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Proceedings of the Textinfer 2011 Workshop on Applied Textual
EMNLP 2011 TextInfer 2011 Workshop on Textual Entailment Proceedings of the Workshop July 30, 2011 Edinburgh, Scotland, UK c 2011 The Association for Computational Linguistics Order copies of this and other ACL proceedings from: Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) 209 N. Eighth Street Stroudsburg, PA 18360 USA Tel: +1-570-476-8006 Fax: +1-570-476-0860 [email protected] ISBN 978-1-937284-15-2 / 1-937284-15-8 ii Introduction Textual inference and paraphrase have attracted a significant amount of attention in recent years. Many NLP tasks, including question answering, information extraction, and text summarization, can be mapped at least partially onto the recognition of textual entailments and the detection of semantic equivalence between texts. Robust and accurate algorithms and resources for inference and paraphrasing can be beneficial for a broad range of NLP applications, and have stimulated research in the area of applied semantics over the last years. The success of the Recognizing Textual Entailment challenges and the high participation in previous workshops on textual inference and paraphrases – Empirical Modeling of Semantic Equivalence and Entailment (ACL 2005), Textual Entailment and Paraphrasing (ACL/PASCAL 2007), and TextInfer 2009 (ACL) – show that there is substantial interest in the area among the research community. TextInfer 2011 follows these workshops and aims to provide a common forum for researchers to discuss and compare novel ideas, models and tools for textual inference and paraphrasing. One particular goal is to broaden the workshop to invite both theoretical and applied research contributions on the joint topic of “inference.” We aim to bring together empirical approaches, which have tended to dominate previous textual entailment events, with formal approaches to inference, which are more often presented at events like ICoS or IWCS. -
Natural Language Semantics
Logical Approaches to (Compositional) Natural Language Semantics Kristina Liefke, MCMP Summer School on Mathematical Philosophy for Female Students LMU Munich, July 28, 2014 This Session & The Summer School Many lectures/tutorials have presupposed the possibility of translating natural language sentences into interpretable logical formulas. But: This translation procedure has not been made explicit. 1 In this session, we introduce a procedure for the translation of natural language, which is inspired by the work of Montague: Kristina talks about Montague. Kristina k Montague m talk talk about about Kristina talks about Montague about (m, talk, k) 2 We will then use this procedure to provide a (formal) semantics for natural language. Montague Grammar The (Rough) Plan nat. lang. logical model-th. sentences formulas objects translation interpret’n K. talks talk (k) T À Compositional Semantics We will be concerned with compositional – not lexical – semantics: Lexical semantics studies the meaning of individual words: talk := “to convey or express ideas, thought, information etc. by means of speech” J K Compositional semantics studies the way in which complex phrases obtain a meaning from their constituents: Kristina = k Montague = m talk = talk about = about Kristina talks about Montague = about (m, talk, k) J K J K J K J K J K J K J K J K PrincipleJ (Semantic compositionality)K J K (Partee, 1984) The meaning of an expression is a function of the meanings of its constituents and their mode of combination. Compositional Semantics We will be concerned with compositional – not lexical – semantics: Lexical semantics studies the meaning of individual words. Compositional semantics studies the way in which complex phrases obtain a meaning from their constituents: Montague: Kristina = k0 Montague = m0 talk = talk0 about = about0 Kristina talks about Montague = about0(m0, talk0, k0) J K J K J K J K J K J K J K J K J ‘Word-prime semantics’ (CrouchK J and King, 2008),K cf. -
Referential Dependencies Between Conflicting Attitudes
J Philos Logic DOI 10.1007/s10992-016-9397-7 Referential Dependencies Between Conflicting Attitudes Emar Maier1 Received: 18 June 2015 / Accepted: 23 March 2016 © The Author(s) 2016. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com Abstract A number of puzzles about propositional attitudes in semantics and phi- losophy revolve around apparent referential dependencies between different attitudes within a single agent’s mental state. In a series of papers, Hans Kamp (2003. 2015) offers a general framework for describing such interconnected attitude complexes, building on DRT and dynamic semantics. I demonstrate that Kamp’s proposal cannot deal with referential dependencies between semantically conflicting attitudes, such as those in Ninan’s (2008) puzzle about de re imagination. To solve the problem I propose to replace Kamp’s treatment of attitudes as context change potentials with a two-dimensional analysis. Keywords Propositional attitudes · Hans Kamp · Ninan’s puzzle · DRT · Dynamic semantics 1 Three puzzles about dependent attitudes Detective Mary investigates a mysterious death. She thinks the deceased was mur- dered and she hopes that the murderer is soon caught and arrested. A standard Emar Maier [email protected] 1 University of Groningen, Oude Boteringestraat 52, 9712GL Groningen, The Netherlands E. Maier analysis of definite descriptions and of hope as a propositional attitude gives us two different ways of characterizing Mary’s hope that the murderer is arrested (Quine [24]):1 ∃ ∀ ↔ = ∧ (1) a. de dicto : HOPE m x y murderer(y) x y arrested(x) b. de re : ∃x ∀y murderer(y) ↔ x = y ∧ HOPEmarrested(x) Neither of these logical forms captures what’s going on in the scenario. -
Introduction to Montague Semantics Studies in Linguistics and Philosophy
INTRODUCTION TO MONTAGUE SEMANTICS STUDIES IN LINGUISTICS AND PHILOSOPHY formerly Synthese Language Library Managing Editors: GENNORO CHIERCHIA, Cornwell University PAULINE JACOBSON, Brown University Editorial Board: EMMON BACH, University of Massachusetts at Amherst JON BARWISE, CSLI, Stanford JOHAN VAN BENTHEM, Mathematics Institute, University of Amsterdam DAVID DOWTY, Ohio State University, Columbus GERALD GAZDAR, University of Sussex, Brighton EWAN KLEIN, University of Edinburgh BILL LADUSA W, University of California at Santa Cruz SCOTT SOAMES, Princeton University HENRY THOMPSON, University of Edinburgh VOLUM E 11 INTRODUCTION TO MONTAGUE SEMANTICS by DA VID R. DOWTY Dept. of Linguistics, Ohio State University, Columbus ROBERT E. WALL Dept. of Linguistics, University of Texas at Austin and STANLEY PETERS CSLI, Stanford KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS DORDRECHT I BOSTON I LONDON library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Dowty, David R. Introduction to Montague semantics. (Syn these language library; v. 11) Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Montague grammar. 2. Semantics(philosophy). 3. Generative grammar. 4. Formal languages-Semantics. I. Wall, Robert Eugene, joint author. II. Peters, Stanley, 1941- joint author. III. Title. IV. Series P158.5D6 415 80-20267 ISBN-13: 978-90-277-1142-7 e-ISBN-13978-94-009-9065-4 DOl: 10.1007/978-94-009-9065-4 Published by Kluwer Academic Publishers, P.O. Box 17,3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands. Kluwer Academic Publishers incorporates the publishing programmes of D. Reidel, Martinus Nijhoff, Dr W. Junk and MTP Press. Sold and distributed in the U.S.A. and Canada by Kluwer Academic Publishers, 101 Philip Drive, Norwell, MA 02061, U.S.A. In all other countries, sold and distributed by Kluwer Academic Publishers Group, P.O. -
Montague Grammar Stefan Thater Blockseminar “Underspecification” 10.04.2006 Overview
Montague Grammar Stefan Thater Blockseminar “Underspecification” 10.04.2006 Overview • Introduction • Type Theory • A Montague-Style Grammar • Scope Ambiguities • Summary Introduction • The basic assumption underlying Montague Grammar is that the meaning of a sentence is given by its truth conditions. - “Peter reads a book” is true iff Peter reads a book • Truth conditions can be represented by logical formulae - “Peter reads a book” → ∃x(book(x) ∧ read(p*, x)) • Indirect interpretation: - natural language → logic → models Compositionality • An important principle underlying Montague Grammar is the so called “principle of compositionality” The meaning of a complex expression is a function of the meanings of its parts, and the syntactic rules by which they are combined (Partee & al, 1993) Compositionality John reads a book John reads a book [[ John reads a book ]] = reads a book C1([[ John]], [[reads a book]] ) = C1([[ John]], C2([[reads]] , [[a book]] ) = a book C1([[ John]], C2([[reads]] , C3([[a]], [[book]])) Representing Meaning • First order logic is in general not an adequate formalism to model the meaning of natural language expressions. • Expressiveness - “John is an intelligent student” ⇒ intelligent(j*) ∧ stud(j*) - “John is a good student” ⇒ good(j*) ∧ stud(j*) ?? - “John is a former student” ⇒ former(j*) ∧ stud(j*) ??? • Representations of noun phrases, verb phrases, … - “is intelligent” ⇒ intelligent( ∙ ) ? - “every student” ⇒ ∀x(student(x) ⇒ ⋅ ) ??? Type Theory • First order logic provides only n-ary first order relations, which -
Analyticity, Necessity and Belief Aspects of Two-Dimensional Semantics
!"# #$%"" &'( ( )#"% * +, %- ( * %. ( %/* %0 * ( +, %. % +, % %0 ( 1 2 % ( %/ %+ ( ( %/ ( %/ ( ( 1 ( ( ( % "# 344%%4 253333 #6#787 /0.' 9'# 86' 8" /0.' 9'# 86' (#"8'# Analyticity, Necessity and Belief Aspects of two-dimensional semantics Eric Johannesson c Eric Johannesson, Stockholm 2017 ISBN print 978-91-7649-776-0 ISBN PDF 978-91-7649-777-7 Printed by Universitetsservice US-AB, Stockholm 2017 Distributor: Department of Philosophy, Stockholm University Cover photo: the water at Petite Terre, Guadeloupe 2016 Contents Acknowledgments v 1 Introduction 1 2 Modal logic 7 2.1Introduction.......................... 7 2.2Basicmodallogic....................... 13 2.3Non-denotingterms..................... 21 2.4Chaptersummary...................... 23 3 Two-dimensionalism 25 3.1Introduction.......................... 25 3.2Basictemporallogic..................... 27 3.3 Adding the now operator.................. 29 3.4Addingtheactualityoperator................ 32 3.5 Descriptivism ......................... 34 3.6Theanalytic/syntheticdistinction............. 40 3.7 Descriptivist 2D-semantics .................. 42 3.8 Causal descriptivism ..................... 49 3.9Meta-semantictwo-dimensionalism............. 50 3.10Epistemictwo-dimensionalism................ 54 -
Lecture 6. Dynamic Semantics, Presuppositions, and Context Change, II
Formal Semantics and Formal Pragmatics, Lecture 6 Formal Semantics and Formal Pragmatics, Lecture 6 Barbara H. Partee, MGU, April 10, 2009 p. 1 Barbara H. Partee, MGU, April 10, 2009 p. 2 Lecture 6. Dynamic Semantics, Presuppositions, and Context Change, II. DR (1) (incomplete) 1.! Kamp’s Discourse Representation Theory............................................................................................................ 1! u v 2.! File Change Semantics and the Anaphoric Theory of Definiteness: Heim Chapter III ........................................ 5! ! ! 2.1. Informative discourse and file-keeping. ........................................................................................................... 6! 2.2. Novelty and Familiarity..................................................................................................................................... 9! Pedro owns a donkey 2.3. Truth ................................................................................................................................................................ 10! u = Pedro 2.4. Conclusion: Motivation for the File Change Model of Semantics.................................................................. 10! u owns a donkey 3. Presuppositions and their parallels to anaphora ..................................................................................................... 11! donkey (v) 3.1. Background on presuppositions ..................................................................................................................... -
Donkey Anaphora Is In-Scope Binding∗
Semantics & Pragmatics Volume 1, Article 1: 1–46, 2008 doi: 10.3765/sp.1.1 Donkey anaphora is in-scope binding∗ Chris Barker Chung-chieh Shan New York University Rutgers University Received 2008-01-06 = First Decision 2008-02-29 = Revised 2008-03-23 = Second Decision 2008-03-25 = Revised 2008-03-27 = Accepted 2008-03-27 = Published 2008- 06-09 Abstract We propose that the antecedent of a donkey pronoun takes scope over and binds the donkey pronoun, just like any other quantificational antecedent would bind a pronoun. We flesh out this idea in a grammar that compositionally derives the truth conditions of donkey sentences containing conditionals and relative clauses, including those involving modals and proportional quantifiers. For example, an indefinite in the antecedent of a conditional can bind a donkey pronoun in the consequent by taking scope over the entire conditional. Our grammar manages continuations using three independently motivated type-shifters, Lift, Lower, and Bind. Empirical support comes from donkey weak crossover (*He beats it if a farmer owns a donkey): in our system, a quantificational binder need not c-command a pronoun that it binds, but must be evaluated before it, so that donkey weak crossover is just a special case of weak crossover. We compare our approach to situation-based E-type pronoun analyses, as well as to dynamic accounts such as Dynamic Predicate Logic. A new ‘tower’ notation makes derivations considerably easier to follow and manipulate than some previous grammars based on continuations. Keywords: donkey anaphora, continuations, E-type pronoun, type-shifting, scope, quantification, binding, dynamic semantics, weak crossover, donkey pronoun, variable-free, direct compositionality, D-type pronoun, conditionals, situation se- mantics, c-command, dynamic predicate logic, donkey weak crossover ∗ Thanks to substantial input from Anna Chernilovskaya, Brady Clark, Paul Elbourne, Makoto Kanazawa, Chris Kennedy, Thomas Leu, Floris Roelofsen, Daniel Rothschild, Anna Szabolcsi, Eytan Zweig, and three anonymous referees. -
Montague Meets Markov: Deep Semantics with Probabilistic Logical Form
Montague Meets Markov: Deep Semantics with Probabilistic Logical Form Islam Beltagyx, Cuong Chaux, Gemma Boleday, Dan Garrettex, Katrin Erky, Raymond Mooneyx xDepartment of Computer Science yDepartment of Linguistics The University of Texas at Austin Austin, Texas 78712 x beltagy,ckcuong,dhg,mooney @cs.utexas.edu [email protected],[email protected] g Abstract # » # » sim(hamster, gerbil) = w We combine logical and distributional rep- resentations of natural language meaning by gerbil( transforming distributional similarity judg- hamster( ments into weighted inference rules using Markov Logic Networks (MLNs). We show x hamster(x) gerbil(x) f(w) that this framework supports both judg- 8 ! | ing sentence similarity and recognizing tex- tual entailment by appropriately adapting the Figure 1: Turning distributional similarity into a MLN implementation of logical connectives. weighted inference rule We also show that distributional phrase simi- larity, used as textual inference rules created on the fly, improves its performance. els (Turney and Pantel, 2010) use contextual sim- ilarity to predict semantic similarity of words and 1 Introduction phrases (Landauer and Dumais, 1997; Mitchell and Tasks in natural language semantics are very diverse Lapata, 2010), and to model polysemy (Schutze,¨ and pose different requirements on the underlying 1998; Erk and Pado,´ 2008; Thater et al., 2010). formalism for representing meaning. Some tasks This suggests that distributional models and logic- require a detailed representation of the structure of based representations of natural language meaning complex sentences. Some tasks require the ability to are complementary in their strengths (Grefenstette recognize near-paraphrases or degrees of similarity and Sadrzadeh, 2011; Garrette et al., 2011), which between sentences. -
APA Newsletter on Philosophy and Computers, Vol. 14, No. 2
NEWSLETTER | The American Philosophical Association Philosophy and Computers SPRING 2015 VOLUME 14 | NUMBER 2 FROM THE GUEST EDITOR John P. Sullins NOTES FROM THE COMMUNITY ON PAT SUPPES ARTICLES Patrick Suppes Patrick Suppes Autobiography Luciano Floridi Singularitarians, AItheists, and Why the Problem with Artificial Intelligence is H.A.L. (Humanity At Large), not HAL Peter Boltuc First-Person Consciousness as Hardware D. E. Wittkower Social Media and the Organization Man Niklas Toivakainen The Moral Roots of Conceptual Confusion in Artificial Intelligence Research Xiaohong Wang, Jian Wang, Kun Zhao, and Chaolin Wang Increase or Decrease of Entropy: To Construct a More Universal Macroethics (A Discussion of Luciano Floridi’s The Ethics of Information) VOLUME 14 | NUMBER 2 SPRING 2015 © 2015 BY THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL ASSOCIATION ISSN 2155-9708 APA NEWSLETTER ON Philosophy and Computers JOHN P. SULLINS, GUEST EDITOR VOLUME 14 | NUMBER 2 | SPRING 2015 but here we wish to celebrate his accomplishments in the FROM THE GUEST EDITOR fields of philosophy and computing one last time. John P. Sullins To accomplish that goal I have compiled some interesting SONOMA STATE UNIVERSITY pieces from an autobiography that Pat wrote some years ago but that he added to a bit for an event held in his honor November 17, 2014, marked the end of an inspiring at Stanford. In this document he explains his motivations career. On that day Patrick Suppes died quietly at the and accomplishments in various fields of study that are age of ninety-two in his house on the Stanford Campus, of interest to our community. In that section you will see which had been his home both physically and intellectually just how ambitious Pat was in the world of computer since 1950. -
Operators in the Paradox of the Knower I
PATRICK GRIM OPERATORS IN THE PARADOX OF THE KNOWER I ABSTRACT. Predicates are term-to-sentence devices, and operators are sentence-to- sentence devices. What Kaplan and Montague's Paradox of the Knower demonstrates is that necessity and other modatities cannot be treated as predicates, consistent with arithmetic; they must be treated as operators instead. Such is the current wisdom. A number of previous pieces have challenged such a view by showing that a predicative treatment of modalities need not raise the Paradox of the Knower. This paper attempts to challenge the current wisdom in another way as well: to show that mere appeal to modal operators in the sense of sentence-to-sentence devices is insufficient to escape the Paradox of the Knower. A family of systems is outlined in which closed formulae can encode other formulae and in which the diagonal lemma and Paradox of the Knower are thereby demonstrable for operators in this sense. Predicates are term-to-sentence devices: functions that take the terms of a language as input and render sentences (or open formulae) as output. Sentential operators or connectives, on the other hand, are sentence-to-sentence devices: they take sentences (or open formulae) as input and render sentences (or open formulae) as output. Such at least is the current wisdom. Quine's 'Nec' is intended as a predicate. The familiar '[2' of modal logic, in contrast, is an operator. 2 Another claim that appears as part of the current wisdom is this: that what Kaplan and Montague's Paradox of the Knower demonstrates is that necessity and other modalities cannot be treated as predicates, consistent with arithmetic. -
Leibniz's Lingua Characteristica and Its Contemporary Counterparts
Anna Pietryga LEIBNIZ’S LINGUA CHARACTERISTICA AND ITS CONTEMPORARY COUNTERPARTS Originally published as ”Leibniza << lingua characteristica >> i jej współczesne odpowiedniki,” Studia Semiotyczne 27 (2010), 293–305. Translated by Lesław Kawalec. There is no need to introduce Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, a great philoso- pher, theologian, diplomat, creator (independently of Isaac Newton) of the infinitesimal calculus and founder of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin. He also planned the development of the so-called Lingua characteristica (the plan shared by other 17 th century scholars). Literally taken, the name of the language means a language of letters , a graphic language , also called a characteristica universalis . It was meant to be a way of expressing meanings, as modeled after methods used in arithmetic and geometry (Leibniz also mentions logicians) and having unusual properties. 1. Like mathematical methods, such as written multiplication, lingua characteristica is supposed to enable an assessment of the reasoning correctness on the basis of the notation alone, which would prevent disputes between followers of opposing ideas and thus eliminate such disputes at the outset. Agreement would be reached by means of performing calculations in public, as encouraged by the Latin motto: calculemus (Murawski 1994: 93, 97). 2. Lingua characteristica will shut the mouths of ignoramuses as in the new language it will be possible to write about and discuss those topics only that one understands; otherwise the mistake will be noticeable for everyone, the author included (Murawski 1994: 95). (The text fails to mention authors of utopian designs, but these have not yet been expressed in a magical language). 241 Leibniz’s lingua characteristica and its contemporary counterparts 3.