Emerging Challenges Of In South Asia

Indramohan Jha*

Introduction Islamists is on the surge with increasing support for the sharia; and South Asia is infested faster population growth. Muslim with extremists. For population is expected to grow more years Afghanistan, than twice the world population Pakistan and India are among the ten between 2015and 2060.They would countries most impacted by become the largest religious group terrorism.1 Groups like LTTE, Maoists by the second half of the century. By in Nepal, ULFA in Assam, Khalistan 2060 India will have the largest movement etc. have largely been Muslim population (333 million).4 contained or joined the mainstream. Interestingly, a survey across Syria However, terrorism based on a very showed that a fifth of those narrow and exclusivist interpretation interviewed said that the Islamic of Islam by fundamentalists is on the State was a “positive” influence in rise.2The Islamic State (IS) is a catalyst the country.5 The IS emerged as a in further of Islamists. unique outfit; established a This new terrorism of “holy warriors” virtual state claiming capability of cannot be deterred only by force defeating enemies of Islam. instead it provides them useful ammunitions. They believe in Impact of Globalization certainty of victory seeking glory of God to create a society of their vision Globalization, a euphemism for eliminating enemies as a morally westernization changed social justified divine duty and a necessary conditions and values. Neo-liberal expedient to achieve the goal.3 market fundamentalism deepened Therefore, they pose unprecedented the gloom of tragic individualism danger. The ideology of aggressive with the erosion of support systems

*Dr. Indramohan Jha is an Associate Professor, ARSD College, Uninversity of Delhi, New Delhi., India.

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— family or welfare state. Chechnya, Kashmir) created an Desperation leads to irrational impression of existential threat to reaction igniting conflicts. Global Islam and Muslims. Fundamenta- terrorism is one such reaction mostly lism became the faith to purify Islam guided by religion. For religion to release its vital force. Terrorism is provided more hope than any projected as a revival to the legacies revolutionary ethos. Thus, the “new of “heroic warriors” defeating age terrorist” ideology is more Christian crusaders; with the pledge religious, most significant being to recreate the golden age of Islam. Islamic fundamentalism. Crucial Terrorism also serves as a means of religious ingredient transformed redemption, a violent response to the terrorism into more irrational, violent conditions denying dignity. It fanatical and mass casualty causing. empowers powerless celebrating Taliban, Tahrik-e-Tliban Pakistan, death to overcome a dominated Haqqani network, Harkat-ul- empty life. Terrorists believed that Mujahidee/Jamiat-ul-Ansar, Jaish- fallen warriors, martyred in battle get e-Muhammad, Hizb-ul-Mujahideen, a special place in the heaven and a , SIMI, Lashkaer- welcome by “72 virgins”. Thus, they e-Taiba/Jamaat-ud-Dawa, Al-Faran, embrace the causes and actions of Jamaat-ul-Mujahideen Bangladesh heroic masculinity—terrorism, and Harkat-ul-Jihad-al-Islami, enacting 9/11 which turned the Hizbut Tahrir, Ansarullah course of history.6 This marked the Bangladesh etc. are also reinventing rise of global model of jihad. Radical themselves. The situation became Islam gained respectability to have murkier with the growing footprints punished the enemies of Islam; both of the IS. the Soviets and Americans. Related ideas are reproduced on ideological South and West Asia became a internet bazaar to be easily accepted. laboratory of Islamic radicalism and New forms of religious beliefs and hotbed of terrorism post-1979 practices are emerging as if the world events—beginning of a new Islamic is moving towards the market century, Islamic revolution in Iran, economy model of religion in which siege of the Mecca mosque and people consume what they want from Soviet intervention in Afghanistan. various religious producers. Afghan-Iraq wars and Taliban/Al 7Terrorists invented counter-cultures Qaeda training camps served as a marking a shift from traditional melting pot of various militant identity groups to objects, real or strands. Civil wars (Palestine, imaginary supranational inspiring

Journal of Peace Studies 24 Vol. 25, Iÿÿssue 3 & 4 July- December, 2018 EMERGING CHALLENGES OF TERRORISM IN SOUTH ASIA faithful ones to become a proud holy Foreign Affairs Advisor of Pakistan, warrior. alleged that, “India is blaming us for non-state actors acting across the Support System border, but India’s state actors are spreading violent unrest in Pakistan.” Formidable outfits based in He referred to Kulbhushan Jadhav, a Pakistan, Afghanistan, India and former naval officer arrested in Bangladesh get support from hostile Pakistan in March 2016.9Allegations neighbours. Pakistan’s brazen are repeated at the UN by branding support to terrorists targets “Hindu” India “predator and mother of India—an eternally sworn enemy. terrorism supporting and sponsoring The festering wound of Bangladesh terrorism in Pakistan, and other dismemberment is still fresh in their neighbours.” Thus, terrorism thrive psyche. Terrorism is an extended arm as a self-inflicting suicidal pathos in of the Pak military in proxy war the region. designs to balkanize India. This has wider support there. Benazir Bhutto This scenario augurs well for in an interview with a French terrorists. Initially inspired by Taliban journalist complimented her bête and Osama bin Laden the IS further noire Zia for proxy war by supporting revitalized them. Jihad became a the separatist movements in Punjab religious duty and “martyrdom” its and Kashmir; for Pakistan never reward. South Asian demography, forgot the humiliating loss of backwardness and geo-politics Bangladesh.8 Thus, terrorism is a facilitated coupled with global events “legitimate and logical” state-policy emboldened them. On 3 Nov. 1999 of Pakistan. Fundamentalists have declared that, “the jihad tried to convert Bangladesh into is not about Kashmir only. It another Pakistan. India suffered encompasses all India… I declare the notorious attacks —- serial Mumbai break-up of India. We will not rest blasts 1993, Kargil infiltration 1999, until the whole of India is dissolved December 1999 plane hijack to into Pakistan.”10In this direction the Kandahar, the seat of Taliban, getting “Karachi Project” was started in 2003 release of Azhar Masood, the founder under the guidance of Pakistan’s ISI of JeM, Parliament attack 2001, in collaboration with Lashkari Mumbai carnage 2008, Pathankot Tayabba (LeT) and Harkat-i-Jihad-i- January 2016, to name a few Islami (HIJI) to use Indian Muslims instances. However, Pakistan often particularly Indian Mujahideen to leveled counter-charges. Sartaj Aziz, launch terror attacks at a higher level

Journal of Peace Studies 25 Vol. 25, Iÿÿssue 3 & 4 July - December, 2018 EMERGING CHALLENGES OF TERRORISM IN SOUTH ASIA to maintain deniability of the Holy Grail of South Asian involvement of ISI.11 Further the IS jihadists.14 The menace of terrorism has become an overwhelming has become global, yet remains influence in J&K with online undefined and highly contested. propaganda. In 2016 it announced to Shielded by conceptual vagueness, expand into Kashmir as part of its some countries accept only to have broader Khorasan branch.12 Its flag extended moral and diplomatic surfaced in Kashmir during support to “freedom fighters” against demonstrations after the death of “occupation and repression”. Fellow Burhan Wani on 8 July 2016. More feelings, human rights, democracy or important, Prime Minister of Pakistan just war ideas are used to Nawaz Sharif convened a special camouflage dirty covert diplomacy. cabinet meeting and 19th July was Hence, this calls for a globally declared a day of mourning for the accepted definition. “martyr”. Such a blatant support to terrorists is blessed by China to keep Terrorism is an indiscriminate use India embroiled with Pakistan as a of violence to achieve a political part of “string of pearls” strategy. objective by creating an environment China generally supported Pakistan of fear. It is perceived as a curse of terror groups at the UN. These the civilized society, goal is depicted gestures are more than publicity ploy. as sectional; methods are denounced Now terror groups have one more as clandestine and sinister. Therefore, state (IS) besides Pakistan to support. terrorism is condemned as illegitimate and immoral. However, A document found in Pakistan, all forms of violence (freedom/ titled “A Brief History of the Islamic revolution) or warfare by nation- State Caliphate, The Caliphate states aim at creating fear; and according to the Prophet” revealed therefore cannot claim legitimacy. that the IS planned a terror-war on Thus, there is an element of India to create an end of the world arbitrariness eluding objectivity. This scenario by uniting factions of the dilemma was duly echoed in Pakistan and Afghan Taliban. The Seymour Gerald’s novel, Harry’s ghazva-i-hind (a prophesied battle Game—one person’s terrorist is against India) details chilling future another’s freedom fighter. More battle plans by beheading rebels dubious distinction was brought in against Allah.13 This magnifies IS this debate in the form of the so called stature because attacking India is “good and bad” Taliban!

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Theoretical Perspective The border areas of Afghanistan- Pakistan became breeding ground of Both realism and liberalism Islamic fundamentalists to bleed the associate terrorism with non-state ‘Soviet’ atheists’ white. Post-cold war actors. Critical theorists consider both events, particularly war on terror state and non-state actors, emanating from new world order, emphasizing as state American slogan created chaos into is the repository of maximum the crisis ridden region. Taliban, Al violence claiming monopoly over its Qaeda (AQ) and the Islamic State legitimate use. This signifies intimate emerged as a violent reaction. relation between state and violence. Taliban and AQ promised liberation Accordingly, terrorism is not only a to oppressed Muslims and glory to reaction against state violence but Islam. Moving ahead, the IS pledged also its reflection. State uses violence both mundane power and salvation against people challenging its power; for “true” Muslims. Its bold and or to expand influence over other bloody acts became intolerable even states. Therefore, a legal definition for AQ; but fatally attracted new must include violence by states as zealots. Thus, one finds a well. However, states do not accept metamorphosis of terrorism. their acts as terror.15Contextually, the term became popular with the reign The Inspiration of terror in France (1793-94) killing thousands seeking obedience from They are mainly inspired by two people. streams of Sunni Islamic thought contributing to the rise of jihadi school The roots of terrorism in this region in the late 20th century. Firstly, the may be traced to the Russo-British Muslim Brotherhood (MB, Egypt, great game, Arab-Israel conflict and 1928) founded by Hasan al-Banna thriving of two-nation theory. was a political movement to capture Forefathers of Taliban had formed state power in response to Talibulilm against Durand line (1895) imperialism and declining Islamic dividing Afghanistan and Pakistan values. Hence, Islam was defined as (India). One may safely explain a total system and the final arbiter of Pakistan’s proxy wars in terms of life based on the revelation of the India’s midwifery in liberating Quran and the wisdom of the Holy Bangladesh besides other factors. Prophet in Sunna. Banna proclaimed Pakistan’s resolve became stronger the MB as a salafiya message, a with the US designs in Afghanistan. Sunni way, a Sufi truth and as a social

Journal of Peace Studies 27 Vol. 25, Iÿÿssue 3 & 4 July - December, 2018 EMERGING CHALLENGES OF TERRORISM IN SOUTH ASIA idea avoiding doctrinal disputes. God, opposing idolatry and treating Quran, Prophet, God, constitutional other Muslims as apostates. This is to government, sharia and martyrdom return to Islam’s first three formed the slogan. They were not so generations, the salaf or pious rigorous doctrinally and tolerated ancestors. Saudi wealth financed the Shiaism and .16 Later, Sayyid spread of Wahabism through Qutb (1906-66) evolved a more radical mosques, madarsas and other version of the MB championing a “total institutions.17A common thread war” against West and home-based running through the thought of enemies. He was a visceral anti-Semite Islamist scholars is that Islam was and condemned the US/West on spread by sword. The Prophet was account of their crude materialism, not only a religious but also a immorality and sexual permissiveness. charismatic politico-military leader. Fundamentalists take the collective For him, modern societies were in a memory to pledge to regain the glory state of jahiliya (a period of ignorance of Islam. Weak, defeated and before Islam) because they preferred dishonoured are impacted most. materialism to true Islam. He Terrorism serves to direct rage to suggested Muslims to fight by oppressors not only as catharsis but forming a vanguard to establish a is a means to overcome political, true Islamic society. Several radical economic or cultural domination or Islamic groups emerged in countries may act as compensation to material with larger Muslim population; and deprivation.18 However, terror called for establishing of Islamic groups may be united by shared state. The Second stream is beliefs but they are divided Wahabism/Salafism propounded by organizationally and even mid-18th century reformer doctrinally. Identity and allegiances Mohammad. Ibn Wahab and shift according to conflicts, scramble propagated by the Saudi royal for resources and leadership. This family. Ibn Saud’s forces conquered leads to proliferation of outfits and the Arabian peninsula, spreading rise in individual terror (lone wolves) Wahabism and destroyed shrines attacks further complicating the wherever possible because it was situation. Thus, the study of the considered idolatry. This is a politics of terrorism in this region conservative theological movement provides an insight into its evolution in Sunni Islam for the purification of and related narratives. A the faith by return to the basic comparative study of Taliban, AQ doctrines emphasising oneness of and IS brings coherence to the

Journal of Peace Studies 28 Vol. 25, Iÿÿssue 3 & 4 July- December, 2018 EMERGING CHALLENGES OF TERRORISM IN SOUTH ASIA understanding of the discourse on Hanafi tradition of Afghans was more terrorism. tolerant than salafism for Shias and Sufis. They opposed the narrow idea TTTaliban of nationhood but championed the cause of Pashtun nationalism. Top Afghanistan witnessed anarchy posts were captured by Pashtuns. Its following the Soviet withdrawal. In economy was based on opium 1994 young mujahideens trained in production and taxation. Rigid madarasas in Pakistan united against enforcement of sharia was a matter criminal gangs in Kandahar under of political expediency based on the the leadership of Mullah Omar. Thus, Deobandi idea that only return to Taliban (students) began with a Islam will bring liberation from moral project to bring order based on invasion. Taliban also sought sharia. Legends about Omar were recognition and cooperation from that he was a great warrior and was other countries. After seizing power visited in a dream by the Holy in 1996 Omar wrote a letter to Prophet revealing to lead the country President Clinton assuring that the out of chaos. To announce his Taliban had neither the intent nor the leadership in 1996, Commander of capability to attack the US.20 Osama the faithful, he donned the purported and Al-Qaida (AQ) had become a cloak of the Prophet, one of state within the Taliban state, yet Afghanistan’s most cherished Taliban was not involved in global Islamic relics, in presence of 1500 terrorism, nor adopted the jihadi religious leaders, including Osama rhetoric of AQ. They doubted even bin Laden.19 Taliban’s ideology was the legitimacy of suicide bombing rooted less in principles and more learnt from AQ. Initially Taliban practical in nature. Anti-modernism condemned the 9/11 attack and was an innovation combining sharia expressed disbelief of Osama’s role. with Pashtun tribal socio-cultural Since then there emerged a thinking code called Pashtunwali prescribing of negotiated settlement in severe personal morality—men to Afghanistan. This was duly grow beard and offer namaz five expressed by Omar in his Eid times a day. Music, dance, kite flying, message in September 2010, “Our photography etc. were banned. upcoming system will be based on Women suffered the worst—longer mutual interactions with veils, forbidden from work and neighbouring Islamic and un-Islamic education, had to be stoned to death countries. We will not harm others nor on charges of adultery. However, the allow others to harm us. Our

Journal of Peace Studies 29 Vol. 25, Iÿÿssue 3 & 4 July - December, 2018 EMERGING CHALLENGES OF TERRORISM IN SOUTH ASIA government will participate in all ideologue and Osama had regional and global efforts at organizational skills and resources. establishing peace and stability”.21 They formed Al Qaeda in August Taliban gradually evolved as a broad- 1988 as a global terror outfit. Under based independence movement the banner of the World Islamic Front against invaders instead of for Combat Against the Jews and emphasizing personal purity and Crusaders, they issued a fatwa in anti-modernism and Shiaism. Now February 1998 to kill Americans and they use latest technology, watch TV their allies (far enemies) as an and cinema. They are relaxed on individual duty for every Muslim to women’s education and work. Senior liberate the al-Aqsa (Jerusalem) and Taliban leaders opposed some of the the holy Mecca mosques from their actions and policies of the West. grip, and to oust their armies from all However, younger ones trained in the lands of Islam—fight them Pakistan are children of jihad having altogether until there prevails justice closeness with AQ who adopt the and faith in the name of Allah. Its discourse of fighting infidel broader goals included: crusaders. Thus, Taliban moved from Islamic fundamentalism to the (To end the desecrating presence political ideology of Islamism as a of the US in the Middle East means of liberation. Taliban’s bolstering corrupt and oppressive credibility for fighting the mighty regimes, supporting Israel, coalition led by the USA since 2001 is condoning or encouraging the encouraging for its supporters. Even slaughter of Muslims. To destroy in the face of heavy air power and Israel that has stolen Muslim land. regular drone attacks Taliban thrives To convert Muslims to salafi-jihadist and continues to gain control over world view. To oppose apostate more territories. regimes in the Muslim world. Jihad is obligatory for young Muslim Al Qaeda males and the community must back the fighters).22 Afghanistan-Pakistan became a fertile ground breeding more radical Al Qaeda (AQ) was conceived as a brand of salafism. Many Arabs came revolutionary fundamentalist in touch with al-Zawahiri and movement to achieve ideological Osama. Both of them met in coherence and an organisation to Peshawar and developed a deeper establish a genuinely Muslim state confidence. Zawahiri was an in the Arab world. Osama was not

Journal of Peace Studies 30 Vol. 25, Iÿÿssue 3 & 4 July- December, 2018 EMERGING CHALLENGES OF TERRORISM IN SOUTH ASIA optimistic about Caliphate nor dreamt with Osama did not die the ideas he of defeating the West. Major terrorist stood for. Those very ideas gave birth attacks were aimed at projecting AQ to a more ferocious brand of as a forceful jihadi against infidels. terrorism—the Islamic State. This strategy galvanized Muslims in support of AQ particularly after Islamic State American attack on Iraq.23 With a small core group—vanguard and The Islamic state was proclaimed carefully recruited members, Osama on 29 June 2014, and Abu Bakr al- changed the course of history. Baghdadi as Caliph. The virtual terror state had a complete Osama’s Relocation administrative structure and self- sustaining financial model capturing Osama’s relocation in Afghanistan key oil assets in Syria and Iraq. Oil in 1996 proved very fruitful both for smuggling, bank loot, transportation AQ and Taliban. It is estimated that $ and taxes filled its coffers. Only oil 20 million of the $30 million AQ’s revenue was expected to be annual pre-9/11 budget went to between$1to$3 million per day. US Taliban. AQ put its military units to intelligence estimated that some fight the remaining enemies of 15000 fighters from 80 countries Taliban. The safe haven enabled AQ flocked to join the group.25 Therefore, to knit together the various strands neither financial restrictions nor an of jihadist movement and proselytize ordinary army could defeat it. fighters in its interpretation and vision of global jihad. US intelligence It’s beyond inhuman brutality officials believed that between 10000 resulted from obsessive adherence to and 20000 foreign volunteers were doctrinal matters— association only trained in Afghanistan in AQ with “true” Muslims, strict adherence camps.24 However, attack on to sharia, Shias being apostates Afghanistan in 2001 mounted deserving death and to follow the tremendous pressure on Osama and state founded by the Holy Prophet. his hosts. AQ was splintered and The Caliphate is not merely a spread over in other countries. Osama political entity; but is propagated as was killed in Pakistan on 2 May 2011 a path to salvation for those who have by the US. Americans celebrated pledged to fulfil the obligation. chanting ‘proud to be an American’. Killings are justified to purify the Nevertheless, thousands mourned world and to create a new dawn. The globally as a stirring reminder that founders of the IS hoped the arrival

Journal of Peace Studies 31 Vol. 25, Iÿÿssue 3 & 4 July - December, 2018 EMERGING CHALLENGES OF TERRORISM IN SOUTH ASIA of Mahdi—a messianic figure the Ottoman Empire. This served to leading to Muslim victory before the cast the IS as an avenger of history end of the world.26 Hence, even for establishing the Caliphate. beheading or sex slavery is a religious duty. Bloodbath in the The IS made inroads into South Asia good/evil battle swelled its support by cultivating local groups and base. Hence, the IS also has cultic penetrating among radical Muslims elements. Strategic spectacles of imparting more ideological violence demonstrated the stringency and lethality. Social media fantastical power of the leader is used effectively. About 46000 fearing no authority. The shock value Twitter accounts were supporting the of violence is more important than IS in 2014.29 India banned IS related their aims. Thus, IS seeks power, but websites due to radicalization and power beyond and above what recruitment. Bangladesh is also an humanity can bestow.27 easy target. Jamaat-e-Islami consolidated radical elements and After all reason has no place in terror group like Jamaat-ul- religion. Therefore, excessive Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB) obsession with puritanism aimed to pledging to the Talibanization of establish supremacy. Baghdadi is Bangladesh. JMB launched well versed in Islamic theology and simultaneous bomb blasts in 63 of 64 practices. He is a doctorate in Islamic districts on 17 August 2005 and jurisprudence and wrote a book on several suicide attacks later. Evidence Quranic recitation and worked in of IS cells in Bangladesh killing mosques as preacher in Baghdad.28 foreigners and secular bloggers are Thus, the IS upholds ancient Islamic some alarming indicators of terrorism precepts and practices challenging in the region.30 The Holy Bakery everything modern. They reject (Dhaka) killing 20 people national borders, have no faith in in 1-2 July 2016 was also claimed by international organizations as there the IS, though the government is nothing above God and no denied it. Shahidullah Shahid, citizenship besides Islam. In June spokesman of the Pak Taliban along 2014 they bulldozed an earthen with top commanders defected to the bulwark on Iraq-Syria border IS in 2014.31Jamaat-ul-Ahrar, a symbolizing demolition of nation- splinter of the Tehrik-i-Taliban state system grafted on West Asia Pakistan founded in 2014 expressed by the Anglo-French agreement loyalty to the IS. Jamiat-ul-Ansar 1916 dividing the Arab territories of mounted notorious attacks—Easter

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Sunday Lahore Park and Quetta destroyed historical artifacts and hospital carnage in March and Buddhist statues predating the August 2016 respectively. The IS has Maldives’ conversion to Islam.32 high hopes with such smaller groups Maldives indicates deepening to unite and to provide leadership. radicalization in the region. The Sindh Back in January 2015, the IS province government of Pakistan announced a Khorasanwilayat confirmed the presence of IS in the (province) straddling the Afghan- country.33 Recent attacks in Pakistan border, historically an area Afghanistan and Pakistan show the of core AQ operations. Rogue groups growing menace of the IS in the or lone wolves having allegiance to region. More significant are the the IS have added to competitive results of 25 July 2018 elections in attacks, most prominently between Pakistan propelling Imran Khan’s Taliban; and the IS establishing a Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf, a stronghold in Nangarhar on the provincial party, to the centre-stage eastern border with Pakistan truncating the mainstream parties. becoming most dangerous in There are reasons to be apprehensive Afghanistan. of the shape of things to come. For Mr. Khan’s victory is touted as This scenario revived the influence blessings of the Pakistani deep state, of AQ encouraging local elements i.e. the army and the ISI. Obviously with low-tech individualized attacks. he always mentioned Kashmir as the An interesting twist to the tale of core issue while referring to India. He terrorism is appended by the has been a supporter of blasphemy Rohingya crisis. Nevertheless, an law and flirted with rightwing parties otherwise serene Maldives also and terror outfits which earned him witnessed radicalization and terror the moniker “Taliban Khan”.34 Yet these footprints there are visible. another challenge that this election According to 2008 Constitution of threw was the spectacular performance Maldives Islam is the state religion. of a new anti-blasphemy party Extremists are pushing for full Tehreek-e-Labaik Pakistan which implementation of Sharia. A non- pleaded for the automatic death penalty Muslim cannot become a citizen of for anyone deemed to have insulted the Maldives. Mohamed Jameel Islam or Holy Prophet.35 Thus, South (Home Minister of President Asia is in a new phase of terrorism Waheed) accused former President resulting from a unique process of Naseed of undermining and simultaneous conflict-cooperation weakening Islam. Fundamentalists among regional and global outfits.

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Democracy-deficit South Asian Resentment generating US war on regimes are mainly to blame for the terror produced the IS. This calls for scourge of terrorism. Its geo-politics reconciliation, inclusion and permit easy externalization of reorientation towards humanist problems. Political rivals blame one narratives. Religious leaders maybe another of being soft-peddlers or roped in to propagate inherent agents of the hostile neighboring spiritualism of religions. Intellectuals country. There is deep influence of and media need to spread scientific domesticity. Domesticity refers to temper as an antidote to excessive influence of immediate fundamentalism. They would domestic issues on foreign policy strengthen the roots of positive peace decision-making and diplomatic to provide a “framework to behaviour for short-term domestic understand and then to address the gains calculated in terms of increase challenge” which is defined as in support base.36 Terrorism thrives “attitudes, institutions and structures due to such political myopic vision. that create and sustain peaceful This monster sharpened communal societies”.37 India’s role is pivotal conflict, disrupted development and given its monopoly power—hard and derailed the SAARC. soft. India must win the confidence of neighbours following the policy of Conclusion beneficial bilateralism. Minimally, this demands to revive the SAARC Terrorism cannot be contained process. India cannot pursue its global merely by aggressive strategies. aspirations unless it gets rid of They unite them against aggressors. regional quagmire.

References

1. In 2016 Afghanistan 2nd after Iraq, Pakistan and India 5th and 8 th ranked respectively. Global Terror Index 2017 . (Sydney: IEP), p.21.

2. This is not to vilify a particular religion. Buddhists, Sikhs, Christians, Jews are no exception. Recent addition to the lexicon is terror.

3. Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998),p. 91.

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4. Michel Lipka and Conard Hackett, “ Why Muslims are the World’s Fastest Growing Religious group“, “http://www.pewresearch.org/ fact-tank/ 2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious - group/Accessed on June 9, 2018.

5. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/09/ 15/one-in-five-syrians-say-islamic-state-is-a-good-thing-poll-says/ ?noredirect=on&utm_term=.a1fa5836f70e Accessed on June 9, 2018.

6. Lauren Langman& Douglas Morris, “The Roots of Terror” in Michael J. Thompson, ed., Islam and the West (Maryl and: R&L Publs.,2003).p.66. Also see Dilip Hiro, Islamic Fundamentalism ( London: Paladin, 1988)

7. Peter Beyer, Religion and Globalisation(London: Sage,1997),p.27.

8. https://francoisgautier.me/2012/09/15/benazir-and-india/ Accessed on10 June 2018.

9. Hindu, 19 April 2016.

10. Kanchan Lakshman, “ The Expanding Jihad”, South Asia Intelligence Review , Vol.6, no.32, 18 February 2008. http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/sair/Archives/6_32.htm . Accessed on June 9, 2018.

11. See S.K. Sharma and A. Behera, Militant Groups in South Asia ( New Delhi: Pentagon, 2014), “ The Karachi Project”, India Today, 1 March 2010.

12. Indian Express, 3 February 2016.

13. Sara A Carter, “Islamic State recruitment document seeks to provoke end of the world”, USA Today, 28 July 2015. https://www.usatoday.com/ story/news/world/2015/07/28/ami-isil-document-pakistan-threatens- india/30674099/.Accessed on June 9 , 2018.

14 Ibid. 15. see Noam Chomsky, Pirates and Emperors, Old and New: International Terrorism in the Real World ( Cambridge MA: South End Press,2002,ed., )

16. Richard P. Mitchell, The Society of the Muslim Brothers (New York: OUP, 1993), p.14. Journal of Peace Studies 35 Vol. 25, Iÿÿssue 3 & 4 July - December, 2018 EMERGING CHALLENGES OF TERRORISM IN SOUTH ASIA

17. See Daniel Bayman, Al Qaeda, The Islamic State and the Global Jihadist Movement ,(New York: Oxford.P.,2015), Chapter 4

18. see Lauren Langman& Douglas Morris, n. 6, pp.62-63.

19. MujibMashal, “ The Myth of Mullah Omar” https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/06/ 20126665650415526.html . Accesses on10 June 2018

20. Alia Brahimi, “ The Taliban’s Evolving Ideology” , LSE, WP02/2010, July2010, p.5.

21. Alex Strick Van Linschotenand Felix Kuehn,”Separating the Taliban from Al Qaeda:The Core of Success in Afghanistan”, CIC, New York University, February 2011, p.8.

22. "Jihad against Jews and Crusaders,” https://fas.org/irp/world/para/ docs/980223-fatwa.htm Accessed on 10 June 2018.

23. Christopher Henzel, “ The Origins of Al Qaeda Ideology : Implications for US Strategy”, Parameters Spring 2005, p.76.

24. Daniel Bayman, n.17, p.22-23.

25Audrey Kurth Cronin, “ ISIS is not a Terrorist Group”, Foreign Affairs , vol. 94, no.3, March/April 2015, pp. 89-92.

26. Graeme Wood, “ What ISIS Really Wants”, The Atlantic, March2015, p.10.

27. Eleanor Beevor, “ Why Cults Work: The Power Games of the Islamic State and the Lord’s Resistance Army”, https://warontherocks.com/2015/03/ why-cults-work-the-power-games-of-the-islamic-state-and-the-lords- resistance-army/Accessed on9 June 2018.

28. Cole Bunzel, “ From Paper State to Caliphate: The Ideology of the Islamic State”, The Brookings Project on US Relations with the Islamic World, Analysis Paper, No.19, March 2015, p.19.

29. Washington Post , 23 March 2015.

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30. Times of India , 11 October 2015, Hindu , 15 September 201 and, 21 October 2015.

31 . Washington Post , 18 April 2015.

32. "From Sunrise to Sunset: Maldives Backing on Democracy”, https:// www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/maldivesen.pdf , Accessed on9 June2018.

33. Hindu, 18 October 2015, p. 16

34. Happymon Jacob, “Engaging Naya Pakistan“, Hindu , 4 August 2018.

35. Hindu, 1 August 2018, p.12

36. Indramohan Jha, SAARC : The Road Ahead (New Delhi: NBO, 2004 ), p.ix.

37. Positive Peace Report 2017 http://visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/ 2017/10/Positive-Peace- Report-2017.pdf , Accessed on 9June 2018.

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