Article Interdisciplinary Analysis of Social Acceptance Regarding Electric Vehicles with a Focus on Charging Infrastructure and Driving Range in Germany † Amelie Burkert * , Heiko Fechtner and Benedikt Schmuelling School of Electrical, Information and Media Engineering, University of Wuppertal, Rainer-Gruenter-Str. 21, 42119 Wuppertal, Germany; [email protected] (H.F.); [email protected] (B.S.) * Correspondence: [email protected] † This paper is an extended version of our paper published in the 16th IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, 14–17 October 2019, Hanoi, Vietnam. Abstract: A variety of measures are currently being taken on both the national and international levels in order to mitigate the negative effects of climate change. The promotion of electric mobility is one such measure for the transport sector. As a key component in a more environmentally-friendly, resource-saving, and efficient transport sector, electric mobility promises to create better sustainability. Several challenges still need to be met to exploit its full potential. This requires adapting the car technology, the value chain of vehicles, loads on the electricity network, the power generation for the drive, traffic, and charging infrastructure. The challenges to this endeavor are not only technical in nature, but they also include social acceptance, concerns, and economic, as well as ecological, aspects. This paper seeks to discuss and elucidate these problems, giving special focus to the issues of driving range, phenomenon of range anxiety, charging time, and complexity of the charging infrastructure in Germany. Finally, the development of social acceptance in Germany from 2011 to 2020 is investigated. Citation: Burkert, A.; Fechtner, H.; Schmuelling, B. Interdisciplinary Keywords: charging infrastructure; wireless power transfer; conductive charging; electric vehicles; Analysis of Social Acceptance range anxiety; social acceptance Regarding Electric Vehicles with a Focus on Charging Infrastructure and Driving Range in Germany . World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12, 25. https:// 1. Introduction doi.org/10.3390/wevj12010025 Climate change is one of greatest challenges with which humanity is currently con- fronted. High concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) in Earth’s atmosphere is one of the Received: 16 November 2020 causes of this phenomenon. The resulting greenhouse effect has been linked to global Accepted: 7 February 2021 warming and to natural catastrophes (e.g., desertification, droughts, fire, melting glaciers, Published: 11 February 2021 coastal flooding) [1]. As the second highest-ranking culprit in GHG emissions after the energy sector, the Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral transport sector produces immense amounts of CO2 [2]. Figure1 offers a breakdown into with regard to jurisdictional claims in CO2 emissions in general sectors and the transport sector in detail [3]. Overall, the transport published maps and institutional affil- sector accounts for 24% of the total CO emission. Of this, passenger transport produces, iations. 2 on its own, 60.6% and is, therefore, an important starting point for fundamental changes. Electric vehicles need to usurp the position held by conventional vehicles to greater and greater degrees to enable a more environmentally friendly and resource-saving transport sector. Such a change to the sector poses difficult and new burdens on the automotive Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. industry. It not only requires new drive and charging technologies to be developed, but Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. also a completely new charging infrastructure, which is also discussed to some extent in [4]. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12, 25. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj12010025 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/wevj World Electr. Veh. J. World2021, 12 Electr., 25 Veh. J. 2021, 12, 25 2 of 33 2 of 32 Figure 1. Breakdown of CO emission by general sectors (left) and within transport sector (right) in 2017 [5]. Figure 1. Breakdown of2 CO2 emission by general sectors (left) and within transport sector (right) in 2017 [5]. 1.1. Greenhouse Gas in Germany’s Transport Sector 1.1. Greenhouse Gas inPower Germany’s supply Transport from renewable Sector energy is to be preferred to truly be able to call electro- Power supplymobility from sustainable.renewable energy However, is to thisbe pr loftyeferred goal to is truly not yet be withinable to reach.call elec- In 2015, energy in tromobility sustainablethe transport. However, sector t washis lofty mostly goal obtained is not yet from within non-renewable reach. In 2015, resources energy (e.g., 94% fossil in the transport fuel,sector 2% was gas) mostly and only obtained 4% from from renewable non-renewable resources resources [5], and (e.g. this, 94% ratio fossil has not yet changed fuel, 2% gas) andsignificantly only 4% from to renewa date. Theble numberresources of [5] hybrid, and this and ratio purely has electricnot yet changed vehicles only represent significantly to date.2% of The the number total number of hybrid of registered and purely vehicles electric in vehicles Germany only [6 represent]. It must 2% also be noted that of the total numberthe production of registered of vehicles electric vehiclesin Germany (EVs) [6] is. It very must CO also2 intensive, be noted with that thethe environmental production of electriimpactc vehicles by CO2 (EVs)emissions is very in CO the2 intensive, production with of electricthe environmental vehicles being impact two-thirds higher by CO2 emissionsthan in forthe conventional production of vehicles electric due vehicles to the waybeing in two which-thirds the batterieshigher than are producedfor [7]. After conventional vehiclestheir production, due to the electricway in vehicleswhich the have batteries the potential are produced of causing [7]. nearlyAfter their zero emissions, pro- production, electricvided vehicles that the have power the ispotential based on of renewablecausing nearly energy. zero Be emissions, that as it provided may, without renewable that the power isenergy based resources,on renewable life energy. cycle analysis Be that as shows it may, that without emissions renewable of EVs energy are comparable with resources, life cycleconventional analysis vehicles.shows that emissions of EVs are comparable with conven- tional vehicles. For instance, Figure2 shows the impact of various energy sources on carbon emissions. For instance,A purelyFigure electric 2 shows Nissan the impact Leaf with of twovarious different energy energy sources sources on carbon (German emis- electricity mix 2015 sions. A purely andelectric 2019, Nissan German Leaf renewable with two different power of energy 2019)is sources compared (German with twoelectricity conventional Nissan mix 2015 and 2019,vehicles German (Nissan renewable Juke and power Nissan of 2019) Micra) is compared [8]. The vehicles with two that conventional are presented in Figure2 have been chosen for an easy comparison of different vehicles from one manufacturer and Nissan vehicles (Nissan Juke and Nissan Micra) [8]. The vehicles that are presented in to consider the Nissan Leaf, which is one of the best-selling vehicles worldwide [9]. The Figure 2 have been chosen for an easy comparison of different vehicles from one manu- vehicles are comparable in their size and configuration. The calculations are based on the facturer and to consider the Nissan Leaf, which is one of the best-selling vehicles world- worldwide harmonized light-duty vehicles test procedure (WLTP) and [10]. The worst-case wide [9]. The vehicles are comparable in their size and configuration. The calculations are scenario was considered, in which it is assumed that Nissan Leaf production causes a total based on the worldwide harmonized light-duty vehicles test procedure (WLTP) and [10]. of 10 t CO (as compared to a conventional Nissan vehicle, which produces 6 t). Battery The worst-case scenario was2 considered, in which it is assumed that Nissan Leaf produc- production accounts for a large part of total CO2 and it varies depending on the capacity of tion causes a total of 10 t CO2 (as compared to a conventional Nissan vehicle, which pro- the battery installed. duces 6 t). Battery production accounts for a large part of total CO2 and it varies depending If supplied by the German electricity mix of 2019, the climate balance of Nissan on the capacity of the battery installed. Leaf is better after approximately 65,000 km when compared to Nissan Juke and after If supplied by the German electricity mix of 2019, the climate balance of Nissan Leaf approximately 165,000 km as compared to Nissan Micra. With an annual mileage of is better after approximatelyless than 15,000 65,000 km km [11], when the purchase compared of to a NissanNissan LeafJuke doesand after not provideapprox- any significant imately 165,000advantages km as compared before to a vehicleNissan ageMicra. of 10With years. an annual The climate mileage balance of less would than only be better 15,000 km [11], theafter purchase >11 years of a in Nissan comparison Leaf does to conventional not provide any Nissan significant Micra (seeadvantages Table1). On the other before a vehiclehand, age of the 10 purchaseyears. The of climate Nissan balance Leaf would would already only be be better worthwhile after >11 at anyears annual mileage of in comparison to10,000 conventional km as compared Nissan Micra to the (see Nissan Table Juke. 1). On Accordingly, the other hand, a higher the purchase mileage per year means of Nissan Leaf woulda better already carbon be footprint. worthwhile The differenceat an annual becomes mileage even of 10,000 more pronouncedkm as com- when a Nissan pared to the NissanLeaf isJuke. powered Accordingly, by renewable a higher energy. mileage After per only year 25,000 means km, a better its climate carbon balance is better footprint. The difference becomes even more pronounced when a Nissan Leaf is powered World Electr. Veh. J. 2021, 12, 25 3 of 33 World Electr.