The Story of Philosophy

PhilosophiePhilosophie_001-120 001-120_GB.qxd 01.02.2006 18.10.2012 12:32 Uhr11:13 Seite Uhr 3Seite 3 (Schwarz/Process Black Auszug) Christoph Delius and Matthias Gatzemeier, Deniz Sertcan, Kathleen Wünscher THE STORY OF PHILOSOPHY FROM ANTIQUITY TO THE PRESENT PhilosophiePhilosophie_001-120 001-120_GB.qxd 01.02.2006 03.07.2006 12:32 15:21 Uhr Uhr Seite Seite 66 (Text black Bogen) GREEK PHILOSOPHY language of stories of gods and heroes on the one hand, and strict argument on From Myth to Logos the other. Instead of using gods to explain “From the beginning, wonder has made the world, men increasingly sought a men philosophize, and it still does.” This rational form of coming to terms with it. saying of Aristotle’s, which goes back to Aristotle clarifies this distinction as follows: Plato, is still valid today. Aristotle takes “Mythologists only thought in the way they “philosophical wonder” to mean our amaze- could understand, and paid little attention to The Beginnings ment at inexplicable phenomena. This us. For when they raise gods to the status of Philosophy amazement gives rise to asking questions of principles, have gods create everything, about causes, but it also addresses the and assert that everything that does not Classical problem of the origin and beginning of feed on nectar and ambrosia is mortal, it philosophy itself. It is not only academic, is clear that they are stating something Antiquity professional philosophy that contains philo- comprehensible to them, while saying sophical knowledge, but also myth, because something totally incomprehensible for us myth too is motivated by wondering, by when it comes to the effects of these questions searching for explanations. Indeed causes. But we do not need to give any the boundaries between myth, pre-philo- serious thought to mythical insights. On the sophical thinking and philosophy are less contrary, we must seek information from clear-cut than one might assume from the those who argue with proofs.” The origin of chapter headings of histories of philosophy. philosophy in the narrower sense is the The material with which each is concerned, discovery of argument. in other words the question of the origin of Greek philosophy did not arise on the Greek the universe, and the explanation of natural mainland (it only arrived in Athens in the phenomena and social norms and institu- second half of the 5th century B.C., and tions, is common to both philosophy and never really settled in Sparta at all), but in myth. However they do differ in the way in the Greek colonies of Asia Minor (Miletus) which they deal with these matters, or to be and southern Italy (e.g. Croton and Elea). more precise, in the particular way each This is because in these places the con- verbalizes these things. The much-quoted frontation with new questions and problems transition from myth to logos is marked and with other ways of thinking was more by the difference between the narrative conducive to theoretical discussion than in CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY The origins of Western philoso- cal influences are still apparent in Presocratic philosophy centers became the center of philosophy phy are to be found in Ancient many ancient thinkers. on the question of the basic at this time, and it was here that Greece. The Greeks began to principle permeating the world the new form of state, the polis express thought in philosophical Ancient philosophy begins with and the primal substance from or city-state, attained its highest terms in c. 600 B.C. This period the Presocratics (c. 650– which the world and the things expression. was characterized by far-reaching 500 B.C.), including the Mile- in it arose. economic and social change, sians (Thales, Anaximander), the The Hellenistic period (323– which led to a crisis of the Pythagoreans, the Eleatics (Xeno- The succeeding classical period c. 1st century B.C.) was the age aristocratic state and finally to phanes, Parmenides) and the (c. 480–c. 320 B.C.) was the in which a mixed culture arose new forms of rule (tyranny, Atomists (Leucippus, Democritus). heyday of Greek civilization, in as the result of the absorption of democracy). which the Greeks produced their oriental elements. The Greek highest achievements in the These changes were accompa- influence, however, remained visual arts (enlargement of the nied by what is known as the paramount. During this period, Acropolis under Pericles; impor- transition from myth to logos. the Greeks ruled over large areas tant sculptors: Myron, Phidias, In other words, mythological or of the Middle East as far as Polycletus); literature (period of religious interpretations of the northern India. Science, scholar- the greatest representatives of world (e.g. stories of the gods ship and trade flourished. The Attic tragedy: Aeschylus, Sopho- which told of the origin and centers of culture were Alexan- cles, Euripides); and philosophy course of the world and its con- dria and Pergamon. Characteristic (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle). Athens tents) were increasingly replaced of Hellenistic art and architecture by a philosophical, scientific, and was the juxtaposition of different rational explanation of the world. styles. Literature and philosophy This transition was only very Pythagoras, Engraving, were marked by a cosmopolitan gradual, however, so that mythi 16th century, attitude. New philosophical Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris schools arose (Stoics, Epicureans). 6 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY PhilosophiePhilosophie_001-120 001-120_GB.qxd 01.02.2006 03.07.2006 12:32 15:21 Uhr Uhr Seite Seite 2020 (Text black Bogen) FAITH AND KNOWLEDGE Christianity in Europe. There had long been Christian congregations in the major cities From Late Antiquity to the Middle Ages of the Empire, but they played no very In the 4th century, the civilization of classical significant role. Things now changed. In Antiquity was subjected to far-reaching the early 4th century, Emperor Constantine changes. Increasing pressure from Germanic decreed that Christianity should enjoy tribes to the north, together with internal equal status alongside the pagan religions. symptoms of dissolution, finally led, in the About a hundred years later, Christianity Philosophy late 4th century, to the division of the Roman was made the sole religion of the state. and Theology Empire into the Eastern and Western Within another four centuries, the whole of Empires. Some time after, Rome, the capital Europe had been Christianized. The Middle of the Western Empire, was sacked by bar- The spread of Christianity in Europe barian tribes, and in A.D. 476, the Western was accompanied by a change in philos- Ages Empire collapsed. The Eastern Empire, by ophy. Medieval philosophy consists above contrast, with its capital at Constantinople, all in an intermeshing of philosophy and survived until 1453, when the city fell to the theology. Its basic concern was the Turks. This period of almost a thousand years question of the relationship between between the collapse of the two empires, faith and knowledge. Its foundation was Western and Eastern, is roughly what we Christian doctrine, which had to be generally know today as the Middle Ages, defended, a position known as Christian or medieval period. apologetics. However, it will become clear A symbolic date for the transition from that medieval philosophy did not represent classical to medieval, that is to say Christian, a complete break with that of classical philosophy is the year A.D. 529, when in Antiquity. Many scholars sought to under- the East, Plato’s Academy in Athens was stand the philosophical theories of the closed by Emperor Justinian. That very Ancient World and to reconcile them with same year saw the foundation of the first Christian teaching. great monastic order in the West, that of One of these scholars was Aurelius Augusti- St. Benedict. From then on, the monasteries nus, who as St. Augustine has become became the centers of scholarship and known as the most important philosopher teaching in western Europe. of the transitional period between late The beginning of the Middle Ages also Antiquity and the Middle Ages. His thinking marks the beginning of the spread of was influenced above all by Plato and the THE MIDDLE AGES Medieval philosophy consists Europe is known as Scholasti- The succeeding period of High philosophy with Christian primarily of the union of philos- cism (from the Latin schola, Scholasticism (c. 1150–1300) teaching (St. Thomas Aquinas). ophy and theology, because it “school”). This term also refers to is seen as the heyday of the In addition, there was a was based on Christian doctrine, the manner in which the verities movement. It is characterized by confrontation with Arab which it was required to defend of faith were explained (the the discovery of Aristotle’s philosophy. The last period, that and put on a rational foundation. “scholastic method” practiced in remaining works, and by the of Late Scholasticism the monastic schools). One of the main themes of attempt to unite Aristotelian (c. 1300–1400), was already medieval philosophy was The development of Scholasti- marked by decline. therefore the question of the cism proceeded in three stages. relationship between faith and The first stage, that of Early Among the core issues of knowledge and the related Scholasticism (c. 800–1200), medieval philosophy was the attempt to overcome the saw the emergence of the problem of universals. This was apparently irreconcilable scholastic method and the first concerned with whether general difference between revealed truth confrontation with the writings of terms had any reality, or whether and philosophical insight. Aristotle, which were becoming they were simply constructs of The first period (c. 200–700) known in this period. thought and language. overlaps with that of late Antiquity. Its most important Important for the development representative is St. Augustine, of Scholasticism was the The earth as a disk who laid the foundations for the foundation of universities surrounded by the ocean, whole of medieval philosophy.

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