The Story of Philosophy

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Christoph Delius and Matthias Gatzemeier, Deniz Sertcan, Kathleen Wünscher

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GREEK PHILOSOPHY language of stories of gods and heroes on the one hand, and strict argument on From Myth to Logos the other. Instead of using gods to explain “From the beginning, wonder has made the world, men increasingly sought a men philosophize, and it still does.” This rational form of coming to terms with it. saying of Aristotle’s, which goes back to Aristotle clarifies this distinction as follows: Plato, is still valid today. Aristotle takes “Mythologists only thought in the way they “philosophical wonder” to mean our amaze- could understand, and paid little attention to The Beginnings ment at inexplicable phenomena. This us. For when they raise gods to the status of Philosophy amazement gives rise to asking questions of principles, have gods create everything, about causes, but it also addresses the and assert that everything that does not Classical problem of the origin and beginning of feed on nectar and ambrosia is mortal, it philosophy itself. It is not only academic, is clear that they are stating something Antiquity professional philosophy that contains philo- comprehensible to them, while saying sophical knowledge, but also myth, because something totally incomprehensible for us myth too is motivated by wondering, by when it comes to the effects of these questions searching for explanations. Indeed causes. But we do not need to give any the boundaries between myth, pre-philo- serious thought to mythical insights. On the sophical thinking and philosophy are less contrary, we must seek information from clear-cut than one might assume from the those who argue with proofs.” The origin of chapter headings of histories of philosophy. philosophy in the narrower sense is the The material with which each is concerned, discovery of argument. in other words the question of the origin of Greek philosophy did not arise on the Greek the universe, and the explanation of natural mainland (it only arrived in Athens in the phenomena and social norms and institu- second half of the 5th century B.C., and tions, is common to both philosophy and never really settled in Sparta at all), but in myth. However they do differ in the way in the Greek colonies of Asia Minor (Miletus) which they deal with these matters, or to be and southern Italy (e.g. Croton and Elea). more precise, in the particular way each This is because in these places the con- verbalizes these things. The much-quoted frontation with new questions and problems transition from myth to logos is marked and with other ways of thinking was more by the difference between the narrative conducive to theoretical discussion than in

CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY The origins of Western philoso- cal influences are still apparent in Presocratic philosophy centers became the center of philosophy phy are to be found in Ancient many ancient thinkers. on the question of the basic at this time, and it was here that Greece. The Greeks began to principle permeating the world the new form of state, the polis express thought in philosophical Ancient philosophy begins with and the primal substance from or city-state, attained its highest terms in c. 600 B.C. This period the Presocratics (c. 650– which the world and the things expression. was characterized by far-reaching 500 B.C.), including the Mile- in it arose. economic and social change, sians (Thales, Anaximander), the The Hellenistic period (323– which led to a crisis of the Pythagoreans, the Eleatics (Xeno- The succeeding classical period c. 1st century B.C.) was the age aristocratic state and finally to phanes, Parmenides) and the (c. 480–c. 320 B.C.) was the in which a mixed culture arose new forms of rule (tyranny, Atomists (Leucippus, Democritus). heyday of Greek civilization, in as the result of the absorption of democracy). which the Greeks produced their oriental elements. The Greek highest achievements in the These changes were accompa- influence, however, remained visual arts (enlargement of the nied by what is known as the paramount. During this period, Acropolis under Pericles; impor- transition from myth to logos. the Greeks ruled over large areas tant sculptors: Myron, Phidias, In other words, mythological or of the Middle East as far as Polycletus); literature (period of religious interpretations of the northern India. Science, scholar- the greatest representatives of world (e.g. stories of the gods ship and trade flourished. The Attic tragedy: Aeschylus, Sopho- which told of the origin and centers of culture were Alexan- cles, Euripides); and philosophy course of the world and its con- dria and Pergamon. Characteristic (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle). Athens tents) were increasingly replaced of Hellenistic art and architecture by a philosophical, scientific, and was the juxtaposition of different rational explanation of the world. styles. Literature and philosophy This transition was only very Pythagoras, Engraving, were marked by a cosmopolitan gradual, however, so that mythi 16th century, attitude. New philosophical Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris schools arose (Stoics, Epicureans).

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FAITH AND KNOWLEDGE Christianity in Europe. There had long been Christian congregations in the major cities From Late Antiquity to the Middle Ages of the Empire, but they played no very In the 4th century, the civilization of classical significant role. Things now changed. In Antiquity was subjected to far-reaching the early 4th century, Emperor Constantine changes. Increasing pressure from Germanic decreed that Christianity should enjoy tribes to the north, together with internal equal status alongside the pagan religions. symptoms of dissolution, finally led, in the About a hundred years later, Christianity Philosophy late 4th century, to the division of the Roman was made the sole religion of the state. and Theology Empire into the Eastern and Western Within another four centuries, the whole of Empires. Some time after, Rome, the capital Europe had been Christianized. The Middle of the Western Empire, was sacked by bar- The spread of Christianity in Europe barian tribes, and in A.D. 476, the Western was accompanied by a change in philos- Ages Empire collapsed. The Eastern Empire, by ophy. Medieval philosophy consists above contrast, with its capital at Constantinople, all in an intermeshing of philosophy and survived until 1453, when the city fell to the theology. Its basic concern was the Turks. This period of almost a thousand years question of the relationship between between the collapse of the two empires, faith and knowledge. Its foundation was Western and Eastern, is roughly what we Christian doctrine, which had to be generally know today as the Middle Ages, defended, a position known as Christian or medieval period. apologetics. However, it will become clear A symbolic date for the transition from that medieval philosophy did not represent classical to medieval, that is to say Christian, a complete break with that of classical philosophy is the year A.D. 529, when in Antiquity. Many scholars sought to under- the East, Plato’s Academy in Athens was stand the philosophical theories of the closed by Emperor Justinian. That very Ancient World and to reconcile them with same year saw the foundation of the first Christian teaching. great monastic order in the West, that of One of these scholars was Aurelius Augusti- St. Benedict. From then on, the monasteries nus, who as St. Augustine has become became the centers of scholarship and known as the most important philosopher teaching in western Europe. of the transitional period between late The beginning of the Middle Ages also Antiquity and the Middle Ages. His thinking marks the beginning of the spread of was influenced above all by Plato and the

THE MIDDLE AGES

Medieval philosophy consists Europe is known as Scholasti- The succeeding period of High philosophy with Christian primarily of the union of philos- cism (from the Latin schola, Scholasticism (c. 1150–1300) teaching (St. Thomas Aquinas). ophy and theology, because it “school”). This term also refers to is seen as the heyday of the In addition, there was a was based on Christian doctrine, the manner in which the verities movement. It is characterized by confrontation with Arab which it was required to defend of faith were explained (the the discovery of Aristotle’s philosophy. The last period, that and put on a rational foundation. “scholastic method” practiced in remaining works, and by the of Late Scholasticism the monastic schools). One of the main themes of attempt to unite Aristotelian (c. 1300–1400), was already medieval philosophy was The development of Scholasti- marked by decline. therefore the question of the cism proceeded in three stages. relationship between faith and The first stage, that of Early Among the core issues of knowledge and the related Scholasticism (c. 800–1200), medieval philosophy was the attempt to overcome the saw the emergence of the problem of universals. This was apparently irreconcilable scholastic method and the first concerned with whether general difference between revealed truth confrontation with the writings of terms had any reality, or whether and philosophical insight. Aristotle, which were becoming they were simply constructs of The first period (c. 200–700) known in this period. thought and language. overlaps with that of late Antiquity. Its most important Important for the development representative is St. Augustine, of Scholasticism was the The earth as a disk who laid the foundations for the foundation of universities surrounded by the ocean, whole of medieval philosophy. French manuscript illumination, (from the 12th century), which The theological and philosophical 15th century, Bibliothèque quickly evolved into centers of doctrine of medieval western Nationale, Paris intellectual life.

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A NEW UNDERSTANDING OF more and more urgent with the rise of SCIENCE natural science. For on the one hand, philosophical theses ought, it was thought, to Philosophical Consciousness be testable in the same way as physical The study of nature, looking beyond the hypotheses and explanations, and, taken closed cosmos, the idea of consciousness, together, shown to be compatible with and the appreciation of human individuality – reality as it was experienced. Finding and all these began to emerge in the Renais- consistently applying a particular method Understanding and sance; in the Baroque period which ensured the constructive transparency of Experience followed, they were enlarged upon and the theses. It became normal to speak fleshed out, and above all, placed on new of philosophical “systems,” namely those foundations. Nature now came to be studied tasks whose formulations and solutions The 17th very successfully by quantitative methods were methodologically closed, and whose in experiments based on mathematically meaning could be measured against their Century oriented hypotheses. The old model of the preconditions and the success of their cosmos with its stationary earth at the cen- explanations (of the world, for example). ter was now definitely obsolete, and the On the other hand, while “philosophy” new model of the solar system gradually remained the superordinate term for science came to be taken for granted by all those generally (Newton’s chief work on mechan- who enjoyed the privilege of education. ics and the cosmic system, published in Sober, rational thinkers no longer saw 1687, was entitled Philosophiae naturalis Man as occupying a special position in the principia mathematica [“Mathematical history of creation, but rather as a particular Principles of Natural Philosophy”] for exam- species with certain affective reactions and ple), in actual fact physics had already with an innate tendency to construct social declared its independence. For this reason, forms of living. And consciousness became philosophy now concentrated particularly a philosophical concept, a place of pure on fundamental assumptions, which in the thought opposed to the world of things, individual sciences were consciously or seeking principles of knowledge in itself, in unconsciously acknowledged as precondi- order to bring systematic unity into the mass tions, without their forming part of the of what was there to be explored. respective subject matter. The question concerning rationally respon- What actually “is,” what is the “sub- sible principles of knowledge was becoming stance” which underlies appearance and

THE 17TH CENTURY After the end of the wars of reli- Not least for this reason, general René Descartes made a major Following from Descartes, a dual- gion which occupied the first half human reason was raised to a contribution to the development istic and mechanistic image of of the 17th century, the second central principle of philosophy. of modern science with his dis- the world became widespread, half witnessed a consolidation of in which the world of physical Also important were considera- covery of analytical geometry, and a Europe of modern territorial extension, which functioned like a tions of natural law, usually he also provided its philosophical states. The Papacy lost its inter- machine, was imagined as sepa- linked with theses on anthropol- foundation. national political importance. rated in substance from the ogy and the original formation of 1625 saw the appearance of a world of the mind or of reason. state “commonwealths” (the social tract entitled On the Law of War In his “Monadology” Leibniz set contract). The foundations of nat- and Peace by Hugo Grotius, a up an opposing view. ural law were often sought in the notable foundation of modern rational order of things; and there Philosophical Rationalists (includ- international law. were demands that, independent ing Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz) In France, which became a lead- of the form of government, the saw thought as the basis of our ing power, Louis XIV and Cardinal laws of a country should not con- knowledge of reality. Systematic Richelieu were establishing the tradict this natural law. thought embraced not only the system of centralized abso- causes of the data of experience, lutism, which became the pat- The new methods of mathe- but also the ultimate reasons for tern for many other states, and matical natural research and the structure of the world. for which Thomas Hobbes, their integration into metaphysics The Empiricists (including Locke, among others, sought a philo- set the course for the develop- Berkeley, Hume) were decidedly sophical justification. ment of the Western world. skeptical toward such claims. The bourgeoisie gained Louis XIV in a painting by They sought to return reason increasing influence in Holland Hyacinthe Rigaud, 1701, to within the boundaries of and England, but also in France. Louvre, Paris experience.

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RATIONAL HUMANITY for the period of the Enlightenment in the narrower sense – people were growing The Light of Publicity increasingly aware that they were living in Probably the most famous definition of what what was, scientifically and philosophically, a “enlightenment” means was not restricted to new era. In France, Italy and Germany, the any particular “era”: “Enlightenment is Man’s talk was of an enlightened century; the first emergence from his self-imposed immaturity. concern was to cast light on “dark” and con- Immaturity is the incapacity to make use of fused ideas and spirits. During the course of Reason and Freedom one’s intellect without the guidance of the 18th century, the noun “Enlightenment” another. This immaturity is self-imposed came to be used. For Immanuel Kant, with The when its causes are to be found not in a whose definition we opened this chapter, lack of intellect, but of the determination and independent thought and the questioning of Enlightenment courage to use it without the guidance of traditional patterns included the “freedom to another. Have the courage to know – that is make public use of one’s reason in all fields.” the motto of enlightenment.” By this he meant the reason “which some- Many modern writers have come up with one makes use of as a scholar, before general definitions of “enlightenment” in the the whole reading public.” This kind of “use broad sense, seeing it as a process which of reason” had, together with the “reading is constantly taking place in history or is public” itself, expanded enormously in the particularly noticeable at certain periods, course of the 18th century to reach for example the age of Socrates and Plato, undreamed-of heights. Throughout Europe, or the modern age. This process includes the public were informed by the press about the abandonment of prejudices, the destruc- wars, disasters, exotic discoveries and day-to- tion of myths, the will to liberate oneself day politics. Above all, though, there were from natural or social fetters, and, on the also “moral weeklies,” “intelligence sheets,” part of enlightened pioneers, an actively and scholarly journals, in which the talk was emancipatory attitude to education. time and again of that “reason” of which However, more than other periods, the Kant had spoken. This buzzword of the Enlightenment in the historical sense has a Enlightenment gave a name to what all men definite article and a capital “E,” and denotes had in common, in whose sign a newly a particular era, namely the 17th and 18th awakening “world citizenship” was to take centuries - more particularly the latter. Indeed shape. While there was no demand for the in the period between the English Revolution abolition of national borders, and rarely for of 1688 and the French Revolution of 1789 radical change in the forms of government, – and these two dates provide a useful frame the motto of the French Revolution, “Liberty,

THE ENLIGHTENMENT Toward the end of the 18th precondition of political freedom and conditions was typical of the The central features here were century, Thomas Paine, the was the separation of powers Enlightenment, and went side by the rejection of all traditional best-known political writer of his and mutual checks and balances. side with the comparative study authority, the exaltation of reason day, who was actively involved in (while rejecting Rationalist meta- In the “enlightened despotisms” of other cultures. Thorough- the American Revolution physics), the drawing up of the going Enlightenment philosophy (1773–83) and the French reforms were implemented in foundations of a non-theological Revolution (1789–92), wrote the fields of law, education was pursued mainly in France. morality, the conviction that two books: The Age of Reason and the economy. Frederick the scientific development would and The Rights of Man. The first Great in Prussia and Catherine bring human progress, the title can be used as a description the Great in Russia intently belief in the explicability of of the century as a whole, while followed the philosophical and the soul (or the apparatus of the second states one of the literary developments taking knowledge and sensation), and major themes of this period. place in France. the possibility of using the characteristics of matter to In his work The Spirit of the Laws In his Persian Letters, Montes- explain all phenomena. (1748), the central work of con- quieu satirized the society of his stitutional theory of the Enlighten- day, describing it from the point In the 1780s, Immanuel Kant ment, Charles de Montesquieu of view of a non-European. This criticized previous epistemological analyzed types of civil and polit- relativization of prevailing morality theories and also rejected Enlight- ical law and their dependence enment theses on this topic. on the age and the society in Frederick II (“the Great”), King His philosophy combined the which they were made. One of of Prussia, Painting by Franz opposing attitudes of Rationalism his influential theses was that a Dudde, c. 1900 and Empiricism.

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knowledge, in contrast to a “synthetic judg- Immanuel Kant, ment,” e.g.: “Some dogs are dangerous to Anonymous portrait, c. 1790 people.” This statement is based on experi- Kant’s epoch-making Critique of ence, a synthetic judgment a posteriori. Now Pure Reason (1781) subjected the human faculty of cognition to a metaphysics is concerned with “synthetic serious examination and came to judgments a priori.” Only when it speaks in the conclusion that there were certain conditions anchored in the such judgments about the principles of subject himself which determined individual sciences or about certain condi- our view of the world. He argued that no statement was possible tions or even leitmotifs of knowledge, for about what the world “in itself” example about the “idea” of the infinite (but was like (i.e. independent of the construction put on it by the without asserting any knowable infinite), is subject), because Man could metaphysics possible as a science, and then never see things independently of this construction. Therefore as a “science of the limits of human reason.” knowledge was not oriented to In this demarcation exercise, Kant did not objects; rather, it determined the properties of objects. follow the skepticism of Hume. In opposition to Hume, he believed that experience, which arises from the mental processing of misjudgment etc.). Thus the general will perceptions, could not in its turn draw its resembles a pantheistic God-Nature, which is principles from experience. Unlike many One and All, projected on to society. The Rationalists, on the other hand, Kant was of individual is free, in that he recognizes his the opinion that all knowledge begins with own fully individual will to be subsumed in experience, and must make reference to the general will and identical with it. Man is experience in every case. It could, however, a citizen, and yet once again an individual. be concerned with merely “possible” experience, examining through mental processes alone the subjective acts of obtaining knowl- Immanuel Kant edge whose possibility precedes experience, The Critique of Pure Reason and which are definitive for everything which Along with David Hume, to whom by his own could possibly become the object. This acknowledgment he owed much, Kant jetti- examination is the task of the “transcenden- soned metaphysics as an alleged science of tal philosophy” which Kant developed. the supra-sensory, in other words as the “Transcendental is the name I give to all seemingly logical and factual theory of what knowledge which concerns itself not with lies beyond experience. And yet Kant admitted objects, but with the way we recognize to being in love with metaphysics. He was objects, to the extent that this is possible a convinced it was indispensable because priori.” Transcendental philosophy is thus the questions concerning the most general defin- formal basic structure of everything that can itions of reality, the knowability of nature, God, be reality for us. As it makes a priori and freedom and the immortality of the soul cried generally valid statements relating to neces- out for an answer: “Human reason goes forth sary features of reality, Kant continued to call inexorably to such questions as cannot be it metaphysics in this respect. answered by any experiential use of reason or principles based on it.” Questions which can- Space and Time as Pure Conceptions not be answered a posteriori (“from what The Rationalists were of the opinion that comes after”), i.e. from experience, require theorems derived mathematically or logically knowledge a priori (“from what came before”), from definitions or from basic original con- i.e. on the one hand independent of experi- cepts could be applied to the objects of ence, and on the other not consisting of perception, and at the same time say some- statements which are true by definition (e.g. thing about the world in itself as indepen- “Triangles have three sides”). Kant regarded dent of our perception and thought of as a such a sentence as this last as an “analytical supra-sensory whole. This was possible, they judgment”: the predicate (“three-sided”) de- thought, because thanks to the disposition rives from an analysis of the subject (“trian- of God, who does not deceive us, or for gle”). This sentence does not extend other metaphysically derived reasons, certain

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GERMAN IDEALISM is to say it came to be understood as the result of long-term changes, as opposed The Beginnings of Modernity to the assumption of a fundamentally The following chapters on German idealism unchanging number of species and varieties. take up the story directly from the preceding The world became the product of a process chapter on Kant. Nevertheless, to give the extending back into in the unimaginably book a clear structure, a new main section is distant past. In philology, semiotics and the needed at this point, so the following para- theory of art, secularization is to be seen in From the Modern Age graphs will comment on the transition from the assumption that meaning is created by to Modernism the 18th to the 19th century. In recent histor- means of an individual interpretative process ical research, including the history of art and which necessarily proceeds by way of the The 19th literature, this transition is seen as an impor- synthesis of diversity as a temporal process, tant threshold between the eras of the and, moreover, presents a different appear- Century “modern age” and “modernism” in its broader ance at different times. Thus meaning is in a sense (whereas “Modernism” in its narrower double sense not timeless. sense refers rather to the 20th century). The Baroque idea of letting the world repre- In the second half of the 18th century, up to sent itself objectively, so to speak, on a vast the Romantic period around 1800, changes panel of signs, disappeared altogether. in art and science came to a head which Humanization – not to be understood here may be termed “secularization” and “human- as the creation of humane conditions – is ization.” Secularization meant the opening to be seen in a boom in anthropology, the up in biology and cosmology of new dimen- science of man, in medicine and philosophy, sions of natural history by way of evolution- and in the beginnings of sociology. ary perspectives. Thus, for example, a theory developed by Kant concerning the origin of Johann Gottlieb Fichte solar systems in gaseous nebulae, which The first version of Fichte’s The Science of also implied a theory of the formation of the Knowledge appeared in 1794, 13 years earth, required the assumption of a period of after Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason. In his time for this formation out of all proportion own way Fichte continued Kant’s transcen- to the younger age of the earth that was dental philosophy, that is to say the investi- generally assumed at the time. Also – long gation of the preconditions that are given before Darwin’s theory of evolution – the in the faculty of knowledge itself prior to great diversity of biological species was any experience, and that make objectivity gradually being seen in historical terms, that and an epistemological relationship to

THE 19TH CENTURY After the wars of liberation philosophically significant as a Philosophy adopted various of world-view.” Hence he also against Napoleon the age of cultural critique relating to the attitudes towards the triumphs spoke of vitalism. Henri Bergson European nation states began, sphere of fundamental labor and of science. Positivism (Auguste and, to a certain extent, Friedrich in which a strong awareness of property relations. Comte), continuing the Enlighten- Nietzsche are also regarded as national identity came into being ment’s belief in progress, saw belonging to this movement. helped by an increased Marx turned his attention above the only remaining role for awareness of the conditions all to the consequences of the philosophy as being the science determining any particular industrial revolution, which of science. historical moment. began in England in the last third of the 18th century, advanced Wilhelm Dilthey, on the other German idealism, the most hand, introduced the distinction rapidly and led to the emergence important philosophical between “natural sciences” and of the proletariat. movement at the beginning of “human sciences.” Philosophy, the 19th century, is linked to New forms of the division of as a “critique of historical reason” historical awareness inasmuch as labor also arose in natural and an “application of historical it reduces nature and mankind, science, which began to break awareness to philosophy and its so to speak, to history. In this down into separate sciences and history,” was to prepare the way conception history is the self- to shed its links with philosophy. for the “human sciences.” unfolding of the supra-individual The as yet young disciplines of Dilthey’s aim was to get closer to subjective spirit. biology and chemistry altered life itself through the fluid under- Karl Marx’s materialism was a the image of inanimate and standing and experience of “types response to idealism. His critique animate matter. Darwin’s theory of the capitalist economic system of evolution constituted a Johann Gottlieb Fichte was at the same time revolution in the image of man. Caricature by Gottfried Schadow

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Ideology world aware of its consciousness, in awaken- “The philosophers have only interpreted the ing it from its dream of itself, and ‘explaining’ world in various ways. The point however is to its own actions to it.” It is a matter of “the change it.” This famous proposition is the last reform of consciousness not through dog- of 11 brief notebook entries in which Marx mas but through the analysis of that mystical formulated his view of Feuerbach and which consciousness which is obscure to itself.” are known today as the “Feuerbach theses.” If But according to Marx, Feuerbach had him- philosophy is part of the “superstructure,” as self undertaken this analysis in what was was pointed out in the previous section, and still an ideological manner by remaining on merely involuntarily reflects the “base,” then it the level of reason, of the correct use of the falls short of reality and is unable to change intellect. Marx’s concern was to explain the anything. Marx and Engels used the word contents of ideologies in terms of antagonis- “ideology” to describe the conviction, which in tic historical conditions, of class conflict. Arthur Schopenhauer, 1788–1860, Painting by their view was erroneous, that theories and Angilbert Göbel, 1859, the changes of consciousness brought about Staatliche Kunstsammlung, Kassel by them, could affect the course of history. (In NEW QUESTS FOR MEANING In the very title of his magnum opus, The World as Will and 1845–1846 they wrote a book, The German – TRANSVALUATION OF Idea, Schopenhauer made the Ideology, which remained unpublished at the fundamental idea of his philoso- VALUES phy clear. Schopenhauer agreed time.) This use of the word does not entirely with Kant's view that man experi- accord with the way it is used today. But then Arthur Schopenhauer ences and knows the world only within his own idea of it. That is as now “ideology” included ideas that are put Like Hegel and like numerous thinkers before to say, the world is conditioned forward in the above conviction: “Ideology is a him, Schopenhauer developed a philosophy by the subject's mode of knowledge. However, there was for process which is carried out consciously by with the ambition of providing an all-embrac- him, in contrast to Kant, some- the so-called thinker, but his consciousness is ing account of things. His concern was thing on which these ideas are based and which is thus a false consciousness. The real driving forces similar to that of Goethe’s Faust: “what holds independent of all experience which govern him remain unknown to him, the world together in its innermost parts.” and knowledge, which Schopen- hauer called the “Will.” The Will otherwise it would not be an ideological But two of the principal approaches in his is not a goal or an intention but process.” (Engels) thought set him apart from the metaphysical a kind of all-pervading force, the inner essence of things and the Feuerbach, according to Marx, wished to tradition. Schopenhauer neither begins nor driving force of nature. As a “thing transform the “false consciousness” of reli- ends with God, with Being, with the isolated in itself”, the Will is the basis of reality in its entirety, but it always gion into a true self-consciousness of man. consciousness or its experiences and con- appears in individual phenomena To that extent his intentions were at one cepts, but with man. Man’s relationship to of the will, which are manifesta- tions of this one Will. with Marx’s own. For Marx “the reform of the world is, it is true, illuminated philosoph- consciousness consists ‘only’ in making the ically, epistemologically, from the outset, but his knowledge is seen in conjunction with Philosopher, Etching by Max Klinger, sheet 3 of the series Opus XIII, – his physical being, his needs and his involve- Death, Part II, First impression ment in the endless mechanisms of life and 1898–1909 its relationships. Schopenhauer sees this With literary virtuosity, Schopenhauer again and again explained the specific involvement as vulnerability, as suffering, and goals, aspirations and actions of with this as its starting point – this too is particular individuals in terms of a few basic drives, leaving events on a breach with the European tradition – earth at the mercy of the fateful pull his entire doctrine is pessimistic. (Pessimism of the supra-individual will, which is not benign. Max Klinger, fascinated is here not to be understood primarily as by Schopenhauer, adopted this view hopelessness regarding the future, but as a of things in a series of graphic works, some of which have a dramatic negative, critical attitude of rejection towards “action.” Klinger's “philosopher” the world, towards life in general.) arrogantly reaches out beyond the real stream of life and beyond nature, here The title of Schopenhauer’s principal work symbolically fused with the figure of a The World as Will and Idea (1818) reclining woman, to a metaphysical foundation of all things. But this is expresses, as he himself stated, “the single seen to be a mirror, the philosopher idea” around which all his writings revolve. finds only himself. The exact location The “and” of the title contains part of the of the mirror (and hence any certainty as to what is reflected and what is point of this idea, for it is a matter of the con- directly visible) is left deceptively nection between two aspects of the world, of unclear – a somewhat pessimistic image of philosophy. how we are to experience and interpret it.

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LIFE Freud. Marx had shown that the capitalist economic system is governed by laws of its From the 19th to the 20th Century own which cannot be controlled by reason 20th-century philosophy is no longer confident and which create the potential for an imminent of its right to exist. The catastrophes of our age crisis. Nietzsche had unmasked the belief of have not only affected philosophers’ own lives the Enlightenment in human self-determina- in many ways, but have also dealt a more tion as nothing more than the product of the lasting blow to their faith in the reality of desire for power. Finally Freud proceeded to The End of Philosophy? reason, far more so than the experience of the cast doubt on man’s rational ability to control estrangement between the old and the new his own inner self, his emotions and instincts, in the age of revolutions was able to do. by describing them as the forms taken by The 20th Philosophy has therefore, unlike classical ideal- a ubiquitous sexual drive. All these ideas ism, lost confidence in its ability to heal that radically questioned the power of reason: in Century estrangement in the realm of thought. On the central areas of man’s self-understanding it contrary, its most significant voices proclaim had turned out that it was not the self-assured their own abdication, whether in favor of art, subject but rather blind forces that were in science or politics. More than in any previous control. The response of philosophy to this age, the great philosophers now vociferously challenge varied: in some cases it led to the and unanimously sought salvation outside abdication of reason, in others to a radical philosophy. Paradoxically this manifest self- restatement of the goals and beliefs of the negation goes hand in hand with an unprece- Enlightenment, in order to face up to the pow- dented determination to make philosophy into erful onslaught to which they had been sub- an academic subject with a “scientific” basis. jected by those great enlighteners Marx, Freud, Never before have there been more people in and Nietzsche. Even as regards the broad the universities and academies of the world for general public, by the late 19th century the whom philosophy is their main occupation, belief that the world could be shaped by rea- never before have there been so many son had begun to crumble as man was com- separate individual philosophical disciplines – pelled to see himself, with fewer and fewer disciplines which now need specialists to reservations, as part of the functional network survey them in their entirety. of modern industrial societies. The First World The first major blow to the its self-confidence War merely brought out into the open once to which 20th-century philosophy responded and for all the fact that there was nothing left came above all from the work of three men: in the bourgeois notion of progress with which Karl Marx, Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund to oppose the destructive forces of the present.

THE 20TH CENTURY The historian Eric Hobsbawm In the field of culture, an avant- along with the discovery of DNA ties of the Enlightenment and called the 20th century the Age of garde art and literature began at were the central scientific discov- Positivism were questioned. The Extremes. Indeed, in no century an early stage to break the eries of the 20th century. new topics of Life, Language have progress and regression, war autonomous, enlightened bour- and Society moved into the cen- Philosophy faced up to the and peace, enlightenment and geois subject of the 19th century ter of philosophical reflection. upheavals of the age. The certain- barbarity co-existed so closely, down into its component parts. Language became the principal both temporally and spatially, as in By the end of the 20th century, topic of philosophy, because it the 20th century. thanks to electricity, gramophone seemed that the unity of experi- The two major ideologies of the records, the telephone, television, ence within the multiplicity of century, fascism and commu- PCs and the Internet, a commer- possible perspectives could only nism, brought men under the cialized mass culture had be found, if at all, in linguistic sway of the belief that they could reached even the remotest cor- communication. The guiding con- control the course of history. The ners of the earth. Since the student cept of “Life” took into account Second World War unleashed by protests of the 1960s, concep- that, with the irreversible break- Germany and the murder of tions of life geared to the existen- down of traditional communities, European Jews constituted a tial experience of the self have to a source of spontaneous vital break with civilization which gave an increasing degree replaced the energy had also been blocked off. the lie once and for all to the inflexible role models of modern Finally, society became a topic of promise of political salvation for industrial society. The theory of philosophy because the multifac- the Western world. The struggle relativity and quantum theory eted dependence of each individ- between the opposing systems of ual on the world could no longer capitalism and communism was Thales of Miletus, Hans Arp, be credibly described in terms of eventually won by capitalism. 1952, private collection theological concepts.

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GLOSSARY conceives Being itself not as relates to a perceptible, thinking, something that is, but as a and remembering consciousness. “process of de-concealment” (Ent- Terms in bold can be found under their own heading in the glossary For Husserl, the world is the cor- bergungsgeschehen) of what is. relate of acts of consciousness. Categories (Greek kategorein = Copernican revolution: In the A priori, a posteriori (Latin, from Platonica” in Florence. Since then, to make a statement): Concepts narrower sense, the revolution in [what came] before; from [what academy has been a general of existence. A term introduced cosmology resulting from the comes] after): With reference to term for a university, college or by Aristotle for the various kinds replacement by Copernicus of a an Aristotelian distinction (hys- learned society. of statement which can be geocentric universe by a helio- made about an object. Aristotle centric universe. By extension, teron versus proteron), a pair of Analytic and synthetic judg- epistemological terms introduced distinguished ten categories any radical intellectual shift. Thus ments: In the introduction to his (substance, quantity, quality, Kant regarded his theory that the by the Scholastics. A priori Critique of Pure Reason, Kant knowledge can be obtained relation, place, time, position, “knower” imposed his mental distinguishes “judgments” (i.e. state, action, and affection), while structures on the objects of through reason alone, indepen- statements) according to the Plato distinguished only four knowledge as a Copernican dent of human experience. Kant relationship between the subject summarizes under “a priori” the (identity, difference, persistence, revolution in philosophy. and predicate (what is said about and change). For Kant, the cate- conditions that make knowledge Cynics: A school of philosophy the subject). Analytical judgments gories were both definitions of possible in the first place, i.e. founded by Antisthenes are those in which the predicate objects and a priori forms of logically necessary and strictly (444–368 B.C.). The Cynics lived is already contained in the knowledge, in other words men- general knowledge such as according to their ideal of an definition of the subject, e.g. tal concepts, which he derived space and time, analytical deci- entirely untrammeled existence, “All bodies possess extension” from possible kinds of judgment. sions, categories, and concepts despising all cultural values and or “A bachelor is unmarried.” In this way, he arrived at twelve of reason. A posteriori knowl- notions of property. The modern Synthetic judgments by contrast different categories, which he edge, by contrast, comprises all give additional information use of the word goes back to divided into four groups. the rest, e.g. sense-perceptions, about the subject in the form their disregard for all social con- with no claim to general validity. of knowledge gained from Categorical imperative: ventions and to their provocative Agnosticism: (Greek a-gnoéin = experience, e.g. “All bodies have A general principle of behavior pronouncements. weight,” or “The Amazon is over which Kant, in his Critique of not to know): An epistemologi- Deduction (Latin deducere = to cal concept coined by T. Huxley, 4000 miles long.” Practical Reason, formulated as follows: “Always act in such a lead down): Derivation of the par- meaning that only the outward Archimedean firm place: An way that the maxims of your will ticular from the general; obtain- appearance of what exists can imaginary immovable fulcrum could at all times constitute the ing a new statement from other be known, not its true being. outside the confines of the Earth principles of a general law.” statements by logical conclusions. Agnosticism disputes the possi- (or any system), and by extension, See Syllogism. (see Induction.) bility of solving the metaphysical a foundation of knowledge Causality: The relation of cause problem of truth. The ancient beyond all possible doubt, from and effect between two events Deism (Latin deus = god): System Sophists and Skeptics were which all other knowledge can taking place at different times. of natural religion current in the agnostics, as were later, among be supported or undermined. The principle of causality states Enlightenment. It recognized a others, J. Locke, D. Hume, and The term goes back to a saying that every event has a cause, God as creator and origin of the H. Spencer. Nietzsche was critical by the Greek mathematician and and, conversely, that every cause world, but not as a being which of agnosticism on the grounds engineer Archimedes (287–212 has an effect. intervened in the affairs of the that the position of “not being B.C.): “Give me a firm place on world, either through miracles or Consciousness: Awareness able to know” the truth presup- which to stand and I shall move through revelation. of one's (spiritual or mental) posed the knowledge of that very the Earth.” Dialectic (Greek dialégein = art truth, which meant, he argued, existence. The term is understood Axiom (Greek axioma = demand, in widely differing ways by of conversation): The logic of that the frontier to the Transcen- contradiction; method of philoso- dental had been crossed. axioein = regard as true): General philosophers, but is generally statement that cannot be proved interpreted as the capacity to phizing. As early as the Eleatics Agora: Name given in ancient itself but forms the basis for the imagine objects. It comprises the (Xenophanes, Parmenides, Zeno), Athens both to the assembly of proof of other statements. Euclid's total content of sensory percep- also later in Socrates, dialectic citizens and to the place where geometry for example is founded tion, sensation, emotion, will and was regarded as the art of inves- they met (the market-place). on axioms, and there are axioms thought. The term in its modern tigating truth through dialogue. Political discussion (agorein) was of logic (e.g. a statement cannot sense is due to Descartes; in his For Plato, dialectic is knowledge one of the most important civic be true and false at the same Methodical Doubt, conscious- that arises from conflicting opin- duties in Athenian public life. time). In the natural sciences, an ness is the knowledge of the ions. Kant described dialectic as Every male citizen was both axiom is a statement confirmed doubter that his doubt is beyond the “logic of appearances,” the entitled and indeed required to by experience, but unprovable. doubt. Descartes saw in this art which invests falsehood with take part. The agora was thus an the appearance of truth. He used Being, to be (Greek on, ousia: certainty of self the foundation of expression of the basic idea of dialectic as a method of expos- Latin esse, ens): The meanings his concepts of existence and the polis, namely that the state ing sophistry. For Fichte (theory of these controversial basic knowledge. With his concept of was founded on direct participa- of science) and Hegel (science concepts of philosophy can be “transcendental consciousness,” tion by its citizens in political life. of logic), dialectic was that form divided into three: (1) existence, Kant introduced the connection of thought which includes con- Academy (Greek akademeia): (2) identity, and (3) the logical between self-awareness and the tradiction (negation) of a thought Originally the name of a temple relation between two terms, unity of objects of experience: the or idea in itself. Their dialectical area outside Athens named for expressed by the copula “to be.” subject is aware of his identity method shows how any concept the hero Akademos. It was here Parmenides was one of the first and of changing mental states, (thesis) can turn into its opposite in 385 B.C. that Plato founded to define being as permanence, but is also aware of the unity his philosophical school of the non-transitoriness, as opposed to of an object which can be (antithesis), and how from the same name, which remained appearance, becoming and dis- seen in different ways. For Kant, contradiction between these two until 529 A.D., when it was appearing. By contrast, for Hera- “transcendental consciousness” a higher concept (synthesis) closed by the Emperor Justinian. clitus there was no permanent is the basic condition of the emerges, which is then subject Even in Antiquity, the Platonic being, all being was becoming. possibility of knowledge. The to the same fate. Academy was already the model Aristotle thought of being as the phenomenology of Husserl Empiricism (Greek empeiria = for other schools (Peripatos, existence of the existent thing. defines consciousness as a con- experience): The epistemological Stoa), and it influenced the Ontology usually understands sciousness that is always directed and philosophical standpoint educational system of the Middle being as the existence of things towards something and in this which sees experience as the Ages. In 1440 Cosimo de' as such. Heidegger's existential sense intentional. All reality is only source of knowledge. For Medici founded an “Academia ontology, on the other hand, only such to the extent that it the representatives of classical

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Empiricism (Hobbes, Locke, immaturity, namely blind faith in (1750) A. E. Baumgarten became modern times (cf. Empiricism) Hume), there were no innate the universal authority of science. the first to attempt to create a experience has been regarded as ideas; the whole content of Entelechy (Greek entelecheia = basic science of sensory experi- the basis of scientific knowledge. consciousness was due to sen- ence. In his Critique of Judgment, having oneself as a goal): An Francis Bacon used the word sory experiences which could be Kant explained beauty as the “experientia” in the sense of expression which goes back to collated into empirical knowledge symbolic visualization of the exploration, meaning the process Aristotle, who stated that any by the principles of similarity and supra-sensory in the sensory; for of learning, the method of existing thing contains the goal causality. Accordingly, permissi- Schelling, it was the finite repre- obtaining general statements. of its development already within ble scientific methods for empiri- sentation of the infinite. Hegel The Empiricists (e.g. Locke) iden- it, as for example a seed has as cists are observation and and Schopenhauer understood tified experience with perception. its goal the fully-grown plant. experiment. (See Sensational- art as truth made visible; accord- Locke distinguished external The first entelechy of a viable ism.) ing to Adorno, art aims for truth experience (sensation), the regis- organism is, for Aristotle, the soul. in the sense of a rescue of the tration of the external world Encyclopedia (Greek enkyklios = Leibniz described the monads as Other, Non-identical. through the sense organs, from circular, paideia = teaching): The entelechies, as the purpose of internal experience (reflection), universal learning of the their realization is contained Ethics (Greek éthos = custom): the “inner life” of man accessible Sophists, comprising grammar, within them. Moral philosophy. Ethics investi- rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, gates the preconditions and the to mental capacity. Kant usually Epicureanism: the teaching and music, geometry and astronomy. effects of human actions. In identified experience with empiri- way of life propounded by Epicu- The modern encyclopedia aims contrast to autonomous ethics, cal knowledge. For Phenome- rus (341–270 B.C.), in which at providing a written summary authority-based ethics denies that nology it is the relationship of happiness and a life of pleasure of current knowledge. In 1751, individuals have the capacity to experience to the practical life- Diderot and d'Alembert, together are seen as the greatest good. formulate the maxims of their world that is important, as it is with 142 authors (“encyclope- To attain to this good, Epicurus own behavior (an example would the foundation for all scientific dists”) set about a systematic recommended a life of with- be the theological ethics repre- statements and for knowledge. drawal and political abstinence. compilation of all human knowl- sented by the Christian com- Frankfurt School: A school of edge, a project concluded in Epistemology (Greek episteme mandments). Normative ethics thought concerned with the 1772 with the Encyclopédie ou = knowledge, understanding): The aims to formulate universally critique of society and science dictionnaire raisonné des sci- theory of knowledge. Episte- binding values and standards. which takes its name from the ences, des arts et des métiers. mology is one of the basic Utilitarianism sees utility and the Institute for Social Research Energeia (Greek activity, reality, philosophical disciplines; it is maximization of happiness as the founded in Frankfurt in 1923. realization): According to Aristotle, concerned with questions of only moral principles. The Stoics Of its members, the authors energeia is the principle that the origins of the meanings, held that ethics was derived from Horkheimer and Adorno with realizes potential. Taking the principles, methods and limita- a law of nature. Kant developed their “critical theory” are associ- example of teacher and pupil, he tions of knowledge. Philosophical this idea in his categorical ated with a program of analysis explains the relationship between epistemology (in contrast to the imperative. In place of the deter- of social power structures. In dynamis (movement, ability) and philosophy of science) necessarily mination of man by nature, he Dialectic of Enlightenment, energeia. By imparting knowl- questions the validity of existing, proposed an autonomy of the Horkheimer and Adorno exposed edge, a teacher can change the scientific knowledge. Since, fol- will, which makes a law for itself. the veiled power-seeking of the ability of a pupil, if the latter has lowing the tradition of Descartes, This enables the individual to Enlightenment and its shift into the capacity to learn. As long as a boundary exists between the justify the reasons for his actions. myth, while, however, also the pupil does not apply the understanding subject and the Practical ethics (P. Singer) devel- reflecting on their theory itself as knowledge he has acquired, he object to be understood, it is ops options of action for problem part of the blindness of the is only a potential “knower.” Only necessary to agree about under- situations, especially those arising Enlightenment. Marcuse and when he implements this knowl- standing as a means. While Kant, from technological progress in Habermas also belong to the tra- edge does this activity become in his epistemology, examines medicine. dition of the Frankfurt School. energeia. It is defined as the metaphysical knowledge, which realization of those aspects of Existentialism: Philosophy of Genealogy (Greek: genealogia): is supposed to be independent existence and being. Existentialism The study of origins and descent. dynamis, of the capacity to have of all experience, Fichte raises an effect, of potentiality. wishes to restore a connection In its narrower sense genealogy the question of whether science between abstract thinking and denotes the theory of human Enlightenment: A European is possible at all. According to the individual's concrete experi- ancestry; in its broader sense it intellectual movement of the how these preconditions are ence of the self and the world. demonstrates the fundamental 18th century, which sought to interpreted, epistemology remains This awareness of one's own self connections between ideas liberate itself from the ideas to this day divided between logi- is created in extreme situations which are interrelated in their handed down by medieval and cal, psychological and transcen- such as fear, guilt, and death. The historical development, as did ecclesiastical authorities. While for dental-phenomenological schools. main exponents of Existentialism Nietzsche, for example, in his Descartes it was still the radiant Esthetics (Greek aisthetikós = are Kierkegaard, Jaspers and Genealogy of Morals. power of God that helped reason Heidegger (ontology). In France relating to what is perceptible): Geocentric, heliocentric (Greek to discover truth, for the Enlight- the term “existentialisme” denotes Originally the theory of sensory ge = earth, helios = sun): The enment it was mankind itself philosophical movements which, perception; later, as one of the view, current until the end of the whose own reason determined unlike essentialism, accept the cardinal philosophical disciplines, Middle Ages, that the Earth was the rational and political order of primacy of existence over narrowed down to the theory of at the center of the universe, is the world. The leading philoso- essence. In Being and Nothing- art and beauty. Philosophical termed geocentric. Copernicus phers of the Enlightenment were, ness Sartre explained this pri- esthetics investigates the condi- ushered in the heliocentric view, in Great Britain and Ireland, macy as signifying that man first tions under which judgments of whereby the Sun was at the Locke, Berkeley and Hume; in exists, encounters himself, taste arise, the effect of beauty on center of the planetary system. France, the encyclopedists appears in the world, and then Diderot, d'Alembert, Montesquieu, the beholder, and the relationship between art and reality. Esthetics defines himself accordingly. Hedonistic (Greek hedon = Rousseau; in Germany, Wolff, pleasure): The view of life which Lessing and Kant. Kant defined has not been confined to any Experience (Greek: empeiria, sees enjoyment and the plea- Enlightenment as “man's emer- particular epoch in its pursuit of Latin: experientia): Knowledge of sures of the senses as the aim gence from his self-imposed the connection between the sen- the particular. Aristotle defined and goal of human action (see immaturity” and urged accord- suous and sense-formation: Plato experience as the ability to rec- Epicureanism). ingly: “Sapere aude!” (Dare to use and Plotinus understood beauty ognize and judge things correctly. your brain). With their trust in as the radiance of the Platonic The precondition of every experi- Hellenism (Greek hellen = empiricism, reason and the ideas shining into the world; ence is memory. It takes many Greek): That period of classical evolutionary progress of society, Aristotle saw order, regularity, memories to create the faculty of Antiquity, between the 4th the Enlightenment however ran and discrimination as the sources forming general concepts on the century B.C. and the rise of the the risk of ushering in a new of beauty. With his Aesthetica basis of individual experiences. In Roman Empire, in which Greek

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Original title: Geschichte der Philosophie von der Antike bis heute ISBN 978-3-8480-0431-7

Dalí, Salvador © Salvador Dalí. Fundació Gala-Salvador Dalí/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2012 Munch, Edvard © The Munch Museum/The Munch Ellingsen Group/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2012 Chirico, Giorgio de © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2012 Magritte, René © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2012 Arp, Hans © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2012 Chagall, Marc © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2012 Giacometti, Alberto © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2012 Weegee © Getty Images, Inc. 2006

Cover design: Simone Sticker Cover photos from the inside Front cover: Archiv für Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin, except for left above: Getty Images (from left above to right below: pp. 9, 31, 90, 15, 70, 102, 17, 82, 88, 104, 52) Back cover: Archiv für Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin, except for middle right: Photothèque des Musées de la Ville de Paris (from left above to right below: pp. 67, 69, 13, 28, 37, 79, 42, 32, 108)

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