric and Historic Preservation 135 Policy Options 135 Federal Management of Prehistoric and Historic Cultural Resources 138 Federal Policy for Looting, Vandalism, and Illicit Trade in Cultural Resources 140 Federal Education Programs 142 Underwater Archaeology 143 Historic Structures 146 Prehistoric and Historic Landscapes 146 State and Local Governments 148 State Surveys 148 State Records 149 Technology Sharing 149 Protection Laws 150 Public Education 150 The Universities and the Private Sector 150 Training 150 Business and Industrial Contributions to Preservation 153 Promoting Technology Transfer 153 Costs 154

Tables Table No. Page 18. Federal Agencies With Major Roles in Underwater Archaeology and Maritime Preservation 144 19. U.S. Professional Societies With an Interest in Prehistoric and Historic Preservation 154

Figure Figure No. Page 4. Annual Historic Preservation Fund Fiscal ,Appropriations 134 Chapter 7 Technology and Preservation Policy

INTRODUCTION The Federal Government "in cooperation with Historic Preservation Fund, provide techni- other nations and in partnership with States, local assistance to Federal, State, and local cal governments, Indian tribes, and private orga- agencies and the public on identifying, eval- nizations and individuals," is responsible for pro- uating and protecting cultural resources; and viding leadership in preserving U.S. prehistoric develops historic preservation standards, and historic cultural resources.' The National guidelines, and regulations, which are pro- Historic Preservation Act charges the Secretary mulgated by the Secretary of the Interior. of the Interior and the Advisory Council on His- NPS also manages most ofihe nationally sig- toric Preservation with administering and guid- nificant prehistoric and historic sites in the ing the overall Federal preservation effort. United States. The Advisory Council on Historic Preserva- Participants in the OTA workshops asserted tion "advise[s] the President and Congress their belief that the FedPral Government must on matters relating to historic preservation, continue to play the primary role in: 1) encourag- recommend[s] measures to coordinate activ- ing and supporting prehistoric and historic pres- ities of Federal, state, and local agencies and ervation; and 2) guiding the Federal agencies, as private institutions relating to historic pres- well as State and local governments, in conserv- ervation."3 It also "review[s] the policies and ing the Nation's cultural heritage. Through pass- programs of Federal Agencies."4 In particu- ing the several preservation laws (see app. A) as lar, it is charged with encouraging public in- well as establishing and maintaining the Historic terest and participation in historic preserva- Preservation Fund (HPF), Congress has assumed tion, recommending studies, advising on the responsibility for formulating national historic legislation, encouraging training and educa- preservation policy and providing the framework tion, recommending methods to improve and means to carry it out. All Federal agencies Federal agency programs, and providing in- are required by law to preserve prehistoric and formation on the Council's activities. The historic properties on lands under their jurisdic- Council reviews and advises on projects un- tion,2 and each could become involved in devel- dertaken or permitted by Federal agencies oping relevant preservation technologies. that may affect properties listed on or eligi- The National Historic Preservation Act, enacted ble for listing on the National Register of in 1966 and amended in 1976 and 1980, gave Historic Places (see app. F). the Federal Government the funding and author- The StateHistoricPreservationOffices ity to bring greater consistency and coordination (SHP05) and Certified Local Governments to a multidisciplinary and multidirectional field. (CLGs) receive yearly HPF matching grants The mechanism enabled by this legislation ties to ensure that State, regional, and commu- together the national, State, and sub-State gov- nity preservation projects are carried out ernmental levels and includes, among other com- according to the nationally accepted stand- ponents: ards developed within NPS cultural programs. Pursuant to the National Historic The National Park Service's (NPS) Cultural Preservation Act, the Governor of each State Programs (see app. F) manage the National Register of Historic Places, administer the designates a State Historic Preservation Of- ficer to administer preservation programs in 'National Historic Preservation Act, Section 2 (2). 25ee especially, the National Historic Preservation Act, Sections 3National Historic Preservation Act, Section 202 (a)(1). 106 and 110. 4National Historic Preservation Act, Section 202 (a)(6).

133 134 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

that State. CLGs are approved by States and U.S. preservation mechanism. The Trust fos- receive funding from them. ters public participation in historic preserva- The National Trust for Historic Preservation, tion, and provides preservation information. chz, -tered by Congress in 1949,5 has, since It also owns and manages certain historic passage of the 1966 legislation, received a properties (see app. H). portion of its funding through annual grants from the Department of the Interior and, thus, has also been incorporated into the 5National Trust Act of 1949 (Public Law 81-408, 63 Stat. 937).

FEDERALPOLICY

Previous chapters have identified a range of is- certainty over the amount and focus of Federal sues related to the use of technologies for pre- support for historic preservation programs bears historic and historic preservation. This chapter directly on historic preservation technologies and relates these issues to Federal preservation pol- could drive needed specialists away from the icy and suggests options for implementingcur- field. The eventual lack of expertise could jeop- rent policy. In certain critical preservation areas, ardize: this chapter also presents possible new policy directions. Federal agencies' ability to identify, evaluate, and protect prehistoric and historic The Federal Preservation Budget properties affected by their actions or under their control; and The future use of technologies for historic the quality of future restoration and rehabili- preservation is threatened by declining funding. tation, much of which is conducted outside Pessimism over the declining Federal budget (fig- the Federal preservation tax incentives pro- ure 4) for preservation suffused OTA's five work- gram without the benefit or intervention of shops. Workshop participants noted that theun- competent preservationists. Most OTA workshop participants viewed the continuance of vigorous Federal involvement in Figure 4.Annual Historic Preservation Fund Fiscal Appropriations prehistoric and historic preservation crucial to the aims of preservation. They voiced fears over the 70 future of SHPOs and CLGs if the Federal Gov- ernment retreats further in support of their 60 programs. In their view, budget reductions weaken the g" 50 Federal Government's traditional leadership in g 40 advancing preservation. SHPOs match 50 percent Appropriations for States of the grants received from the HPF. They pass c 30 on 10 percent of that amount to CLGs. For each of the last 6 years, in the interest of returning more authority over preservation funding to the States, 20 the Administration has cut funding from the HPF (vs for the States. Each year, Congress has restored c-is 10 0 .... National..... Trust such funds; the annual appropriation for historic 0 0 preservation has declined steadily in that time. 19681970 1975 1980 1985 Years Nevertheless, interest in preservation has increased nationwide. This increase, which has SOURCE: National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers. been dramatic since 1980, began in 1976, when Ch. 7Technology and Preservation Policy 135 tax incentives for rehabilitation became available different technical or scientific settings, consid- to owners of income-producing certified historic erable effort must often be exerted to apply them buildings.6 Taxpayers reported rehabilitation ex- to the conditions prevalent in preservation. Re- penditures of $635.5 million for 1982 and $1,201.2 search, training, information sharing, and devel- million for 1983, for certified historic structures opment of standards are essential ingredients in alonz.7 this process. It is important for all Federal managers to be fully aware of the potential that cost- Increased preservation activity has necessitated effective new technology holds for solving prob- increased technical assistance from the Federal lems in the field, contributing to more effective Government, which administers the Tax Act Re- care of cultural resources, and in analyzing and habilitation Certification Program through NPS balancing the claims of competing interests. and the Internal Revenue Service. The Federal Government has provided that help through Federal agencies provide a variety of means for NPS's Preservation Assistance Division. Ironically, encouraging and facilitating the use of new pres- the budget for their efforts has been reduced pre- ervation technologies. One important mechanism cisely during the time of greatest historic build- is the government contracting mechanism, by ing rehabilitation activity. (See app. F for a brief which the Federal Government purchases serv- description of NPS cultural resource activities.) ices of preservation professionals. When con- trading with private firms or universities for Both professional and nonprofessional preser- preservation work, the agencies could encourage vationists have relied heavily on the Division's the use of certain technologies or approaches technical publications for protecting historic that have demonstrated a potential for cutting buildings. These publications, in the form of costs and maintaining preservation standards. briefs, "tech notes," case studies, booklets, and All relevant disciplines should be reflected in the reports, contain technical information concern- Requests for Proposals (RFPs). For example, RFPs ing sound and carefully tested approaches to should always include specific mention of the his- analyzing and resolving problems inhistoric torical and geological context of archaeological structures. sites, or the historic context within which each historic structure or landscape is assessed, as- Applying Technology to Prehistoric signed value or significance, and treated. and Historic Preservation Because the Federal Government coordinates Because of the Federal Government's tradi- its activities with the State Historic Preservation tional leadership role in prehistoric and historic Offices, technological applications will eventu- preservation, and in developing advanced tech- ally be transferred to the States and to local com- nologies for applications in many different other munities. However, lack of coordination among fields, effective use of technologies will require agencies, funding conflicts, and institutional apa- their continued involvement and support. The thy have slowed the adoption and widespread greatest single need is to improve the transfer and use of advanced techniques for preservation ap- adaptation of technologies from other disciplines plications. The following paragraphs examine a into preservation. variety of policy options by which the Federal Government can encourage and advance the ap- Technology transfer is the process of applying plications of technology for prehistoric and his- technology developed for one technical, geo- toric preservation. graphical, or institutional area in another. Be- cause most advanced technologies used in preservation were originally developed for use in Policy Options Establish a Federal Center for 6"Information on Historic Preservation Tax Incentives" GGD-84- 47 (Washington, DC: General Accounting Office, Mar. 29, 1984). Preservation Technology 7"Tax Policy and Administration: Historic Preservation Tax In- centives," GGD-86-112F5 (Washington, DC: General Accounting There is no central facility within which indi- Office, August 1986), table 11.6. viduals or organizations can obtain assistance

141 136 Technologies for Prea:istoric and Historic Preservation

with technological problems relating to preser- studies and tests a variety of building mate- vation. However, a central laboratory could bring rials, including adobe. It maintains contact together professionals from a number of disci- with State agencies through such groups as plines to tackle preservation problems from all the National Conference of States on Build- major areasarchaeology, historic structures, and ing Codes and Standards and numerous prohistoric landscapes. Such an institution would also fessional societies dedicated to building and function as a clearinghouse for sharing informa- c )nstruction technologies, such as the Na- tion among the various components of the pres- tional Institute of Building Sciences. ervation community. The National Science Foundation (NSF) Ar- The U.S. Government maintains a number of chaeometry Program provides limited fund- Federal or federally supported laboratories for re- ing for the development of new techniques search in climate, energy, weapons, and other in archaeological science. areas of national concern. One or more univer- The National Aeronautics and Space Admin- sity or Federal laboratory could be funded to pro- istration (NASA) Remote Sensing Applica- vide sustained support for preservation research, tions Program provides some training and as well as a variety of necessary services such as limited support for the developing archaeo- remote sensing, phWogrammetric recording, or logical and landscape applications of remote materials failure analy.-is. sensing from aircraft and spacecraft. The Department of Defense, through the Congress could direct the Secretary of the In- Navy, funds the projects conducted by ocean- terior to establish such a center within the De- ographic institutes whose activities and tech- partment of the Interior or some other Federal nologies often bear on historic preservation. agency. The center would facilitate the transfer For example, the Navy and NSF (through its of technology from other areas into prehistoric Marine Sciences Division) helped fund the and historic preservation by watching for and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution's adopting new applications of existing technology, Deep Submergence Program to document providing training for preservation professionals, the Titanic, and disseminating information on preservation The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- technologies. In addition to meeting Federal Gov- ministration, which, with technical advice ernment requirements for preservation technol- from the National Trust for Historic Preser- ogies, such a center would ako serve State and vation and NPS, is documenting the U.S.S. local needs. It would: Monitor. Conduct Research on Preservation Problems. It would either assurne responsibility for the re- Set Standards and Provide Training.Although search programs related to historic preservation such programs are conducting high-qualityre- or coordinate with and supplement current pro- search in prehistoric and historic preservation, grams. A center should have a small, highly trained they are not equipped to set standardsor to pro- staff and the facilities for testing and analyzing vide the training that is essential to the efficient new methods, techniques, and equipment. transfer of technology. As noted in chapter 2, there is a strong need for an institution that would Such research could be carried out in a vari- identify research and development requirements, ety of agencies and institutions possessing spe- design preservation standards, disseminate infor- cialized expertise in technical areas, but should mation on new methods, and train professionals be coordinated by a single agency focusing spe- in the use of appropriate new technologies. cifically on historic preservation. Several government agencies already provide some important Because it is the largest single purchaser of pres- technical services related to preservation needs: ervation materials and services, the government would benefit directly from the increasedexper- The National Bureau of Standards Center for tise such training would provide. Trainingpro- Building Technology is the Nation's only in- grams in historic techniques, similar to those tegrated building research laboratory that offered by RESTORE, a New York-based nonprofit

- Ch. 7Technology and Preservation Policy 137 organization that provides training for tradespeo- the Federal Government, such an institution ple in the restoration and maintenance of historic would provide needed assistance to State and lo- buildings, should also be considered. In order for cal governments and to the private sector. Federal managers to contribute to more effective management of historic properties, including Establish a National Center for landscapes as well as structures, it is essential that Preservation Technology they become properly trained in the potential for new technologies to aid in the preservation Alternatively, Congress could create a National process. Center for Preservation Technology, managed by a consortium of universities. Such an institution There is a strong need for workshops or semi- would be able to draw on a multitude of differ- nars on techniques for historic preservation that ent skills in several universities, and in many include experts from many different disciplines. university departments. Like the Federal center, Many new methods, techniques, and kinds of it would serve as a focal point for the develop- equipment for historic preservation derive from ment and promulgation of preservation technol- natural science and engineering fields. Many ogy. It would, for example, also coordinate with cultural resource managers were trained in hu- the government agencies now responsible for re- manistic disciplines and may not be aware of the search on different aspects of preservation tech- potential for new technology to solve historic nologies. However, because it would be free of preservation problems. A Federal center could many of the constraints imposed by being housed aid this effort by providing direct funding for such within the Department of the Interior, where seminars, and by encouraging professional orga- other departmental funding and policy priorities nizations to provide the aegis for them.8 can impede the development of new technol- Coiled and Disseminate Information About ogies, it might be more innovative than a Fed- Technologies for Preservation.Detailed sum- eral center. Though it would function primarily maries on the technologies available for archaeoas a resource for the Federal Government, it logical sites, historic structures,9 and historic land- would also serve State and local needs. scapes, and their benefits and drawbacks, could The National Astronomical Observatories, help reduce costs for preservation and result in which are managed by the Association of Univer- more effective research. To be most useful, these sities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) and documents should also provide an inventory of funded by the NSF, might serve as an appropri- sources of expertise within the field. In addition ate model for such an institution. Located in Tuc- to developing a set of documents, a center should son, Arizona, and in Cerro Tololo, Chile, they make such information available on-line, where provide research facilities for the entire astronom- it can be brought up to date periodically. ical community, and also conduct their own re- A national center would have the advantage search. of aggregating much of the specialized techno- Because a national center based in the univer- logical expertise now spread throughout the De- sity community would support Federal preserva- partment of the Interior and other Federal agen- tion efforts, it would receive considerable Fed- cies. In addition to serving as the focal point for eral funding. However, it could also strengthen technology-related preservation information within public/private ties for prehistoric and historic preservation. Such arrangements have always been an important feature of the preservation ',The Army Corps of Engineers helped to sponsor a day-long work- movement. Thus, a significant percentage of the shop on Microcomputers in Archaeology at the 1986 Annual Meet- funding could come from State and private ing of the sodety for American Archaeology. This workshop, which sources. was extremely well attended, provided first-hand training for archaeologists in computer techniques for archaeology. Many of the programs exhibited there would be of utility for landscape preser- Create a Preservation Technology Board vation as well. 9NP5 has published a very effective series of reports on technol- Additionally, Congress might wish to consider ogies for histork structures (e.g., Preservation Briefs, Tech Notes). supporting a preservation technology board. Even 138 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

if one of the two options for creating a center for pean cultural resource management is signifi- preservation technology were adopted, a board cantly regionalized, as in West Germany and composed of professionals from all parts of the Italy, the central ministry nevertheless performs preservation community would be needed to vital coordinative and support functions. provide external guidance to a center and to determine current needs for preservation technol- Since its establishment in 1916, NPS has been ogy, develop standards for the application of new the foremost Federal agency for historic preser- technologies, and aid in disseminating informa- vation, and despite the lack of strong Adminis- tion. The professional societies with an interest tration support for preservation (compared to in archaeology, historic structures, and historic other priorities), and limited budgets, carries out landscapes should have considerable interest in many excellent programs such as the Historic such a board. American Buildings Survey (HABS) and the His- toric American Engineering Record (HAER). Preservation efforts within the Federal agencies would benefit by a preservation technology board, Because NPS falls under the jurisdiction of the which would serve to provide technical stand- Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks, ards and information for the entire preservation some observers have voiced considerable skep- community. Congress could foster the creation ticism as to whether it could ever bring cultural of such an organization by encouraging the Fed- concerns to the forefront of the Department of eral agencies with major responsibilities for pre- the Interior's conservation agenda. The energies historic and historic preservation to provide its of Fish and Wildlife and Parks are directed largely initial funding. A board could also foster the pub- toward natural environmental, energy, and other lic/private partnership in preservation. pressing land management issues. On the other hand, a director sympathetic to and deeply aware of the importance of the Federal role in historic Federal Management of Prehistoric preservation could exert the influence necessary and Historic Cultural Resources to change the current balance. Futhermore, NPS itself is the owner and manager of the largest col- The Federal Government's prehistoric and lection of historic properties in the United States historic preservation programs lack an effective and has special expertise in managing them. central focus. Many participants in OTA's workshops expressed considerable concern over the The Advisory Council on Historic Preservation lack of a central agency or framework for sup- and The National Trust for Historic Preservation porting technological applications for historic also provide technical advice to the Federal agen- preservation. Given no effective central focus, it cies and the public at large. A renewed Federal is difficult to set technical standards, provide commitment to historic preservation, with more coordination, and continuity among Federal efficient and effective use of preservation tech- agencies. nologies, will require these organizations to coordinate their efforts more closely. In addition, NPS could pursue this task by expanding its more involvement is needed with the National present core of experts and information on ar- Building Museum in Washington, DC, chartered chaeology, historic structures, and historic land- by Congress in the National Historic Preservation scapes. However, with the current institutional Act, Amendments of 1980 (see app. l). The Build- structure for preservation within the Department ing Museum, because of its public/private nature, of the Interior, cultural programs do not get the could play an especially informative and helpful attention they merit. part in advancing the understanding of building It would be possible to place cultural programs technologies and their mile in preservation. within a framework modeled on the European The preceding discussion raises issues that are cultural ministry. The National Historic Preser- outside the scope of this study. Yet they are seri- vation Act itself was Rroduced after study of the ous enough to suggest further detailed study. European cultural ministerial experience, which Congress may wish to consider changes in the in France goes back 150 years. While some Euro- structure of the Federal Government's preserva- Ch. 7Technology and Preservation Policy 139 tion efforts.10 Participants in the OTA workshop Work Within the Current Preservation and review process suggested several different Structure options: Even if the mat iagement structure for Federal preservation were left largely unaltered, there are Establish a Separate Agency To Manage a number of improvements to this Nation's pres- All Federal Cultural Programs ervation effort which are possible, given the direc- In addition to providing a central focus for all tion provided by the National Historic Perserva- government programs in preservation, such an tion Act, and other legislation. The initiation and agency would be responsible for administering execution of such programs will require direc- the National Endowment for the Humanities, the tion and continued oversight by Congress. National Endowment for the Arts, and other cul- The agencies could: turally oriented programs. Inventory Their Preservation Needs and Plans Create an Independent Agency Devoted for Implementing Them.Each Federal agency to the Care and Protection of Prehistoric has a different set of requirements for the pres- and Historic Cultural Resources ervation and protection of cultural resources. Each agency could be directed to make a peri- Such a policy has the major advantage of pro- odic inventory of its overall cultural resources viding coherence for the management of U.S. preservation needs, and report them to Congress. prehistoric and historic preservation programs. Such an inventory would help the agencies and It would remove the primary responsibility for Congress assess where additional attention should cultural resources management from the Depart- be applied to preservation. Cultural resources ment of the Interior, yet it would create a new protection (see Chapter 4: Restoration, Conser- institution that must be staffed and funded. An vation, Maintenance, and Protection), especially, independent agency would be the logical place could improve markedly if it had a higher priority for a Federal center for preservation technology. within the Federal agencies, and if the agencies However, it would lack the benefits of in-house made stronger attempts to coordinate with one expertise in the actual ownership and manage- another as required by the Historic Preservation ment of historic properties, including landscapes. Act (Section 110). Reorganize the Department of the Interior Develop Sustained, Organized Maintenance To Provide for an Assistant Secretary for Programs for Historic Federal Properties. Natural and Cultural Resources Except for catastrophic events, most deterioration from environmental processes can be slowed This option would bring all the cultural pro- or mitigated by systematic, regular maintenance. grams from NPS and other Interior agencies un- Yet, most agencies have inadequate maintenance der the aegis of one office. It would be simpler programs for their tangible cultural resources and to effect than creating an independent agency, tend to respond to preservation crises instead. and would increase the visibility and importance The Federal agencies could improve their proof preservation within the Department of the In- grams for prehistoric and historic protection by terior. However, it would continue the current instituting well-organized procedures of system- situation of maintaining the preservation function atic and regular maintenance on the properties within the Department which, as noted earlier, under their management and control. has disadvantages as well as advantages for the national preservation programs. Improve Coordination and Information- Sharing Among Agencies With Respect to His- IoThe Advisory Council on Historic Preservation has just completed a study that treats issues related to the overall Federal pres- toric Preservation.The technologies for pre- ervation effort: The National Historic Preservation Act: An Assess- historic and historic preservation are not gener- ment (Washington, DC: Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, ally integrated with larger government systems September 1986). In addition, see The Secretary of the Interior's Twentieth Anniversary Report on the National Historic Preserva- and programs. For example, the maintenance tion Act (The Section 504 Report). considerations appropriate to historic buildings Appendix C RecOstration and Private Orcrwship of Archase0og9c61 Ojec1

Archaaci]ec:Ms and Collectors collector. The settlement :le archaeologist with information and the vith artifacts. Arck7..oloi:.ists have always approachej the problem o;" .the ong-term care and administration of the A Look At 'Mc- World obje w,.r recover and study fro:n conflicting points .of view Yhough we insist on th.7 most careful meth- Let us examine the real case of an individual who ods for r:2covering, documentir;g, ond stAying arti- may own property containing an archaeological site. facts, v,often reject the responsibihy for their care The landowner can: after th ...y have served our immediate ends. leave it alone; Yet archaeologists become outraged by the dig it up, and either sell or keep any artifacts; hoards of artifact collectors who buy and sell objects approach archaeologists to dig it up, allowing and who wish, more than a.nything else, to provide them to retrieve both the objects and the infor- long-term care to the objects they acquire. The col- mation; lector, on the other hand, appears to Teject the respon- donate the site to the Archaeological Conser- sibility obtaining and preserving the contextual, vancy or some other nonprofit institution; or descriptive data that is so important to archaeologi- sell the contentc of the site to someone else to cal research and an understanding of the past. The dig up on speculation. collector wants the abject for its neauty, unusual qual- Before choosing an option, the landowner must ities, for its market aiue. evaluate his or her motivations, which are one or a The archaeological commimity considers the pur- combination of the following: chase and sale of objects and the looting of archaeo- financial gain; logical sites that generally predeeds them an abomi- building a collection for personal enjoyment; nation, yet refuses to Jeal with the causal factors that curiosity or "adventure"; underlie the 1,1estructive nature of the activity. Some public service or a desire to "do th0 right thing"; sectors oi the archaeological community have at- and tempted to wage a legisladve war with the collector. legal and/or public pressure to leave the site un- They seem to have had little effect or the continuing disturbed. distruction of archaeological properties. In my estima- If the landowner's motivations are public spirited, tion, the archaeological comrnunfty cannot expect to the site either remains undisturbed or is mined for in- win a war with the "art" collecting public. As long formation as well as artifacts. In either case, the ar- as archaeological properties have value to people, chaeological community's research interests are for- they will continue to attempt to purchase them, warded. If recovered, the artifacts then enter into a whether they are obtained legallypr illegally, thus cre- grey area of ownership, but are often placed under ating a demand for illegal pothunting. Archaeologists, the stewardship of the presiding archaeologist, a then, have everything to gain from a negotiated truce, university, or an institute. Very often, they simply drop but a lot to lose if we choose to ignore the collector's out of sight. interest in acquiring and caring for archaeological If the landowner's motivations are driven solely by objects. personal enjoyment or for financial gain, archaeolo- The followlng discussion lays out the groundwork gists lose. The landowner has contributed to his own for one possible settlement between archaeologist and or someone else's collection without gathering the essential contextual information. Because the method- 'This paper was requested from Dr. Walter Wait, archaeologist, after an ology for pure artifact extraction differs from the meth- intensive discussion wah OTA staff concerning technology and protection odology for research, only the "goodies" get passed of archaeological properties. Although this paper focuses on a partial solution the loss of prehistoric archaeological remains, much of the discussion on. In today's climate, the site owner recognizes no is also applicable to such historic cultural material. options in excavating if driven by the desire to gain

1 79 169 170 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation a collection or to gain financially because the archaeo- quent supervision follows a pattern laid down by the logical community is largely unapproachable. The professional licensing body. Th;s pattern would in- data, for all practical purposes, have been given up. clude, but would not bo limited to the following: the excavation will fl[ovi standard archaeologi- Iiiserting the Archaeologist Into cal principles; the excavation will be fully documented with a the Collector's Loop site map, profile drawings, photos, and e..cava- Because the prehistoric or historic culture of the tion locations; country is at stake, we might ask what we can offer all artifacts will be recovered and cataloged; and the collector in return for the opportunity to gain a a site excavation report will be prepared. deeper understanding of the site and the people who The standard contract might stipulate that the ar- created it. Perhaps the one thing that the archaeolog- chaeologist will forward registration papers and a cer- ical community has of value to the collector is the aca- tificate of excavation to some National or State regis- demic credentials that permit the validation of an ob- try center. All other recovered remains, artifacts, and ject'sauthenticity."Genuineness" isofcritical samples would become the property of the licensing importance to a collector of objects. One of the few organization. This group or groups would then be re- times an archaeologist and a collector come face to sponsible for the curation, protection, or disposal of face is when the collector requests assistance in estab- the site's recovered unregistered remains. lishing the authenticity of an artifact that he or she has acquired. More often than not, the collector is turned The Registered Artithct away, widening the gap between the two sides. How- ever, if this is the bargaining chip that archaeology can This prcposal requires the creation of one or more bring to the negotiatingtable, it should be used. I pro- formal artifact registries. The contracted, licensed ar- pose to trade an offer of authenticity for the car:ful chaeologist submits tie paperwork to the registry ap- recovery of associated archaeological data. plying for formal approval of the artifact's "pedigree." In order to offer the collector some document at- Paperwork required might be as follows: testing to the provenience of artifacts dug on private a request for title, which includes a full descrip- land,I sug6est that we license archaeologists to su- tion, measurements, and a color photograph or pervise the work. This guarant authenticity and al- digital image; lows the archaeologist to gather important research a copy of the excavation report; data. a certificate of excavation indicating that a licensed archaeologist was resnonsible for the ex- The Licensed Archaeologist cavation or recovery of the object; a certified appraisal; and With an archaeologist on board, the treasure hunt a percentage fee based on either the appraised turns into an archaeological dig, the purpose of which value or the actual sale price. is to provide the landowner with collectable, docu- Upon entry into the registry, the owner would ob- mented artifa,:ts and the archaeological community tain a nontransferable title and an artifact documen- with data on the artifacts, contextual information, ar- tation card similar to a plastic driver's license, com- tifact preservation, and professional documentation plete with photo (figure C-1). and reporting. The site owner now has four options with regard Why Do It? to the conduct of the excavation design: 1. dig where Itell you; The registration of artifacts requires a great deal of 2. dig as much as you can for X dollars, organization and effort. Why should it be done? First, 3. dig where you think you will find collectable ar- it fulfills the archaeologists' part of the bargain with tifacts; and the collectorsdocumentation for authentification. 4. dig where you will learn the most. The collector receives an artifact with a verifiable his- The archaeologist, according to a standard contract tory and a title illustrating a valid transfer of owner- signed by both archaeologist and site owner, would ship. This title, together with accompanying documen- work out an excavation plan designed around the tation, should increase the value and desirability of owner's desires as stated above and the number of the registered artifact. If the registry is current, a pro- people hired, conscripted, or otherwise obtained to spective buyer could check the titie at the registry for do the work. The archaeologist's design and subse- verification of the owner of record. Collectors dislike App. CRegistration and Private Ownership of Archaeological Objects 171

Figure C.1.Artifact Title archaeological research support; and archaeological site conservation. Name The initial title fee and all transfer fees would sup- Address port the registry, the duplication and preparation of paperwoi k, and site documentation and the crcation Phone and transmission of curation reports (i.e., papers on Site Number how best to protect, care for, conserve, and display Location: 1/4 section specific classes of registered artifacts). Some portion county of the fee might go to the curation and care of the Excavator's name artifacts, notes, and specimens recovered from the Site report title sites and turned over to the agency for protection. Some funding might go toward promoting research Permit number on the recovered material (i.e., requests from licensed archaeologists for subsidies for dendrochionological Artifact number or other research-oriented analysis). Finally, some Artifact type funding might go to nonprofit institutions dedicated to the purchase and preservation of intact archaeo- Condition logical properties. Culture If the excavation does not turn up anything of mone- Period tary value, the archaeologist would still submit the cer- Type tificate of excavation and the excavation report, sam- Location ples, and artifacts, to the Registry. All recovered Level material would become the responsibility of the Depth agency. The site owner would have lost his or her Associated artifacts speculative investment, but would have the important satisfaction of having contributed to the advancement Map with location provided?-- of knowledge, for the archaeological community Site report provided? would have recovered its interpretive data intact. Since the location of all registered artifacts could be Photograph provided? tracked, professional needs to re-study, bring together, Date of discovery or study titled materials, could always be met. Date of application Signature: Flaws In the Plan owner excavator The plan as outlined has two basic flaws. First, the cost of archaeological excavation is quite high, especially when compared to the usual pothunting tech- forgeries. We could expect that eventually registered niques. Second, there is already a large inventory of artifacts will become the only artifacts worth collect- artifacts that must be curated. ing. This could have the beneficial effect of drying up Current personnel costs alone for planning and su- the market for illicitly obtained objects. If an artifact pervising a 1-week excavation, mapping and caring is not titled, one must assume that it has been unlaw- for artifacts, and writing up the report total approxi- fully obtained. mately $3,000, assuming a contract cost of $200 per The archaeological community and the public may day. Most excavations are likely to take much longer benefit in several important ways. First and foremost, and require hiring more than one individual. How are data collection and preservation are assured. The con- tt.:? archaeologists to be paid for their efforts? Put tract could also give the State or Federal governrc:ent another way, how do we fund this collection of data, a right of first refusal to purchase significant artifacts as opposed to the recovery of objects only. The land- at the appraised value. Furthermore, the registration, owner will probably not be able to fund the excava- being non-transferable, must be applied for each time tion effort out-of-pocket. The following options present the artifact's ownership is transferred. The resultant ways in which the excavation could be funded. fees could be used to support the registry in several ways: Investor Funding support of the registry programs; administration and conservation of nontitled ar- Speculative funding would require the organization tifacts and site documents; of a group of collectors/investors willing to share the 172 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

cost of what could be essentially construed as a treas- The Existing Artifact ure hunt, but conducted under controlIed archaeological conditions. If registered artifacts cause the trade in unregistered artifacts to decline, those with unre7.i.o.ered artifacts Tax Incentives might be tempted to forge regis: (Tertificates, or to "find" their artifacts in new nfions. G7dPA- Tax incentives might be provided to a site owner to cope with the existing open permitting the deduction of archaeological expenses artifa...:,in "undocumented" register classification should Le-...re- incurred during legitimate site excavations. Contract& ated for a short period of time. This would be simk. archaeological expenses coolJe considered as a to "foundation stock" accepted in horse and ot legitirnate business expense and could be claimed as animal registries. The "undocumented" category a loss should no artifacts of value be recovered. would serve to build the register's initial funding base. The initial registration fees might be increased ifan Subsidies artifact owner fails to register the artifact recovered Federal or State subsidy of archaeological work, during a legitimate excavation after a certain period where upon apphcation for a subsidy, perhaps to a of time. This may discourage fraudulentacts (i.e., State Historic Preservation Office, the site owner "seeding" of archaeological sites). agrees to pay some portion of the excavation costs Museums faced with vast surplus collections might on a sliding scale dependent on the appraised value title artifacts excavated 20, 30, 40 years ago and place of recovered registered artifacts. The more valueac- them on the open market, providing thata licensed tually recovered, the less subsidy the landowner archaeologistiswilling toaccept theexisting would receive. documentation claims provided by the museum, college, or collection. Such an action might enable them Offices to earn needed extra income and help contribute to the acceptance of registration among collectors. County archaeological offices, similar to the county agricultural agent, could support archaeologists whose The Registration Mechanism primary function would be to supervise excavations on private lands. The government might pay the cost The National Park Service has just finished devel- of salary and office space. Site owners would pay the oping a computerized National Catalogue for Objects. actual material costs of excavation and travel. This catalog program can run on microcomputersas well as mini and mainframe computer systems. Addi- Vchmteer Field School tional work, adding the "transfer of ownersh -"nor- tions, etc., might turn this National Catalog, :r.o a Here, "field school" partk:ipants would pay for the National Registry that could be handled by odivid- privilege of excavating the privately owned site, much ual State offices, or by the Federal Government. State as they do in a number of nonprofit institutions. The or local registries could be combined to form a na- participants ,\,ould pay fees that would go toward sup- tional registry where transfer of title could porting the contracted archaeologist/supervisor. occur anywhere in the United States. The laminated plastic ID card and digitized image of each object are withincur- Traditional Research Grants rent levels of technology. As ownership of artifacts recovered on private lands has never been in doubt in this country (they belong Conclusions to the landowner), the relatiorFhip of research and research projects to private landowners runains the The above scenario, negotiating a compromise be- same. Some landowners may wish or require grind- tween the archaeological community and the public ple investigators of research projects to prepare title collector, iHustrates the potential management of documents to specific artifacts that the owner wishes some portion of our artifactual heritage in a non- to retain. traditional mann ercuration by the collector. Theop- tion of first refusal permits the States and Federal Gov- Nontraditional Grant Programs ernment to obtain for the public any "crown-jewel" that might be uncovered. The registrationprocess per- Private industry may provide funding for the exca- mits perpetual tracking of significant artifactsso that vation of sites on private land they own for the tax museum exhibitions and scholarly ,2search could be deduction that such charitable gifts may realize. carried out. App 3Registration and Private Ownership of Archaeological Objects 173

The coi as illustrated appears to b.:nefit ing is a strong part of our culture, both in this country both oari lechanisms for funding, plus the will- and abroad. Providing alternative means to own and ingn sides to go along, however, will be traffic in antiquities may help reduce pothunting and nee., .., or any other kind of alternative preser- the resultant destruction of important archaeological vadoii ,Jgram is to work. One thing is very dear. information. The public and archaeologist could both_ Trying to legislate away the art and artifact collector benefit. will not curb the desire to own collections. Collect- Appendix D atIonal Register Criteria From t e 11 nr©uchin " To Apply- thu Naomi Register Criteria fforEvaluation"'

As the official list of properties significant in Amer- Criteria Considerations ican history, architecture, archaeology, engineering, and culture, the National Register of Historic Places r.gdinarily cemeteries, birthplaces, or graves of his- was designed to be used by the general public, local torical figures, properties owned by religious institu- communities, State governments, and Federal agen- tions or used for religious purposes, structures that cies in their preservation planning efforts. Properties have been moved from their original locations,recon- listed in the National Register receive a !Lifted form structed historic buildings, properties primarilycom- of protection and certain benefits. For information memorative in nature, and properties that have achieved concerning the effects of listing, write the National significance within the past 50 years shall not be con- Park Service or any of the historic preservotion offices sidered eligible for the National Register. However, in the States and territories. such properties will qualify if they a.e integral parts of districts that do meet the criteria or if they fall within Criteria for Evaluation the following categories: A. a religious property deriving primary significance The criteria are the National Register's standards for from architectural or artistic distinction or his- evaluating Cri£ significance of properties. The criteria torical importance; or are designed to guide the States, Federal agencies, the B. a building or structure removed from its origi- Secretary of the Interior and others in evaluating po- nal location but which is significant primarily for tential entries (hert1i areas of the National Park architectural value, or which is the surviving System and Ni-A.)nai : Landmarks) for the Na- structure most importantly associated with a tional Regist. historic peNon or event; or The quality ce in Aiiierican history, ar- C. a birthplace or grave of a historical figure of out- chitecture, archNA engineering, and culture is standing importance if there is no other appro- present in r naildings, structures, and ob- priate site or building directly associated with his jects that .,egrity of location, design, setting, productive life; or materials, workmanship, feeling, and es;ociation, and: D. a cemetery which derives its primary significance A. that are associated with events that have made from graves of persons of transcend,.-.:rt impor- a significant contribution to the broad patterns tance from age, from distinctive design features, o' our history; or or from association with historic events; or Wat are associated with the lives of persons sig- E.a reconstructed building when accurately exe- nificant in our past; or cuted in a suitable environment and presented C. that embody the distinctive characteristics of in a dignified manner as part of a restoration type, period, or method of construction, or that master plan, and when no other building or represent the work of a master, or that possess structure with the same association has survived; high artistic values, or that represent a significant Or and distinguishable entity v.hose components F.a property primarily commemorative in intent may lack individual distinction; or if design, age, tradition, or symbolic value has D. Y',1at have yielded, or may be likely to yield, in- invested it with its own historical significance; or tormation important in prehistory or history. G. a property achieving significance within the past - ngton, DC, hr the Department of the InMrior, National Park Serv- 50 ./ears if it is of exceptional importance. ice, June 1984

174 1R4 Appendix E National Register if Historic Places Elnuenaory.NorninAto n Fer

historic and or common 2. esti street & number _ not for publication city, town _ vicinity of state code county code 3. Classification Category Ownership Status Present Uso _ district _ public _ occupied _ agriculture _ museum building(s)_ private _ unoccupied commsrcial _ park structure _ both _ work in prowess _ educational prk ate residence _ site Public Acquisition Accessibk, _ entertainment religiout, _ object _ In prom .s _ yes: reet,.cted _ government _ scientific _ being censidered _ yes: unravtricted _ industrial _ transportation _ no _ military _ other: -.1", 11=MMIM 4. Owner of Prnperty name

--est & number city, town _ vicinity of state 0. Location of LegalDescription courthouse, registry of deeds, etc. street & number city, town state 6.epresealtudon in Existing Surveys ALI avama wwwiro...... anawagric An* title as this pro:)erty been determined eligible? . yes no date federal state couw.y local depository for survey records city, town state

175 176 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

7. Description

Condition Check one Check one excellent _ deteriorated unaltered _ original site fjood ruins a It-red moved date fair unexposed

Describe tho pro:sont and original (if known) physical appecrnnco

Significance

Pgriod Areas of SignificancoCheck and justify below archeology-prehistoric _ community planning _.. landscape architecture religion 1400-1419 _ archeology-historic _ _ conservation _ law scielce 1500-1539 agriculture ___ economics _ literature ___ sculpture 1600-1699 __. architecture ____ education _ military _ _ sOcial/ 1700-1799 ._ art _.. engineering __ music humanitarian 1800-1899 commerce exploration,settlement philosophy _ ti,-eater 1900- communications induStry politicsigovernment transportation _ invention ___ other (specify)

Specific dates BuildonArchitoct Statement of Significance (in ono paragraph)

186 App. ENational Register of Historic Places InventoryNomination Form 177

9. Major Bibliographical References

10. (MeogvapC.Dicall Daan Acreage of nometed property Quadrangle name Quadrangle scale UTM References

Zone Eluting Northing Zona Easting Northing

E F .j I I i

Verbal boundary description and justification

List all atatea and countioa for properties overlappinzi state or county boundaries state code county code state coo. county code 11. Form Prepared By name/title organization data street & number telephone city or town state awc.r. 12. State Historic Preservation Officer Certification The evaluated significance of this property within the state is:

national ,_ state 10Cal As the designated State Historic Preservation Officer for the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (Public Law 89 665), I hereby nominate this property for inclusion In the National Register and certify that it has been evaluated according to the criteria and procedures set forth by the National Park Service.

State Historic Preservation Officer signature title date 1.17111. For NPS uS0 only I hereby certify that this property la included In the National Register

date Keeper of the 14ational Register

Attest: date Chief of Registraeon PM4

TR7 Appendix F tional m ark Service Ct,1tira dr grams'

INTERAGrICV PRESERVATION RESOURCES ASSISTANCE BEEPIffmga

HISTORIC ARCHITECTURE Associate Director Cultural Resources

ASSISTANTDIRECOR ARCHEOLOGY ANTHSiOPOLOGY ARCHEOLOGICAL ASSISTANCE

Management of Submerged Cultural technical assistance and pi Jject supervision to park Resources in the National Park managers in meeting their needs for the conservation, System management, protection, and visitor appreciation of sui.bmerged cultural resources in units of the National The Submerged Cultural Resources Unit was estab- Park System. In addition, the unit provides profes- lished by the Service in 1979 at the Southwest Re- sional assistance to the Chief Anthropologist, Wash- gional office with the servicewide mission to provide ingZon Area Service Office (WASO) in developing policy, guidelint.s and program standards.

ICIA requested the National Park Service to provide additional informa- The unit staff consists of a chief, two cultural re- tion for the report. The Office of Cultural Programs kindly provided these sources specialists, one diving zechnician, and a sec- summaries of some of their programs in cultural resource management. retnry. The chief and operations staff are certified App. FU.S. National Park Service Cultural Programs 179 scuba divers. All project work is identified by park tures, and objects, and generally in a nondestructive management and requested through the region need- manner. However, the National Park Service does not ing the services of the units Staff salaries come from have a formal program in remote sensing, per se. In- Cultural Resources Preservation Program, but all costs stead, the methods and techniques of remote sens- of project work are paid by the requesting park or its ing are anplied as needed to obtain information for region. With management approval, reimbursable cultural r sources studies, management, and planning. project work for other agencies or institutions can be Rernotz- .,ensingppiications include the use of mag- arranged with the provision that par k work takes pri- netomet .-1s,radar, metal detectors, and resistivity ority. The unit Ls under the line supervision ci the Re- in:- example, to define subsurface terres- gional Director, Southwest Pir,1 who should be trial anomalies; multispectral aerial photography to de- contacted concerning services unit. The Chic: fine vegetational, landform, and soil patterns, and to Anthropologist, WASO, provide:, program oversight develop maps of terrain and cultural sites and features; and worls closely with the Regional Director concern- assorted equipment such as side-scan sonar, mag- ing the servicewide aspects of the program. netometers, and sub-bottom profilers for underwater The p7oject work of the un:: is multidisciplinary, investigations; and hand-held still photograph and needing the involvement of hiorians, curators, his- video cameras for recording archaeological sites, torical architects, park rangers and technicians, and buildings, objects, and other cultural phenomena. Re- park maintenance staff. The unit's staff are archaeol- mote sensing technology. is regularly employed by ogists. As part of their work in the parks, the unit not NPS personnel or specialists under contract in many only identifies, evaluates, and provides national reg- of the 10 National Park Service regions, including staff ister nominations of submerged park culturalre- at our several archaeological centers, and the Sub- sources but also trains park rangers in the techniques merged Cultural Resources Unit. of submerged cultural resources surveys, visitor safety while wreck-diving, hazard assessment, wreck inter- National Park Service Activities pretation, and similar park-based, visitor-oriented activities. When the unit leaves a park after a project, in Landscape Preservation the park manager has a staff trained to carry out the The National Park Service has taken the lead in co- responsibilities for the management, preservation, and ordinating a program for landscape preservation and visitor protection and visitor use of submerged cul- has initiated a number of projects. We have worked tural resources. with Congressman John Sieberling and his staff for Project work has included underwater surveys at Isle changes in the Olmsted bill that the Service can sup- Royale National Park, Biscayne National Park, Point port; the bill awaits passage in the Senate. Reyes National Seashore, Assateague Island National NPS is also working with the American Society of Seashore, War in the Pacific National Historical Park, 1.ndscape Architects (ARA), the National Association and the U.S.S. Arizona Memorial. of Olmsted Parks (NAOP), and others in their efforts In addition to the above activities and projects of to inventory and nominate landscapes to the National the Submerged Cultural Resources Unit, the National Register. Inventory forms, prepared jointly by NPF, Park Service, under Interagency Agreement IA-0773- NAOP, ASLA, and a number of State Historical Pres- 4-8004, provide Hsional assistance to the Marine ervation Offices (SH POs), have been distributed to all Sanctuary Pro i National Oceanic and At- Federal Preservation Officers and SHPOs. A "How- mospheric Adm,.± concerning the conserva- To" bulletin on nominating designed landscapes to tion and management of submerged cultural resources the National Register was prepared by Timothy Keller, in marine sanctuaries. ASLA, and is in the final stages of completion. Next year, we expect ;prepare a "How-To" bulle- National Park Service Activities tin on nominating verna,:ular landscapes to the Na- in Remote Sensing tional Register. This will be based on the handbook Cultural LandscapesRural Historic Districts in the The National Park Service (NPS) utilizes a wide National Park System. A model nomination to the Na- range of remote sensing methods and techniques to tional Register is being prepared by Tom Kane, FASLA, identify, record, and evaluate cultural resources. Re- with funding from the National Endowment fot the mote sensing technology is a valuable tool used by Arts. Shary Berg, site manager of Olmsted National archaeologists, historical architects, and other NPS Historir Cite and the NAOP are preparing a model specialists to obtain information about the locaC )n; nomination form for designating landscapes as Na- nature; and characteristics of sites, buildings, struc- tional Historic Landmarks.

189 180 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Activity within the Washington Office of the Na- Task 2: Develop a Model Cultural Landscape Re- tional Park Service includes work on a subset data- port. Several reports are now in progress. base on landscapes and reports about landscapes in Task 3: Organize and Conduct Historic Landscapes the National Park system prepared by the Park His- 'Norkshop in Conjunction With the NCSH PO Meet- toric Architecture Division. The Historic American ing, This took place. NPS is willing to do more. Buildings Savey is devt:oprng Methods Tor recording Task 4: Assure that The Landscapes Inventory Is landscapes. Last year, they recorded the designed Compatible With the List of Classified Structures. This landscape at Meridian Hill Park (Washington, DC), has been done and NPS is now working on thesec- and this year will be recording the vernacular land- ond generation of information, coordinating with the scape and historic scene at Antietam National Bat- National Register. tlefield. Task 5: Develop Several Model National Register Cultural Landscape definitions and guidelines tor Nominations for Historic Landscapes. Thisisin preparing Cultural Landscapes Reports are now pub- progress. lished in NPS-28, Guideline for Cultural Res, ce Task 6: Develop "How To" Technical Bulletin Management. Revisions of the N PS Mnagemer,, I- Showing How To Nominate Historic Landscapes to ides, now in draft, contain new sections on landscape the National Register. This is complete and should be preservation, including identification, evaluation, pro- distributed soon. tection, and treatment. Task 7: Research Past NPS Guidance for Historic The National Park Service has sponsored and par- Landscape Terminology; Make Recommendations ticipated in a number of seminars, workshops, and Concerning Development of a Glossary. The research training s2ssions, including the NCSHPO annual meet- is done and the glossary is in NPS-28. ing in March 1985; Office of Technology Assessment Task 8: Develop a Model National Historic Land- meetings in Februrary 1985 and April 1986; the NPS mark Nomination on an Historic Landscape. This has Landscape Preservation Field School held in March begun by volunteers. 1985 and April 1986; and the NPS Science Confer- Task 9: Develop a Technical Bulletin Showing How ence in July 1986 (with major involvement with natu- To Document Historic Landscapes to HABS/HAER ral scientists on vegetation management issues). Standards. Two wetlands projects are being done. The National Park Service ako haq several projects Task 10: Develop a Definition of "Historicl Land- planned for the future, including the development of scape Architect" Compaiaole to the Other Discipline definitions of "Historical Landscape Architect" and Standards Used in Cultural Resources. NPS has be- the preparation of "Tech Notes" on landscape pres- gun this definition. ervation. Task 11: Develop Several Tech Notes on Historic NPS invites discussion on what impact landscape Landscape Subjects. NPS has not yet started this task. preservation policy has on land use policy and agri- Task 12: Encourage States and Federal Agencies To cultural economics, and on what NPS's role in rural Inventory Historic Landscapes and Include Them in preservation should be beyond listing rural historic dis- the :tate and Federal Inventories of Historic Proper- trict on the National Register. For further information ties. NPS has done this and will continue to encourage on landscape preservation, contact Hugh Miller, such inventories. Chief, Park Historic Architecture Division. NPS Tasks for Landscape Preservation Programs Task 1: Develop Bibliography of Past NPS P.eports on Historic Landscapes. This has been done and is App. FU.S. National Park Service Cultural Programs 181

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTS DESIGNED HISTORIC LANDSCAPES NATIONAL LANDSCAPE SURVEY FORM 1985 Control Number 1. LOCATION 1-storic c:)Inmon

2. LOCATIONUSGS Quadrangle Acreage City, Town State Zip Code County Congressional District UTM Coordinates 3. OWNER OF PROPERTY (If group or government agency, give contact.) Name Phone Street Address City/Town State Zip Code Pertinent Information_

4. DESIGNEDLANDSCAPE TYPE: f7ategory(s) for landscape surveyed. __Residence Garden Public Building Institution Monument Botanical Garden Square or Commons __Streetcape Park Parkway __Park System City/Town Plan Fort Cemetery Pond/Canal/Water Feativ'e

5. LANDSCAPE STATUS Plee::-..e describe as required below. Ownership: Public__Private Other, please note Public Acquigition: Considered__In Progress__Not Considered Access: Unrestricted __Restricted No Access Status: Safe __Endangered Preservation Action NetAed Preservation action undertaken, describe Further Information:

6. LANDSCAPE ADDRESS AND BOUNDARY INFORMATION Specific Location (Street, road, features comprising the boundary Location of legal description. Give contact person, if known. Courthouse/Registry of deerls Street Address City/Town State Zip Code Phone 7. REPRESENTATION IN OTHER SURVEYSYes or No, Please explain. __National Register National Landmark State Designation Local Designation Other Title of Survey and Depository of Survey Records 182 t Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

8. HISTORIC INFORMATIONCheck and complete wherever possible. Original landscape architect name(s) Alteration/addition landscape arch. Names(s) Original gardner namc(s) Builder/engineer name(s) - Client nams(2) - - Date(s) ot construction BRIEF CHRONOLOGY Give pertinent factLI about con/A:ruction, subsequent changes, events, notable occurences

JAESCRITTION: Begin with overall description,then note specifics. Condition Excellent Changes Unaltered Good Altered Fair Added to Deteriorated Loss, removal Severely deteriorated Encroached upon DESCRIBE EXISTING CONDITIONSEmphasize landscape featres, attach plan at 1" = 20' or 1" = 100'. Include a minimum of two photographs of significant views and features with location and directionof view noted on plan:

10. INTEGRITYDo these categories exist as in the histo/c landscape? Original design Original property boundary Desigr. intent Spatial relationships Topography/Grading Vegetation Architectural features Site furnishings Circulation systems STATEMENT OF INTEGRITYDescribe the degree to which zhe overall landscape and its significant features are present today. Explain categories of integrity noted above amdany others that apply:

11. SIGNIFICANCENote reasons lano.scape is hlstorically important. Historic association with person, group, event Historic signif. in landscape design Unique regional expression Historic signif in culture Important landmark Work oZ recognized master Example of particular F4-.171e __Important artistic statement Example of particular type Example of fine crafttmanship __Example of particula'r time Use of unique materials Example of time sequence Other verifiabJe quality App. FU.S. National Park Service Cultural Programs 183

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCEExplain categories of significance noted above:

12. SOURCES FOR INFORMATION: Note sources used in surveywith an *. Local repositories (name, address, type of material) Non-local sources of documents (same as above) Bibliography of major published sources:

13. FORM PREPARATION Date Name(s) Phone Street address City/town State Zip code INCLUDE PHOTOGRAPHS, PLANS, AND MAPS FOR FULL INFORMATION. FOR ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ADD SEPARATE PAGE, USE CATEGORY NUMBERS AS KEY.

193 Appendix G Advisory CouncHon Historic Preservation

Established by the National Historic Preservation cal representative concerned with the potential loss Act, this independent agency functions to i,nprove the of the property. Under the terms of Section 106 of the effectiveness and coordination of public and private National Historic Preservation Act, the Council seeks efforts in historic preservation. In the realm of Federal to negotiate a memorandum of agreement in such activities it advises on policy, recommends guidelines, cases, setting forth what will be dorie to reduce or and reviews and comments on Federal undertakings avoid any adverse effec's the under:aking will have. which have an impact on significant properties. The The consulting parties are at minimum the Federal Advisory Council consists of -19 members including agency planning an action, the Council, and the ap- other agency heads, historic preservation experts,a propriate State Historic Preservation Officer. Current governor, a mayor, and individuals from the general standards and regulations, however, make the medi- public, and has staff working in offices for Policy and ating function available only when the property is in- Program Development and for Cultural Resource Pres- cluded in or eligible for the National Register of His- ervation. The Council consults with agencies to help toric Places. No clear mechanism exists for cases them ensure the goals of historic preservation in their where Federal actions have an impact on intangible activities, and advises the President and Congresson cultural resources that are not somehow linked to preservation matters in annual reports and in special historic properties. reports and studies. One of the most important functions of the agency is mediating between any Federal agency planningan SOURCE: Cultural Conservation: The Protection of Cultural Heritage in the action which threatens a significant property anda lo- United States (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1983).

184 19 4 Appendix H National Trust for Historic Preservation .01.6

While cnnstituted as an independent trust and not and it came to emphasize public education to stimu- a Federal agency, the National Trust for Historic Pres- late local action in recognizing, ma;ntaining, and pro- ervation plays an important role on behalf of the gov- tecting properties. ernment. It was chartered in 1949 to advance the pol- Since the passage of the National Historic Preser- icies of the Historic Sites Act and enhance public vation Act, the Trust has received Federal funds to fur- participation in historic preservation. Originally the ther its work. It has approached a broadened concept Trust aimed to serve as an agent for receiving historic of preservation in some of its recent projects, work- properties and other gifts to save properties from de- ing with community groups to define important cul- cay or destruction. Functioning as a small organiza- tural items according to local values and to include tion, free of bureaucratic regulation, it hoped ro sup- the maintenance of traditional skills. plement Federal efforts. Over the years, the Trust discovered that this strategy did not match the mag- SOURCE: Cultural Conservation: The Proteclion of Cultural Heritage in the nitude of tl le national need for historic preservation, United States (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1983).

5 185 Appendix I NationI Building Museum

[Section 3061 from the National Historic Preserva- sary to assure the preservation and operation of tion Act the site; (a) In order to provide a national center to commem- (3) prescribe reasonable terms and conditions by orate and encourage the building arts and to pre- which the Committee can fulfill its responsibili- serve and maintain a nationally significant build- ties under this Act. ing which exemplifies the great achievements of (c) The Secretary is authorized and directed to pro- the building arts in the United States, the Secre- vide matching grants-in-aid to the Committee re- tary [of the Interior] and the Administrator of the ferred to in subsection (a) for its programs related General Services Administration are authorized to historic preservation. The Committee shall and directed to enter into a cooperative agreement match such grants-in-aid in a manner and with with the Committee for a National Museum of the such funds and services as shall be satisfactory to Building Arts, Incorporated, a nonprofit corpora- the Secretary, except that no more than $500,000 tion organized and existing under the laws of the may be provided to the Committee in any one fis- District of Columbia, or its successor, for the oper- cal year. ation of a National Museum for the Building Arts (d) The renovation of the site shall be carried out by in the Federal Building located in the block the Administrator with the advice of the Secretary. bounded by Fourth Street, Fifth Street, F Street, and Such renovation shall, as far as practicable G Street, Northwest in Washington, District of Co- (1) be commenced immediately lumbia. Such museum shall (2) preserve, enhance and restore the distinctive (1) collect and disseminate information concerning and historically authentic architectural charac- the building arts, including the establishment of ter of the site consistent with the needs of a na- a national reference center for current and tional museum of the building arts and other historic documents, publications, and research compatible use, and relating to the building ar:s; (3) retain the availability of the central court of the (2) foster educational programs relating to the his- building, or portions thereof, for appropriate tory, practice and contribution to society of the public activities; building arts, including promotion of imagina- (e) The Committee shall submit an annual report to tive educational approaches to enhance under- the Secretary and the Administrator concerning its standing and aivreciation of all facets of the activities under this section and shall provide the building arts; Secretary and the Administrator with other such (3) publicly display temporary and permanent ex- information as the Secretary may, from time to hibits illustrating, interpreting and demonstrat- time, deem necessary or advisable. ing the building arts; (f)For purposes of this section, the term "building (4) sponsr,r or conduct research and study into the arts" includes, but shall not be limited to, all prac- history of the building arts and their role in shap- tical and scholarly aspects of prehistoric, historic ing our civilization; and and contemporary architecture, archaeology, con- (5) encourage contributions to the building arts; struction, building technology and skills, landscape (b) The cooperative agreement referred to in subsec- architeLture, preservation, conservation, building tion (a) shall include provisions which and construction, engineering, urban and commu- (1) make the site available to the Committee re- nity desi3n and renewal, city and regional planning, ferred to in subsection (a) without charge; and related professions, skills, trades and crafts. (2) provide, subject to available appropriations, such mai.itenance,security,information, janitorial and other services as may be neces- SOURCE: National Historic Piebervation Act.

186 196

index

Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1985, 6, 15 145 computer technology fcr, 137n Acid environment conservation, protection, and maintenance practices, monitoring, 91 92-93 as threat to cultural resources, 85 data recording, improving, 71 Acid rain, 85 definition, 30 Admiralty law, 145 historic, 30 Adobe historic aerial photography used in, 48 conservation of, 96-97 issues in, 70-72 stabilizing, 92-93 prehistoric, 30 Adopt-a-site, 103 and preservation of historic structures and landscapes, 8 Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, 10-11, 133, issues, 35 138, 139n, 157 sample collection, improving, 71 Aerial photography, 17, 38, 4445 training in advanced technologies for, 151 effective use of, research needed on, 47-48 Archaeomagnetic dating, 18, 21, 31n, 59, 67, 68 historical use of, for monitoring site co idition through Architectural plans, preservation of, 117 time, 48 Architectural record system, computerized, 118 Afro-American Communities Project, 108 Architecture Alarm systems, in security efforts, 104 and archaeology, 35 Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, 6 and structural conservation, graduate education in, 151 Alcatraz, 96 Archival phase, ol" preservation process Alexandria Urban Archaeology Program, Alexandria, technologies, 114 VA, 122 Archival research, 16, 4-44 Alvin, 59 technologies for, i07-109 American Folklife Center, 123 Archives, for preservation, development, Federal Gov- American Folklife Preservation Act of 1976, 6 ernment's role in, 140 American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978, 6, 147 Argo, 59 American Society of Landscape Architects, Historic Pres- Arson, 23 ervation Committee, 14, 147 Artifacts American Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sens- permanent affixation of, 102 ing, 54 preservation of, 89 Analysis phase, of preservation process, 43 stolen, Federal policy for, 140 technologies for, 18, 21, 59-70 Associat;bn for Preservation Technology, 152 Anasazi sites, 83, 86, 92, 92n, 101, 143n Association of !.'niversities for Reseuch in Astronomy, 137 Antiquities Act of 1906, 5n, 6, 29 Atlantic, 58 Arboretums, 23 Awards program, in preservation, 142 Archaeoastronomy, 37n Archaeological and Historical Preservation Act of 1974, 6, 29 Bar codes, tor charact.,...rizing artifacts, 71 Archaeo!ogical research, 43 Barriers, in site protection, 101 Archaeological resources, State surveys of, 148 Bentonite Slurry Trench method, 99 Archaeoloal Resources Protection Ac! of 1979, 6, 15, BIBSCAPE, 115 29, 126, 140 BIODEX Southwest, 108 implementation, strengthening, 142-143 BIOFILE Southwest, 108 Archaeological site(s). See also Excavation(s) Bird control technologies, 11 avoidance of, 93 Boston University, Center for Remote Sensing, 54n burial, 93 Botanical technology, 100 as protective measure, 101 Braille, 125 data collection at, 71 Brick, conservation of, 96-97 definition of, 30n Brooklyn Bridge, 8 inspection, 60 Building Inventory Inspection Program, 151 remote sensing applied to, 44, 47 Building materials sampling and evaluation for excavation, 60 education about, 151 stabilizing, technologies for, 91 historic, knowledge gaps about. 72-73 technologies for preserving, OTA workshop on, 6, physical analysis of, 73 30-31 substitute, in restoration, 99 types, 30-31 3uilding practices, as threat to structures, 88 Archaeology. See also Underwater archaeulogy Buildings avocational interest in, support for, 143 historic

19R 189 190 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

misapplication and nonapplication of technologies CRBIB. See Cultural Resources Management Bibli- to, 95-96 ography and modern code requirements, 99 Crow Canyon Center for Southwestern Archaeology, interpretive presentations of, 130 Cortez, CO, 121-122 modern-nisapplication and nonapplication of tech- Cultural heritage, U.S., preservation of, economic nologies to, 96 benefits, 9 Bureau of Land Management, 101-102 Cultural Resource Assistance Information Network, 152 Business, contributions to historic preservation, 153 Cultural resources deliberate destruction, protection from, 101-104 CADD. See Computer-aided design/drafting Federal agencies' inventory of preservation needs and Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site, IL, 126 implementation plans, proposal for, 139 Carbon-14 dating. See Radiocarbon dating Federal management of, 13-14, 138-139 Carson House, Eureka, CA, 24 improving, 13-14 Catastrophic loss, protection from, 23 human threats to, 84-87 Central Idaho Wilderness Act of 1980, 6 illicit trade in, Federal policy for, 140-142 Certified Local Governments, 11, 76, 133-134 inventory of, 101 Chaco Canyon National Historical Park, NM, 60, 61, 92 loss of, 83 Chemical analysis, in discovery, 62-63 management, 72 Clara Barton House, Glen Echo, MD, 130 foreign policies on, 138 Close-range inspection, 18 inadequacies, as threat to resources, 85 Code of Federal Regulations, references to prehistoric issues, 34-35 and historic preservation, 6 remote sensing in, 54 Coffer dams, 70 monitoring, 91-92 Colonial Williamsburg, VA, 61 natural threats to, 84, 87-88 Columbia University School of Architecture, Center for prehistoric and historic, independent agency for, pro- Preservation Research, 151 posed, 139 Community awareness, in historic preservation, 125-126 preservation of, 5, 83 Computer-aided design/drafting, 90-91 protection of, Federal policy on, 15-16 Computer image analysis, in photogrammetry, 53-54 research and management process, 16 Computers Cultural Resources Management Bibliography, 112-113 adaptation of known technologies to, 79 Cylinder recordings, 117 application to preservation information needs, impediments to, 115 in archaeology, 137n Databases expert systems, 110-111 database of, proposed, 111 in Geographic Information Systems, 63-67 design, 152 in identification and survey, 44 development of, 109 in management of restoration and rehabilitation, Federal Government's role in, 140 90-91 from individual projects, storage of, 109 networks, 110 keyword retrieval systems, 108 for preservation information, 110-111 national, for historic preservation, 116 in public education, 123 for preservation information, 111-115 role in prehistoric and historic preservation, 39 Federal, 111 Concrete, durable, 111n. See also Reinforced concrete non-Federal, 113-114 Conservation phase, of preservation process, 39 State, 113-114 technologies for, 21-23 and research costs, 157 traditional technologies in, 37 specialized, centralized database of, 116 Construction, as threat to cultural resources, 84 standardized formats, need for, 115-116 Construction techniques, and preservation problems, 22 technical, 116 Convention on Cultural Property Implementation Act, 6, centralized, 140 16, 86, 141 Dating techniques, 18, 21, 67-69 Cr 3perative Preservation of Architectural Records, 113 Decay counting, 67 COPAR. See Cooperative Preservation of Architecturai methods, 67n Records Costs, 154-158 DEEP DRONE, 59 and economic values, 156-157 Deep sea diving, 69 and maintenance, 156 Defence, 95 reducing, 157-158 Delorme, Philibert, 62 of remote sensing technologies, 49 Dendrochronology, 18, 67, 68 Craftspeople, training of, 153 Denver Museum of Natural History, 127n

1 9 9 Index 191

Department of the Interior Federal Government, role in prehistoric and historic Assistant Secretary for Natural and Cultural Resources, preservation, 133 proposed, 13, 139 Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976, 5n in management of cultural resources, 13 Federal preservation budget, 134-135 Department of Transportation Act of 1966, 6 Federal preservation policy, 10-16, 39, 134-148 Discovery phase, of preservation process, 16-20, 43 and collection of cost/benefit statistics, 156 technologies for, 43-59 improvements to, 139 traditional technologies in, 37 lack of agency coordination, 22 Documentary Relations of Southwest project, 108 Fencing, in site protection, 101-102 Documentation phase, of preservation process, 17-18, 43 Festivals, historic, 126 technologies for, 59-70, 60 Fieldwork records, 115 traditional technologies in, 37 Finding aids, development of, 109 Document copying, 117 Findley Homestead, Dallas County, IA, 79 Document preservation, 117 Fission track dating, 67 Florida State Conservation Laboratory, 149 Earthen mounds, 88 Frederick Law Olmsted Historic Site, Brookline, MA, 123 Earthquake zones Funding preservation challenges in, 98-99 Federal, 149 protecting structures in, 23 of historic preservation, 134 Earth sciences, in preservation and management of cultural resources, 68-69 Gamma-ray inspection, 21, 44 Earthworks, 48, 51 Garden!-.. 23 prehistoric, 33 GEONLE Soothwest, 108 EAVE-EAST, 70n Geographic Information Systems, 18, 19, 47, 77 Economic Recovei y Tax Act of 1981, 157 computerized, 63-67 Education. See alsc Public education regional centers, 66-67 Federal programs for, 142 Geographical Resources Analysis Support System, 64 of preservationists, 35 Geomorphology, in dating techniques, 68-69 in site monitoring, 91 Georadar, 17 Eisenhower National Historical Site, 85 Georgia Institute of Technology, Center for Architectural Electromagnetic spectrum, 46 Conservation, 151-153 Electronic media, in public education, 123-124 Getty Museum, computerized database, 114 Electronic monitoring, in protection of cultural re- GIS. See Geographic Information Systems sources, 103-104 GRASS. See Geographical Resources Analysis Support Electronic position finder, 44, 57 System Embodied energy, 157 Groundwater levels, 99 Engineering, in providing technologies for preservation, 44 Gulf Islands National Seashore, 74 Environmental monitoring, 99 Gunston Hall, 61, 62 Erosion, 39, 84 aerial photography used to study, 48 HABS. See Historic American Buildings Survey reducing, technologies for, 91 HAER. See Historic American Engineering Record streambank, mechanisms, 88 Handicapped access, to cultural resources, 124-125 as threat to cultural resources, 87-88 High-tech solutions, 36 Evaluation phase, of preservation process, technologies for, 20 Historical research, 43 Excavation(s), 20 Historic American Buildings Survey, 113, 138, 144, 149 as last resort, 70-71 Historic American Engineering Record, 113, 138 numbers of, 31n Historic American Merchant Marine Survey, 144 remote sensing of sites for, 47 Historic preservation. See also Prehistoric and historic technologies for, 60 preservation underwater, technologies for, 70 avocational interest in, support for, 143 Executive Order 11593, 6 developing additional support for, 157-158 Exfoliating forces, 96 improving Federal agencies' coordination and Exfoliation, on marble, 73 information-sharing, proposal for, 139-140 Expert systems, 110-111 integration into university programs, 152 interdisciplinary approaches, 7 Federal Center for Preservation Technology, 12, 13, 139 legislation, 6 recommendation for, 38-39, 135-137 public support for, in U.S., 7 Federal cultural programs, managementagency, pro- standards and guidelines for, 6 posed, 139 Historic Preservation Fund, 133, 149

2.on 192 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

Historic Sites Act of 1935, 6, 29 use of GIS for, 56 Horticultural technology, 100 application of technologies to, appropriateness of, 77 House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Sub- conservation and restoration decisions, 99-100 committee on Public Lands, 5, 29 cultural, 33, 34 technologies applicable to, 77-78 ICCROM. See International Centre for the Study of the databases on, 115 Preservation and Restoration of Culwral Property definitions, 33, 33n ICOMOS. See International Council on Monuments and designed, 34 Sites restoration of, 89 Identification, 43. See also Disc./very phase, of preser- technologies applicable to, 78 vation designing access to, 125 process different sizes of, different technologies applicable to, 77-78 technologies for, 44 historic IMACS. See Intermountain Antiquities Computer System categories of, 75 Imaging radar, 17, 19 identifying, 74 Incinerator Site, Dayton, OH, 127 public education about, 127 Industry, contributions to historic preservation, 153 value and significance of, educating constituencies Informants, in protection of cultural resources, 103 about, 74-76 Information. See also Preservation information historic and prehistoric, survey of, 14 about new technologies, problems obtaining, 35 identification of, 147 flow of, 23-24 issues about, 74-75 in management of cultural resources, 87 management, 100 noncom puterized, maintaining, 118 national preservation policy, 146-148 written and graphic, for public education, 122 nomination to National Register of Historic Places, 20 Information storage and retrieval, 23, 39 planned, 34 Information systems, 18 technologies for, OTA workshop on, 6, 33-34 automated, 19 preservation and restoration Infrared inspection, 17, 20, 38, 44, 61-62 standards for, 148 Infrared moisture detection, 62 university programs for, 152 Inspection, of archaeological site(s), 60-62 remote sensing applied to, 44 Intermountain Antiquities Computer System, 113 stabilizing, technologies for, 91 Internal Revenue Service, 10, 135 State surveys of, 149 International Centre for the Study of the Preservation .stresses on, and change, 76-77 and Restoration of Cultural Property, 37, 114 studying International Coundl on Monuments and Sites, 9, 37 foreign technologies for, 38 Interpretation, accessible, 124-125 interdisciplinary nature of, 76 Interpreters, in public education programs, 122-123 qualitative techniques, 79 Interpretive labels, 122 survey of, 74, 147 Interpretive signs, 122 threats to, 84 use of, 102 types, 33-34 Interpretive structures, 124 vernacular, 34n Interviewing. See Oral histories wilderness, 33-34 Intrusion detectors, 103 Law enforcement, 83, 142-143 Ion counting, 67 in protecting cultural resources, 23, 103 Iron, physical analysis, technologies for, 66 Library of Congress, 107 Isle Royale National Park, Lake Superior, Michigan, 15 Committee for the Preservation of Architectural Records, 118 Jason, Jr., 59 databases, 113 for historic preservation, 116 Kings Mountain National Military Park, SC, 124 information about landscapes, 115 Koster site, 59 Optical Disk Pilot Program, 113, 116n survey of architecture of South, 117 Landsat satellite, 45, 47n Lidar, 44 Landscape architecture Lifting balloon, 69 and archaeology, 35 Limestone, preservation of, 89n preservation of documents in, 117 List of Classified Structures, 112-113 Landscape records, 76 Listening devkes, in security efforts, 104 Landscapes Living history, 126 analysis and evaluation of Local governments, historic preservation policy, 148 technologies for, 21 Looting, 5n, 15, 23, 25, 39, 51n, 71, 84, 101, 102, 126

2 01 Index 193

Federal policy for, 140-142 as threat to cultural resources, 88 as threat to cultural resources, 85-87 Monarch, 15 Louisiana plantation hnuses, 96 Monitor preservation pio;ect, 38, 57, 59, 94, 124, 136, Louisiana's public education strategies for archaeology, 144n, 146 127-129 Monk's Mound, 88 Low-tech solutions, 11, 16 Monticello, 33n, 100 dome of, X-iay inspection, 62 MACO 35/70 Analytic Stereoplottei (H. Dell Foster), Monuments, permanent affixation of, 102 52n, 53 Mortar, stabilizing, 92, 92n Magnetic detection, 44 MOSS/MAPS, 64 Magnetic disks, for archival purposes, 117n Mount Dardon, 77 Magnetic tapes, for archival purposes, 117n Mount Vernon Ladies' Association of the Union, 32 Magnetometer, 17, 44, 57, 60. See also Proton mag- Mule Canyon Ruin, 125 netometer Multispectral scanners, 17, 44 underwater, 17, 58 for aircraft, 45-46 Magnetometry, 38 for spacecraft, 45 underwater, 19, 69 spectrum used by, 46 Maintenance phase, of preservation process, 21, 39 Museums, in public education, 25, 127 and costs, 156 Federal programs for, proposal for, 139 NASA inadequate, as threat to cultural resources, 85 Earth Resources Laboratory, Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, information on, keeping records of, 99 53, 54 systematic, long-term, 89-90 Remote Sensing Applications Program, 136 technologies for, 21-23 National Aeronautics and Space Administration, See Management of Museum Properties Act of 1955, 6 NASA Marble National Archaeological Database, 111 erosion of, 85 National Archives and Records Administration, 107-108 exfoliation of gypsum crust, 73 database, for historic preservation, 116 Maritime preservation, 10, 38 National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 152 Federal agencies with major roles in, 144 National Association of Corrosion Engineers/National information, preservation, 118 Bureau of Standards, computerized database, private sector contributions to, 155 114 public education about, 123 National Association of Olmsted Parks, 14 technologies for, OTA workshop on, 6, 31-32 National Astronomical Observatories, 12, 137 Mary Rose preservation project, 38, 94 National Building Museum, 138 Masonry. See also Reinforced concrete National Bureau of Standards, Center for Building Tech- conservation, 96-97 nology, 73, 74, 96, 136 damage to, 73 National Center for Preservation Technology, proposed, physical analysis, technologies for, 64 12, 137 unreinforced, preservation challenges, 98-99 National Conference of States on Building Codes and whitewashing, to prevent moisture damage, 96 Standards, 136 Masonry buildings, historic, census of, 113, 152 National Endowment for the Arts, 13, 139 Masonry Research Institute Foundation, 152 National Endowment for the Humanities, 13, 139 Massachusetts Association of Olmsted Parks, 14 National Historic Preservation Act Amendments of Maya carvings, 89n 1980, 6 Measured drawings, 38 National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, 5, 6, 10-11, Measurement phase, of preservation process, technol- 13, 29, 32, 112, 133, 138, 139, 142, 146, 148 ogies for, 20 National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, Amend- Merchants Exchange, Independence National Historic ments of 1980, 29, 138, 143n, 149 Park, Philadelphia, PA, 85 ional Historic Preservation Trust Act of 1949, 6, Metal detectors, 17, 51 134n Metals, conservation of, 97-98 National Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Prop- Microcomputer databases, 113 erty, Inc., 156 Mimbres sites, 5n, 83 National Institute of Building Sciences, 136 Minerals Management Service, 118 National Institute of Conservation, 152 Minute Man National Historical Park, Concord, MA, 84 National Museum of Building Arts, 11 Mission Espada, San Antonio, TX, 53 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 136, Moisture 144n control, with masonry, 96 Sanctuary Programs Division, 146 monitoring, 91 and underwater archaeology, 145 2n2 194 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

National Park Service, 107, 140n, 156 Optical scanners, for specific preservation needs, 49 Cultural Programs, 133 Oral histories, 43-44 database on preservation information, 140 Orthophotographic techniques, in archaeological data educational programs, 121, 123, 130 recording, 71 information on landscapes, 115 OTA workshops, 30. See also specific workshop topic landscape preservation efforts, 147-148 Outdoor sites, technologies for preserving, OTA work- in landscape survey, 14 shop on, 6, 33-34 in management of cultural resources, 138 Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, 6 National Capitol Regional Center for Urban Ecology, 100 Paca House and Garden, Annapolis, MD, 77, 78, 84n noncomputerized information, maintenance of, 118 Preservation Assistance Division, 135 PPaatrkrosis,99o-f1s0i0tes,as protection measure, 103 preservation databases, 111-113 Petroglyphs, 22n, 93, 129 reports on technologies for historic structures, 137n Photogrammetry, 17, 20, 38, 44 research on stabilization of structures, 92 architectural, 53-54 responsibilities for prehistoric and historic preserva- computer image analysis, 53-54 tion, 13 for recording and measurement, 20 Submerged Cultural Resources Unit, 124n, 144n, 146 stereo, traditional methods, 52 technical publications on protecting historic buildings, stereo analytic systems for, 52-53 135 tuesrerde s nri adl,i s4c National Park Service Organic Act, 6 5overy,52-54 National Register of Historic Places, 10, 32, 112, 133, Photography, 44. See also Aerial photography 147, 149 in archaeological data recording, 71 landscapes incorporated into, 20, 74, 76, 148 in discovery, 17 National Register Information System, 111, 114 t e rurseesdt r i ianl, d4i4 nominating shipwrecks to, 144 scovery, 52-54 National Science Foundation, Archaeometry Program, Photo-theodolite, 52 136 Physical analysis, in discovery, 62-63 National Technical Information Service, 107 Pictographs, 22n National Trust for Historic Preservation, 11, 134, 138, Plants, historic, 23, 78, 100 144-145 Point Reyes National Seashore, 56 sponsorship of technical education and research, Polyethylene glycol, 94 152-153 Potassium-argon dating, 67 National Union Index to Architectural Records, 113 Pothunters, 103, 126 Native Americans, 121, 147 Precision fathometers, 44, 57 Natural sciences, in providing technologies for preserva- Predictive locational modeling, 17, 19, 66 tion, 44 in protection of cultural resources, 101 NCSHPO, 116 for survey and identification, 54-56 Neutron/gamma-ray spectroscopy, 18, 20 Prehistoric and historic periods, delineation between, of archaeological site(s), 60-61 30n Newark Earth Works, Newark, OH, 48 Prehistoric and historic preservation New Jersey Memorial, Valley Forge, PA, 98 applying technologies in Federal policy on, 11-12 Obsidian hydration dating, 18, 59, 67 Federal role in, 135 Oceanographic institutions, 155 contribution to quality of life 9-10 Ohio, Old House Doctor Clinics, 150 representative disciplines participating in, 31 Old House Journal 152 standards, policy options for, 136-137 Old Post Office, Washington, DC, 130 training for, 136 Olmsted Act. See Olmsted Heritage Landscapes Act of transfer of technology from other fields to, 9 1985 Preservation information Olmsted firms, parks designed by, 14, 14n central office for collection and dissemination of, pro- Olmsted Heritage Landscapes Act of 1985, 6, 14, 147 posal for, 140 Olmsted properties, 123 sources, 107 Optical character reader, 19n, 23, 108 technologies for, 109-111 Optica! digitizer, 47 Preservation issues, 34-38 Optical disk technology, 18, 20, 23, 108 Preservation process, 16-25 for conservation of records, 117 Preservation Tax Incentives Program, 157 for preservation information, 109-110 Preservation technologies for public education, 25, 123 application, impediments to, 8-9, 11, 13 for survey and identification, 54 collection and dissemination of information about, 203 Indox 195

Federal policy options for, 137 Public Law 90-190. See National Environmental Policy cost benefits, 156 Act of 1969 definition, 5, 29 Public Law 92-203. See Alaska Native Claims Settlement Federal efforts toward application of, proposal for, Act 140 Public Law 93-291. See Archaenlogical and Historical foreign, 9 Preservation Act of 1974 transfer to U.S., 37-38 Public Law 94-201. See American Folklife Preservation new Act of 1976 coordination of use of, 36-37 Public Law 95-341. Sve American Indian Religious Free- difficulties of integration, 37 dom Act of 1978 difficulty in obtaining information about, 35 Public Law 96-95. See Archaeological Resources Protec- professionals problems obtaining information about, tion Act of 1979 35 Public Law 96-312. See Central Idaho Wilderness Act of nontechnical constraints on use of, 29-30 1980 older, difficulties in application of, 37 Public Law 96-515. See National Historic Preservation sharing of, 74 Act Amendments of 1980 standards for, 36 Public Law 97-466. See Convention on Cultural Prop- traditional, continued utility of, 37 erty Implementation Act Preservation Technology Board, 12 Public spaces, 99-100 Federal policy option for veation of, 137-138 Pueblo Alto, 60 Private sector, contribution to historic preservation, 1 50-1 54 Professional societies R.M.S. TITANIC Memorial Act of 1985, 6 contribution to historic preservation, 150 Radar, 44. See also Shuttle imaging radar with interest in prehistoric and historic ground-penetrating, 44, 50-51 154 subsurface, for archaeological discovery, 60 Prospect park, 103 synthetic, spectrum used by, 46 Protection, of prehistoric and historic sites, iJ Radiocarbon dating, 18, 21, 59, 67 Federal programs for, proposal for, 139 Ramon trees, 47n public education about, 127 Rangers, unarmed, 103 technologies for, OTA workshop on, 6, 34 Reconstruction, and public education, 130 Protection laws, State, 150 Recording phase, of preservation process, technologies Proton magnetometer, 50, 51 for, 20 Provenance, principle of, 108 Records, conservation, technologies for, 116-117 Public education, 39 Registration, of antiquities arid artifacts, 15-16, 140-142 importance to protection of cultural resources, 121, Reinforced concrete, 22 126-127 as conservation challenge, 96 about preservation process, 25 physical analysis, technologies for, 65 restoration and conservation techniques in, 127-130 Remote cameras, in security efforts, 104 State and local efforts toward, 150 Remote sensing, 38, 38n, 43 Public lands from aircraft and spacecraft, 44-49 access to, as threat to cultural resources, 87 for underwater survey, 58 affecting public attitudes toward, 126 applied to landscapes, 77 loss of artifacts from, 86 for archaeological discovery, 60 management, 5, 5n costs, 49, 156 relic hunters , n, 51. See also Pothunters data processing, lowering costs of, 49, 49n Public Law See Antiquities Act of 1906 definition, 44n Public Law 74-292. See Historic Sites Act of 1935 for discovery, 19, 44-54 Public Law 81-408. See National Historic Preservation geophysical, 45, 49-52 Trust Act of 1949 indirect, 47 PublicLaw 83- .1. See Submerged Lands Act of 1953 instruments, 45 PublicLaw 83-z12. See Outer Continental Shelf Lands matching preservation data needs with, 49 Act in monitoring cultural resources, 91 Public Law 84-69. See Management of Museum Proper- technologies, 17 ties Act of 1955 training in, 54 Public Law 86-523. See Reservoir Salvage Act of 1960 underwater, 57 Public Law 89-665. See National Historic Preservation use by looters, 71-72 Act Remote sensing satellite, 45 ?ublic Law 89-670. See Department of Transportation Remotely operated vehicles, 17, 19, 20, 44, 69, 69-70 Act of 1966 in underwater survey and identification, 58-59

2n4 196 Technologies for Prehistoric end Historic Preservation

Requests for Proposals, technological applications in, Sourdough Roadhouse, 26 135 Space photography, 17 Research Spectral bands, for aerial scanning spectrometers, 48-49 documentary, 10 SPOT, 45 in preservation, challenges to, 98-99 State governments, historic preservation policy, 148 on preservation problems, Federal policy options on, State Historic Preservation Officer, 10, 133-134, 147 136 State Historic Preservation Offices, 11, 133-134, 148, public education about, 122 149 steps, 43 computerized databases, 113-114 Reservoir Salvage Act of 1960, 6 Federal cooperation with, 135 Restoration phase, of preservation process, 39 State records, handling, 149 technologies for, 21-23 State surveys, 148-149 traditional technologies in, 37 Statue of Liberty, 97 RESTORE, 136, 153 Steel, physical analysis, technologies for, 66 Revenue Act of 1978, 157 Stereo analytic plotting systems, 52-53 Reynolds Tavern, Annapolis, MD, 97 Stereo photography, in public education about under- Richmond Battlefield, 51n water archaeology, 124 Rock art, 127 Sting operations, for recovery of stolen artifacts, 103 conservation of, 22-23 Stone definition, 22n conservation of, 96 moisture damage to, 88 exfoliation of, 96n preservation, 93 moisture damage to, 88 Ronson Ship, 94 Stonehenge, 55 Roplex, 92 Structural damage, 22 ROVs. See Remotely operated vehicles Structures archaeological, technologies for preservation of, OTA SAGIS, 64 workshop on, 6 Salem, MA, 77n definition of, 32n San Juan, 95 historic Saturation diving, 69 analysis in context, 74 Scorpio 70 areas of significance and activity represented by, 33 Scuba diving, 56, 69 change over time, documenting, 74 Security, technologies for, 101-104 environmental stresses on, 22 Sedimentology, in dating techniques, 68-69 fragile, preservation challenges, 98 Seismic detection, 44 as interdependent system, 21 Serpent Mound, 7, 55 intrusion into, 23 Settlement patterns, 34 issues about, 72-74 Ship restoration, 144 misapplication and nonapplication of technologies Shipwrecks to, 95-96 conservation practices, 95 monitoring, 91 databases on, 114 national preservation policy, 146 excavations, 70 nondestructive analytical techniques for, 72 Federal policy on, 14-15 NPS publications on protecting, 135 looting, 71-72 preservation of, lack of standards in, 36 national preservation policy for, 143, protection against catastrophic loss, 23 Shuttle imaging radar, 45 research into history of, and use of technology, Side-scan sonar, 17, 19, 44, 57 73-74 use of, 57 restoration, conservation, maintenance, and pro- Site-landform correlations, 56n tection Site management, computer technology in, 90 need for information on, 116 Sleepy Hollow Restorations, 100 practices, 95-99 Smithsonian Institution, 107 State surveys of, 149 Snow Squall project, 94 technologies for preserving, OTA workshop on, 6, Social science techniques 32-33 in dating techniques, 68-69 types, 32 in identification and survey, 44 West German methods of recording, 33 Society for Archaeological Sciences, 154 Sub-bottom profilers, 17, 19, 44, 57-58 Soil conductivity meter, 17, 50 Submerged Lands Act of 1953, 6, 143 Soil resistivity, in archaeological discovery, 60 Submerged resources, 32, 38 Soil resistivity meter, 17, 50 identification and survey of, 56-59

2 0 5 Index 197

inventory of, 14 raising visibility of, in Federal Government, 145-146 materials recovered from, conservation of, 21 recording and measurement technology, 20 Sucrose, in conservation of waterloggd artifacts, 94 research design in, 72 Sunnyside, 125n survey technologies, 19-20 Survey, 43. See also Discovery phase, of preservation technologies for, 1,9-70 process OTA workshop on, 6, 31-32 technologies for, 44 technology transfer in, 153-154 training in advanced technologies for, 151 Take Pride in America program, 142 UNESCO, 37 Tax Act Rehabilitation Certification Program, 135 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Tax incentives, 32, 83, 91, 135, 144, 156, 157 Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer for preservation, 10 of Ownership of Cultural Property, 16, 86, 141 Tax Reform Act of 1976, 157 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Technology. See Preservation technologies; specific Organization. See UNESCO technique Universities, contribution to historic preservation, Technology and Conservation, 152 1 50-1 54 Technology sharing, cooperation between Federal and University of Colorado, Center for Earth Observations State and Remote Sensing, 54n governments in, 149-150 University of Maryland, Architecture and Engineering Technology transfer, 37-38, 135 Performance Information Center, 114 promoting, 153-154 U.S. Army, building preservation policy, 146 public/private partnerships in, 153-154 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 137n Terra cotta, conservation of, 96-97 study of erosion, 48 Texas Antiquities Commission, 114 U.S. Navy Thematic Mapper, 45, 47n, 52 research on preservation problems, policy options for, spectrum used by, 46 136 Thermal scanning, for discovery of archaeological re- Submarine Development Group, 154 mains, 49 and underwater archaeology, 145, 153-154 Thermography, 44 U.S. Postal Service, building preservation policy, 146 Thermo luminescence dating, 67 Utah, southeastern Thunderbird Museum and Archaeological Park, Front law enforcement efforts in, 143n Royal, VA, 130 loss of cultural resources from, 83, 86n, 87 Titanic, 59, 136 Tours, in public education, 123 Training Vandalism, 5n, 15, 23, 25, 39, 84, 101, 102, 126 in architectural conservation, 152-153 computer technology in managing, 90 of preservationists, 35, 150-153 Federal policy for, 140-142 Tree ring dating. See Dendrochronology as threat to cultural resources, 85-87 Vegetation Ultraviolet inspection, 18, 20, 61-62 managing growth of, 100 Underwater archaeological resources, State surveys of. patterns, used in survey, 52 148-149 propagation of, in protection of sites, 102 Underwater archaeology, 10, 38 Venice, Italy, 61 combined conservation and documentation, 95 Video technology, 44 conservation, maintenance, and protection practices, in archaeological data recording, 71 93-95 color, 71n conservation through technology, 95 for discovery, 17, 19-20 costs for, 155 in handicapped access to cultural resources, 125 databases, 114 in public education, 25, 123 dependence on advanced technology, 72 for survey and identification, 54 Federal agencies with major roles in, 144 underwater, 123 full-scale conservation in, 94-95 Visitation information on resources and technology, 118 computer technology in managing, 90 issues in, 72 as threat to cultural resources, 84 legislative initiatives for, 144-145 Visitor's centers, 124 national preservation policy fcr, 143-146 Volunteers, in creating community awareness, 126 postponement of conservation in, 95 practitioners, 31 Wasa preservation project, 38, 94 private sector contributions to, 155 Waterlogged cultural materials, conservation of, 94-95 public education about, 123-124 Waverly Mansion, 96

2 n 198 Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation

White Mesa Institute, College of Eastern Utah, Blanding, X-ray inspection, 18, 20, 21, 44, 61-62 UT, 122 Wood York Minster, 127-130 building practices using, 88 Yorktown Archaeological Park, Yorktown, VA, 70 physical analysis, technologies for, 63 stabilizing, 92 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Deep Submer- gence Program, 136 0

2 0 7 Office of Technology Assessment

The Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) was created in 1972 as an analykal arm of Congress. OTA's basic function is to help legislative policy- makers anticipate and plan for the consequences of technological changes and to examine the many ways, expected and unexpected, in which technology affects people's lives. The assessment of technoogy calls for exploration of the physical, biological, economic, social, and political impacts that can result from applications of scientific knowledge. OTA provides Congress with independent and timely information about the potential ef- fectsboth beneficial and harmfulof technological applications. Requests for studies are made by chairmen of standing committees of the House of Representatives or Senate; by the Technology Assessment Board, the governing body of OTA; or by the Director of OTA in consulta- tion with the Board. The Technology Assessment Board is composed of six members of the House, six members of the Senate, and the OTA Director, who is a nonvoting member. OTA has studies under way in nine program areas: energy and materials; industry, technology, and employment; international security and commerce; biological applications; food and renewable resources; health; communication and information technologies; oceans and environment; and science, education, and transportation.

2q8 OTA-E-319 SEPTEMBER 1986 ei) q