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Climate Change Mitigation Negotiations, with an Emphasis on OPTIONS for Developing Countries CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION NEGOTIATIONS, WITH AN EMPHASIS ON OPTIONS FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AN ENVIRONMENT & ENERGY GROUP PUBLICATION HARALD WINKLER ENERGY RESEARCH CENTRE UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN JULY 2008 2 CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION NEGOTIATIONS, WITH AN EMPHASIS ON OPTIONS FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION NEGOTIATIONS, WITH AN EMPHASIS ON OPTIONS FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 3 CONTENTS Capacity development for policy makers: addressing climate change in key Acronyms 5 sectors Units and Measures 5 The UNDP “Capacity development for policy makers” project seeks to strengthen the national capacity of developing countries to develop policy options for addressing 1 Introduction 6 climate change across different sectors and economic activities, which could serve as 1.1 Background to the climate negotiations 6 1.2 The Bali Action Plan 7 inputs to negotiating positions under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The project will run in parallel with the “Bali Action Plan” 2 Scientific basis for mitigation and development 9 process – the UNFCCC negotiations on long-term cooperative action on climate change set to conclude in December 2009 in Copenhagen at the fifteenth Conference of the 3 Background concepts in proposals for mitigation 11 Parties. 4 Overview of options for mitigation in developing countries 17 This paper is one of a series produced for the project that provides in-depth information 4.1 Different approaches 17 on the four thematic building blocks of the Bali Action Plan – mitigation, adaptation, 4.2 More detailed description of selected approaches 19 technology and finance – as well as on land-use, land-use change and forestry.T he 4.2.1 Kyoto-style fixed targets 19 project materials also include executive summaries for policymakers, background 4.2.2 Per capita 20 briefing documents and workshop presentations.T hese materials will be used for 4.2.3 Brazilian Proposal 21 national awareness-raising workshops in the participating countries. 4.2.4 Emissions intensity 22 4.2.5 SD-PAMs: Sustainable development policies and measures 22 4.2.6 Evolution of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) 23 Disclaimer 4.2.7 Global Triptych 24 The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily 4.2.8 Sectoral approaches 24 represent those of the United Nations, including UNDP, or their Member States. 4.2.9 Conclusions 25 Acknowledgements 5 Measurable, reportable and verifable 26 UNDP and the author gratefully acknowledge the constructive suggestions made for this 5.1 MRV mitigation action by developing countries 26 paper by the UNFCCC secretariat and UNDP staff members, as well as Hernan Carlino, Erik 5.1.1 Measurable 26 Haites, Dennis Tirpak, Chad Carpenter, Susanne Olbrisch and Naira Aslanyan. 5.1.2 Reportable 27 5.1.3 Verifiable 27 UNDP also acknowledges the generous support from the United Nations Foundation and 5.2 MRV for means of implementation 28 the governments of Norway and Finland towards the project, “Capacity Development for 5.2.1 Making finance MRV 28 Policy Makers”, which allowed preparation of this document. 5.2.2 MRV technology 30 5.3 MRV for developed countries 30 6 Conclusions 32 Bibliography 33 Further reading 33 References 33 4 CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION NEGOTIATIONS, WITH AN EMPHASIS ON OPTIONS FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION NEGOTIATIONS, WITH AN EMPHASIS ON OPTIONS FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 5 Acronyms Annexes 37 Annex 1. COP decisions related to mitigation 37 Annex I Annex to the Convention listing industrialized QELROs Quantified emission limitation and reduction Annex 2. Summary of Options for Addressing Mitigation Actions in a Future Regime 38 and transitioning countries objectives, established under the Kyoto Annex 3. Overview of recent proposals in IPCC AR 4 40 Annex II Annex to the Convention, listing mostly Protocol Annex 4. Glossary 44 OECD countries, with additional commit- REDD Reducing emissions from deforestation in ments to assist developing countries with developing countries Figures funding and technology transfer RSA Republic South Africa Figure 1: Annual emissions by region, per capita 12 AR4 Fourth Assessment Report (of the IPCC, see SBI Subsidiary Bodies on Implementation Figure 2: Annual emissions by region, per $ Gross domestic product (GDP) 12 below) SBSTA Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technologi- AWG-KP Ad hoc Working Group on further commit- cal Advice Tables ments of Annex I Parties under the Kyoto SD-PAMs Sustainable development policies and measures Table 1: Ranges of emission reductions required for various stabilization levels 9 Protocol SO Sulphur dioxide Table 2: Possible Indicators for responsibility, capability and potential to mitigate 2 AWG-LCA Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term SRES Special Report on Emission Scenarios (of the in selected developing countries emissions by various measures 14 Cooperative Action under the Convention IPCC) Table 3: Emissions from developing regions by various measures 15 BASIC Project linking national and international UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Table 4: Emissions from developing regions by the same measures, climate policy: capacity building for challenges Climate Change (the Convention) excluding certain countries 16 ahead for Brazil, China, India and South WG I Working Group I (of the IPCC, see above), Table 5: Summary of approaches/schools of thought 18 Africa assesses the literature on the physical science Table 6: Illustrative options for raising additional revenue for addressing climate change 29 CCAP Center for Clean Air Policy basis of climate change CDM Clean Development Mechanism WG II Working Group II (of the IPCC, see above), CFL Compact fluorescent light assesses the literature on the impacts, vulner- CH4 Methane ability and adaptation to climate change CO2 Carbon dioxide WG III Working Group III (of the IPCC, see above), COP Conference of the Parties (to the UNFCCC) assesses the literature on the mitigation of CMP Conference of the Parties serving as the climate change, i.e., reducing GHG emissions meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol WRI World Resources Institute DEAT Department of Environmental Affairs & Tourism, SA Units and Measures DEFRA Department of Food and Rural Affairs, UK EU European Union CO2-eq CO2-eqivalent FYR Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia GJ Gigajoules: 109 Joules, a billion Joules G77 Group of 77, mostly Latin American, African GW Gigawatts: 109 Watts, a billion Watts and South Asian countries J Joule, standard international unit of energy, GDP Gross domestic product defined as a Newton-meter, or approximately GEREF Global Efficiency and Renewable Energy Fund the energy required to lift a small apple one (established by the EU) meter straight up GHG Greenhouse gas kW Kilowatts (power measurement) HDI Human Development Index Mt Megatons, 106 tons, a million tons IEA International Energy Agency MtCO2 Megatons of carbon dioxide, a million tons IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change CO2 LULUCF Land use, land use change and forestry MW Megawatt: 106 Watts, a million Watts MRV Measurable, reportable and verifiable PJ Petajoules: 1015 Joules N2O Nitrous oxide ppmv parts per million by volume NAI Parties Non-Annex I Parties, mostly developing tC tons of carbon countries tCO2 tons of CO2 PAMs Policies and measures PPP Purchasing power parity 6 CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION NEGOTIATIONS, WITH AN EMPHASIS ON OPTIONS FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION NEGOTIATIONS, WITH AN EMPHASIS ON OPTIONS FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 7 1 INTRODUCTION Climate change is one of the greatest threats to our The Convention sets a framework for future action, it track was not a formal negotiation process, but initiated a benchmark being negotiated. This range has not, to date, planet and its people. Reducing emissions of greenhouse outlines the ‘rules of the game’ to enable to the interna- discussion in four workshops over two years. Given that been agreed in the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term gases (GHG) is called mitigation. Responding to the tional community to agree on future action as the science major developed countries had not ratified the Protocol, Cooperative Action under the Convention (AWG-LCA). impacts of climate change is called adaptation. A certain improves or new tools and technologies become available. action for mitigation by such Parties has had to be In paragraph (b)(ii), the same language of MRV applies amount of adaptation will be necessary, no matter what we New information indeed became available through the considered under the Convention track rather than the to mitigation actions by developing countries, but also to do. But, there will come a point where it will not be Second Assessment Report from the Intergovernmental Protocol track, i.e., the AWG-KP. (For an overview support through finance, technology and capacity-build- possible to adapt our way out of the problem. Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1995, informing the regarding Conference of the Parties (COP) decisions ing. While there will always be different interpretations of Mitigation has been at the heart of the climate negotia- negotiation of the Berlin Mandate which in turn led to the relevant to mitigation, please refer to Annex 1). agreed text, the Chair of the Group of 77 and China tions from the outset. As the next round of negotiations Kyoto Protocol. (G77) made clear in his interpretive statement in the final focuses on what developing countries might do on In Kyoto in 1997,2 based on the principle of equity and 1.2 The Bali Action Plan plenary that MRV applied to both mitigation and mitigation, the topic remains highly relevant. common but differentiated responsibilities and respective support10. Most legal interpretations confirm that the The remainder of this introduction briefly sketches the capabilities, it was agreed that Annex I Parties would take In Bali,9 the attempt was to retain the Annex I/non- comma prior to the last clause in (b)(ii) has the effect of history of the climate negotiations, ending with the most the leaders through quantified emission limitation and Annex I balance of mitigation commitments, but also to applying it to the entire paragraph.
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