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THE EFFECTS OF CULTURAL INFLUENCES AND PERSONAL STATE ON ELECTRODERMAL ORIENTING RESPONSES TO PHOBIC STIMULI Loucas-Demos Kartsounis Thesis submitted in fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London University, Bedford College. April 1982 ProQuest Number: 10098442 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest. ProQuest 10098442 Published by ProQuest LLC(2016). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 - 2 - ABSTRACT Seligman's theory that phobias are biologically prepared associations is challenged on theoretical and empirical grounds. It is argued that a concept of experiential preparedness may be more useful for approaching the problem of selectivity in phobias. The experimental part of the thesis pursues this argument by investigating the magnitude and habituation of electrodermal orienting responses (ORs) to words denoting ontogenetically fear-relevant (phobic) or neutral stimuli. In experiment 1 no differences between the ORs to moderately feared and neutral stimuli were found. In experiment 2 subjects were presented with stimuli as in experiment 1 and were threatened by electric shock; the phobic stimuli then elicited larger and more slowly habituating ORs than the neutral stimuli. In the following three experiments, subjects were presented with stimuli they reported as not feared but of which the majority of their peers reported substantial fears. In experiment 3 there was no mani­ pulation of the state of the subject, in experiment 4 subjects were under threat of shock,and in experiment 5 they anticipated pleasant music. Only in experiment 4 did subjects show larger and more slowly habituating ORs to phobic than neutral stimuli. In the last two experiments, pleasant stimuli were administered while subjects anticipated shock or music. On the whole, no differences in ORs to pleasant and neutral stimuli were found under either of the two conditions. The results suggest that the OR is not simply linked to the detection of stimulus change or significance and depends on the state of the subject, with stimuli known to be associated with fear taking precedence in processing when subjects anticipate threat. As phobias are assumed to be learned responses and the OR has important implica­ tions for learning it is concluded that phobic responses towards stimuli feared in the culture may be formed when people perceive the future as threatening and unpredictable. - 3 - CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT 2 LIST OF TABLES 6 LIST OF FIGURES 9 LIST OF APPENDICES 11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 13 FOREWORD 14 CHAPTER I - BIOLOGICAL PREPAREDNESS IN LEARNING AND PHOBIAS 17 1 : Traditional approach to learning 17 2 : Taste aversion and prepared learning 1® 2.1 : Problems in interpreting the taste aversion data 2 1 3 : Phobias as instances of prepared learning 24 4 : Animal studies, evolution and man 26 5 : Evidence for biologically prepared phobias 20 5.1 : Experiments with children 20 5.2 : Experiments with adults - Ohman's research 24 5.2.1 : Problems with Ohman-s experiments 44 5.3 : Clinical cases and difficulties in defining 22 biological significance 6 : Conclusions 26 CHAPTER II - THE CONTENT OF FEAR IN THE CONTEXT OF MATURATION AND LIFE EXPERIENCE 28 1 : Development and contentof fears 58 1.1 : Innate fears 59 1.2 : Maturation-, age-, and intelligence-related fears • 65 2 : Sociocultural influences on the content of fears 71 2.1 : Fear content in certain complex syndromes 74 2.2 : Neurotic fears based on shared knowledge and beliefs in the culture 76 2.3 : Influences on the content of fears within the family subculture 80 2.4 : Normative research on fear content as related to social parameters 81 2.4.1 : Sex differences in fears 82 2.4.2 : Socioeconomic status and fears 85 3 : Conclusions 87 CHAPTER III - THE ORIENTING REFLEX AND ITS HABITUATION 89 1 : Introduction 89 2 : General characteristics of the OR 89 3 : Functional significance of the OR g % 4 : Theories of the OR elicitation and habituation 9 4 5 : Variables affecting the habituation process 99 5.1 : Arousal and habituation 99 5.1.1 : Arousal, electrodermal activity loo and habituation 5.1.2 : State manipulated by drugs and p04 habituation — 4 — Page 5.1.3 : Experimental manipulation of state ' and habituation 107 6 : Cognitive aspects of the OR and its habituation H I 6.1 : Manipulation of the meaning of words and 112 the OR 6.2 : The affective content of stimuli and the OR 117 7 : The significance hypothesis 122 8 : Ohm a n ’s model of the OR 129 9 : Conclusions 132 CHAPTER IV - THE ELECTRODERMAL RESPONSE 133 1 ; Introduction 133 2 : Peripheral mechanisms underlying the EDR 134 3 : Central influences on the EDR 137 4 : Electrical models of the skin and units of measurement of the EDR 141 5 : Methods of measurement of the EDR 146 CHAPTER V - GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE EXPERIMENTS 149 1 : Rationale 149 2 : General methodology 153 2.1 : Recording of electrodermal responses 153 2.1.1 : Electrode sites 156 2.1.2 : Preparation of sites 156 2.1.3 : Electrolytic medium 157 2.2 : Screen for presentation of stimuli and 157 experimental set up 2.3 : Questionnaires • 158 2.4 : Subjects 159 3 : General experimental procedure 159 4 : Problems with the apparatus, replacement of subjects 181 5 : Definition of a response and measurement of habituation * 181 6 : Transformation of raw data 184 7 : Pilot studies 185 7.1 : Pilot studies 1 and 2 using a within- 188 subjects design 7.2 : Pilot study 3 using a between-subjects ^ 5 9 design CHAPTER VI - ORIENTING RESPONSES TO MODERATELY FEARED STIMULI ^70 Experiment 1 : Presentation of stimuli without manipulation of the state of the subjects 1 7 0 Experiment 2 : Effects of threat on orienting responses to moderately feared stimuli 3^32 General discussion of experiments 1 and 2 1 3 9 CHAPTER VII - ORIENTING RESPONSES TO STIMULI OTHERS FEAR 192 Experiment 3 : Presentation of stimuli without manipulation of the state ofthe subjects 192 Experiment 4 : Effects of threat on orienting responses to stimuli others fear 2 0 1 Experiment 5 : Effects of anticipation of a pleasant event on orienting responses to stimuli others fear . 2 1 0 General discussion of experiments 3, 4 and 5 2 I6 - 5 - Page CHAPTER VIII - ORIENTING RESPONSES TO PLEASANT STIMULI 218 Experiment 6 : Effects of threat on orienting responses to pleasant stimuli 218 Experiment 7 : Effects of anticipation of a pleasant event on orienting responses to pleasant stimuli 229 CHAPTER IX - GENERALDISCUSSION OF THE EXPERIMENTS AND 236 CONCLUSIONS 1 : The results in the context of the OR literature 236 2 : The meaning and implications of the results 240 3 : Sex and other variables 244 4 : Methodological problems and perspectives for future research 246 5 : Final conclusions 252 BIBLIOGRAPHY 254 APPENDICES 281 RESPONSES OF A LARGE SAMPLE OF BRITISH UNIVERSITY STUDENTS TO THE FEAR SURVEY SCHEDULE (III) (Microfiche inside back cover) - 6 - LIST OF TABLES Page TABLE VI.1. Experiment 1 : Stimulus words and phrases 174 TABLE VI.2. Experiment 1 : Analysis of variance of maximal responses 176 TABLE VI.3. Experiment 1 : Analysis of variance of response magnitudes 177 TABLE VI.4. Experiment 1 : Ratings of stimuli post- experimentally 179 TABLE VI.5. Experiment 1 : Summary of the frequencies of descriptions of the experiment by the subjects 179 TABLE VI.6 . Experiment 2 : Stimulus words and phrases 183 TABLE VI.7. Experiment 2 : Analysis of variance of maximal responses 185 TABLE VI. 8 . Experiment 2 : Analysis of variance of response magnitudes 186 TABLE VI.9. Experiment 2 : Ratings of stimuli post- experimentally 187 TABLE VI.10. Experiment 2 : Summary of reported anticipations of shock and descriptions of the experiment • 188 TABLE VII. 1. Experiment 3 : Stimulus words and phrases 195 TABLE VII.2. Experiment 3 ; Analysis of variance of maximal responses 196 TABLE VII. 3. Exrperiment 3 : Analysis of variance of response magnitudes 197 TABLE VII.4. Experiment 3 : Ratings of stimuli post- experimentally 198 TABLE VII.5. Experiment 3 : Summary of the descriptions of the experiment by the subjects TABLE VII.6 . Experiment 4 : Stimulus words and phrases 201 TABLE VII.7. Experiment 4 : Analysis of variance of maximal responses 2 0 2 TABLE VII.8 . Experiment 4 : Analysis of variance of response magnitudes 204 - 1 - Page TABLE VII.9. Experiment 4 : Analysis of variance of response magnitudes for males 205 TABLE VII.10. Experiment 4 : Analysis of variance of response magnitudes for females 206 TABLE VII.11. Experiment 4 : Ratings of stimuli post­ experiment ally 206 TABLE VII.12. Experiment 4 : Summary of reported anticipations of shock and descriptions of the experiment 207 TABLE VII.13. Experiment 5 : Stimulus words and phrases 211 TABLE VII.14. Experiment 5 : Analysis of variance of maximal responses 212 TABLE VII.15. Experiment 5 : Analysis of variance of 213 response magnitudes TABLE VII.16. Experiment 5 : Ratings of stimuli post­ experiment ally 214 TABLE VII.17. Experiment 5 : Summary of reported anticipations of music and descriptions of the experiment 215 TABLE VIII.1. Experiment 6 : Stimulus words 220 TABLE VIII.2. Experiment 6 : Analysis of variance of maximal responses 221 TABLE VIII.3. Experiment 6 : Analysis of variance of response magnitudes 222 TABLE VIII.4. Experiment 6 : Analysis of variance of response magnitudes for males 223 TABLE VIIi.5.

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