INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AND PREHISTORIC IMPORTANCE OF FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS ON THE INTERIOR PLATEAU OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Corene T. Lindsay B.A., Simon Fraser University, 2000 THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS In the Department of Archaeology O Corene T. Lindsay SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY December 2003 All rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without permission of the author. APPROVAL NAME: Corene Texada Lindsay DEGREE: M.A. TITLE OF THESIS Investigations into the Ethnographic and Prehistoric Importance of Freshwater Shellfish on the Interior Plateau of British Columbia EXAMINING COMMITTEE: Chair: Dr. D.S. Lepofsky Associate Professor Dr. G>. ~aolas:~&ciai&hfesG Senior Supervisor hr.~k. Driver, Professor - - - Dr. C.C. Carlson, Associate Professor Anthropology, University of the Cariboo M.K. Rousseau, President Antiquus Archaeological Consultants Ltd Examiner Date Approved: PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICENSE I HEREBY GRANT TO SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY THE RIGHT TO LEND MY THESIS, PROJECT OR EXTENDED ESSAY (THE TITLE OF WHICH IS SHOWN BELOW) TO USERS OF THE SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY LIBRARY, AND TO MAKE PARTIAL OR SINGLE COPIES ONLY FOR SUCH USERS OR IN RESPONSE TO A REQUEST FROM THE LIBRARY OF ANY OTHER UNIVERSITY, OR OTHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION, ON ITS OWN BEHALF OR FOR ONE OF ITS USERS. I FURTHER AGREE THAT PERMISSION FOR MULTIPLE COPYING OF THIS WORK FOR SCHOLARLY PURPOSES MAY BE GRANTED BY ME OR THE DEAN OF GRADUATE STUDIES. IT IS UNDERSTOOD THAT COPYING OR PUBLICATION OF THIS WORK FOR FINANCIAL GAIN SHALL NOT BE ALLOWED WITHOUT MY WRITTEN PERMISSION. TITLE OF THESIS/PROJECT/EXTENDED ESSAY Investigations into the Ethnographic and Prehistoric Importance of Freshwater Shellfish on the Interior Plateau of British Columbia AUTHOR (signature) ., ., (name) (date) ABSTRACT The remains of freshwater shellfish are frequently found during archaeological investigations of prehistoric sites on the Interior Plateau of British Columbia. This thesis investigates the ethnographic accounts and the archaeological evidence that identify past Aboriginal utilization of shellfish in the Thompson River drainage of south-central British Columbia. In this study, I examine several key questions regarding past subsistence practices in the region and the role of freshwater shellfish as a food resource. For example, were molluscs only of importance as famine food, or did they play a larger or more important role in Aboriginal Plateau cultures? If so, what was this role and how is it evident in the archaeological record? Finally, to what degree have ethnographic accounts been projected into the more distant past? Teit (1 909: 5 13, 5 17), for one, has noted that among the Shuswap Indians, dogs and shellfish were eaten only in times of starvation, and that such times occurred towards the end of winter when stored supplies were sometimes depleted, and has further noted that among the Thompson Indians insects and shellfish were not eaten. Statements such as these have provided the impetus for this investigation. The results of the research on shellfish remains at archaeological sites in the Region indicate that prehistoric usage of shellfish was widespread in all areas of the Plateau. The 124 shell sites (149 site components) are identified based on their association with diagnostic artifacts andlor radiocarbon dates. Aboriginal peoples harvested shellfish from the Middle Period to the present, sometimes in substantial amounts. Shell remains are found at Middle Period (27) sites, Shuswap Horizon (35 sites, Plateau Horizon (41) sites, Kamloops Horizon (13) sites, and Historic Period (3) sites. However, it is difficult to assess the relative importance of the resource in Aboriginal diet and subsistence from the limited available data. The resource was obviously of some importance in the overall subsistence pattern. Although the research for this thesis has identified shell-bearing archaeological sites, and cultural periods during which they are found, the evidence is not sufficient to conclude that molluscs were an important food resource for Aboriginal peoples, nor does it suggest that they represented only starvation food. Seasonal availability and ethnographic accounts that link shellfishing with food scarcity may be responsible for James Teit's description of freshwater shellfish as "famine food" consumed only in the absence of all other resources. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the members of my committee--Dr. George Nicholas, Dr. Catherine Carlson, and Dr. Jon Driver--for the many helpful comments and suggestions they made during the preparation of this thesis. My sincere thanks are extended to Dr. Nicholas for his guidance and encouragement throughout my graduate studies, for suggesting this topic, for encouraging my interests in the archaeology of the Plateau culture area of North America, and for editing this thesis and otherwise translating the thesis manuscript into English. My appreciation is also extended to Mike Rousseau for his assistance with the shell line drawings and for the shell photography in Figures 2 and 3 of this thesis. The development of this thesis would not have been possible without information from many individuals. I am indebted to Dr. William Belcher, Dr. Cheryl Claasen, Dr. Jon Erlandson, Dr. Paul Parmalee, Dr. James Theler, and Dr. Robert Warren, all of whom have generously provided me with copies of their research of freshwater shellfish in North America. Any success I have had at understanding these animals is due to their investigations. This research has benefited greatly from my discussions with many people. I would particularly like to acknowledge the contributions of Mike Rousseau, Rick Harbo, and Dr. Kevin Cumrnings. A special note of appreciation goes to Romi Casper, Doris Lundy, John McMurdo and Dee Milton, all of the Archaeology and Registry Services Branch of the B. C. Ministry of Sustainable Resource Management. They have all provided me with archaeological reports and publications on freshwater shellfish, and other research material. A special note of appreciation goes to Patricia Brearley for her v help with the thesis formatting and otherwise assisting in putting this document together. Finally I thank my son, John Lindsay for the support and encouragement he has given me throughout every stage of this research. TABLE OF CONTENTS .. Approval.......................................................................................................................................... 11 ... Abstract .....................................................................................................................................111 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... v .. Table of Contents .........................................................................................................................VM List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. x List of Figures ................................................................................................................................xi CHAPTER ONE "NO INSECTS OR SHELLFISH WERE EATEN": PROBLEM ORUENTATION. AND RESEARCH GOALS ............................................................................1 Research Orientation ....................................................................................................................2 Description of Project Area ..........................................................................................................3 Shell Midden Research and its Contribution to Archaeology ......................................................8 A Brief Overview of Global Shell Midden Research ...............................................................8 Freshwater Shell Midden Research in North America ............................................................. 9 Freshwater Shellfish Research in the Plateau Culture Area ...................................................10 Research Goals ...........................................................................................................................12 Famine Food Defined................................................................................................................. 13 Organization of the Thesis .........................................................................................................14 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................................16 CHAPTER TWO THEORY AND METHOD IN HUNTER-GATHERER SUBSISTENCE RESEARCH ..................................................................................................... 17 Theoretical Perspectives on Hunter-Gatherer Foraging Strategies ............................................ 17 Cultural Ecology ....................................................................................................................18 Middle-Range Theory ...........................................................................................................19 Optimal Foraging and Related Models ..................................................................................20 Hunter-Gatherer Foraging Diversity ..........................................................................................25