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Applications of Microwave Energy in Medicine biosensors Review Applications of Microwave Energy in Medicine Alexandra Gartshore 1, Matt Kidd 2 and Lovleen Tina Joshi 1,* 1 School of Biomedical Science, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK; [email protected] 2 Emblation Microwave Ltd., Alloa, Scotland FK10 2HU, UK; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Microwaves are a highly utilized electromagnetic wave, used across a range of industries including food processing, communications, in the development of novel medical treatments and biosensor diagnostics. Microwaves have known thermal interactions and theorized non-thermal interactions with living matter; however, there is significant debate as to the mechanisms of action behind these interactions and the potential benefits and limitations of their use. This review summa- rizes the current knowledge surrounding the implementation of microwave technologies within the medical industry. Keywords: microwaves; medicine; bacteria; ablation; tumours; diagnostics 1. Introduction Microwaves are a section of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum (Figure1;[ 1]): this spectrum ranges from radio waves to gamma rays. The EM spectrum can be expressed as frequency, which is measured in Hertz, wavelength and energy. Shorter waves with a higher value of energy such as ultraviolet are classed as ionizing as they generate sufficient energy to produce ions at a molecular level, causing damage to DNA and proteins. Whilst Citation: Gartshore, A.; Kidd, M.; longer waves such as visible light are classified as non-ionizing; these can still cause Joshi, L.T. Applications of Microwave thermal damage, however, this damage is not caused through ions. Microwaves are a Energy in Medicine. Biosensors 2021, type of electromagnetic radiation with free-space wavelengths ranging from 1 metre to 11, 96. https://doi.org/10.3390/ 1 millimetre, with the frequency ranging between 300 MHz and 300 GHz, respectively [2]. bios11040096 The most common microwave frequency used is centred at approximately 2.45 GHz, which lies within the Industrial Scientific and Medical (ISM) radio band and is reserved for such Received: 20 November 2020 purposes [3]. In recent years, microwave energy has been successfully exploited within Accepted: 22 March 2021 medicine to treat diseases such as cancer and microbial infections via ablation therapy. Published: 26 March 2021 There is now increased interest in using a range of microwave frequencies other than 2.45 GHz in the treatment of diseases; however, there is still limited understanding of the Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral mechanisms of action of microwaves that induce biological changes in organisms. In this with regard to jurisdictional claims in review, we focus primarily on microwave interactions at a cellular level with bacteria as published maps and institutional affil- model organisms. Herein we examine current literature regarding the functionality, current iations. and prospective uses of microwave energy across a range of frequencies to demonstrate state of the art microwave advances in the medical industry (Figure2)[4,5]. Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). Biosensors 2021, 11, 96. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios11040096 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/biosensors Biosensors 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13 Biosensors 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 13 Biosensors 2021, 11, 96 2 of 13 Figure 1. Electromagnetic spectrum. A depiction of the range of frequencies and wavelengths in the electromagnetic FigureFigure 1. 1. Electromagnetic Electromagnetic spectrum spectrum. A. A depiction depiction of of the the range range of of frequencies frequencies an andd wavelengths wavelengths in in the the electromagnetic electromagnetic spec- spec- trumspectrumtrum and and the andthe sub-ranges, sub-ranges, the sub-ranges, as as th the as ewavelength wavelength the wavelength increases increases increases the the ener ener thegy energygy of of the the of wave wave the wavedecreases decreases decreases [1]. [1]. [1]. FigureFigure 2. 2. Summary SummarySummary of of oftopics topics topics covered covered covered within within within microwave microwave microwave energy energy energy in in me inmedicine. medicine.dicine. Diagram Diagram Diagram depicts depicts depicts key key themes key themes themes described described described in in this this in review.thisreview. review. 2.2. Electromagnetic Electromagnetic Electromagnetic Fields Fields AnAn electromagnetic electromagnetic field field field consists consists of of both both a a magnetic magnetic and and an an electric electric field fieldfield produced produced byby positively positively or or negatively negatively charged charged particles particles (Figure (Figure 3; 33;;[ [2]). [2]).2]). An An electric electric field fieldfield is is generated generated whenwhen particles particles gain gain a acharge, charge, either either positive positive or or negative negative via via the the transfer transfer of of electrons. electrons. If If the the electricallyelectrically charged charged particles particles start start to to move, move, th th theyeyey produce produce an an electric electric current; current; this this current current Biosensors 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 13 Biosensors 2021, 11, 96 3 of 13 producesproduces a magnetic a magnetic field field around around the electric the electric current. current. The The electric electric field field does does not not have have to to be be movingmoving to produce to produce a magnetic a magnetic field; field; if the if thecharge charge of the of electric the electric field field is fluctuating is fluctuating then then a fluctuatinga fluctuating magnetic magnetic field fieldwill be will induced. be induced. Due to Due their to theircoupled coupled nature, nature, if the if correct the correct balancebalance is achieved, is achieved, the nfi theelds fields ca cansustain sustain each each other other and and once once sustained, sustained, an an electromag electromagnetic‐ netic fieldfield emitsemits directionaldirectional electromagneticelectromagnetic waveswaves asas thethe fieldsfields fluctuate fluctuate [ [6].6]. Both Bothmagnetic magnetic and electric and electric fields fields are bound are bound by laws by lawsof attraction of attraction which which state statethat that oppositeopposite charges charges always always attract attract while while ‘like’ ‘like’charges charges repel. repel. The strength The strength of the of attraction the attraction or or repulsionrepulsion is negatively is negatively proportional proportional to the to thedistance distance of the of the charges. charges. One One of ofthe the best best exam examples‐ ples ofof these these laws laws is is the the chemical chemical bonding bonding between between atoms atoms via via charged charged electrons electrons and and pro protons,‐ tons, thesethese interactionsinteractions cancan bebe describeddescribed mathematically with Coulomb’s law law [7]. [7]. Mag Magnetic‐ netic fieldsfields are produced produced by by the the presence presence of of two two charges charges tha thatt create create field field lines, lines, where where these these lines linesintersect intersect is described is described as poles, as an poles, example an example of this is of the this Earth’s is the North Earth’s and North South and pole, South and suchpole, magnetic and such charges magnetic can charges only exist can as only dipoles, exist asnot dipoles, monopoles. not monopoles. Mathematical Mathematical equa‐ tions equationssuch as Maxwell’s such as Maxwell’s equations equations prove the prove model the modelfor electromagnetism, for electromagnetism, furthermore, furthermore, thesethese equations equations describe describe how howfluctuating fluctuating electric electric and andmagnetic magnetic fields fields (Figure (Figure 3) travel3) travel at at a a constantconstant speed speed [8]. Electromagnetic [8]. Electromagnetic fields fields can act can as act waves as waves and particles and particles simultaneously; simultaneously; the wavesthe waves travel travel outwards outwards from from their their source source and and can can move move through through a medium a medium or or a avac vacuum.‐ uum.In In a a vacuum, vacuum, the the wave wave travels travels at at the the speed speed of of light, light, similarly, similarly, the the air ai inr in our our atmosphere atmos‐ is pherethin is thin enough enough not not to affect to affect the the propagation propagation of the of the wave, wave, however, however, when when travelling travelling through throughmedia media the refractorythe refractory index index of the of media the media will affectwill affect the movement the movement of the of waves. the waves. For media For mediasuch assuch water, as water, other other factors factors alter thealter propagation; the propagation; the high the high permittivity permittivity and electricaland electricconductivityal conductivity of water of water greatly greatly increase increase the the angle angle of of refraction refraction [ 9[9,10].,10]. AnotherAnother factorfac‐ to tor toconsider consider is is thethe microwavesmicrowaves ability to interact with with polar polar molecules; molecules; water water molecules molecules are are polarpolar and and so so as as the the microwave microwave passes passes through through the thewater
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