06-Min-4720.qxd 5/20/2005 9:30 PM Page 110 6 Chinese Americans MORRISON G. WONG n 2000, the Chinese were the largest of more occupational adjustments to American society. Ithan 20 Asian groups residing in the United The unique social structure and problems of States. A diverse group, both culturally and on the Chinatown are the topic of the fifth section. This basis of national origins,the Chinese include those chapter concludes by looking at the future accul- born in the United States and who have been resid- turation of the Chinese in the United States. ing here for several generations, as well as those born abroad in China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, IMMIGRATION AND Vietnam, and in other countries and who have DISCRIMINATORY MEASURES been residing here for much shorter periods of time. The history of the Chinese in the United The Chinese were the first Asian group to immi- States over the past 150 years is characterized grate in significant numbers to the United States. by episodes of prejudice and discrimination; Although only 43 Chinese resided in the United of racism, xenophobia, and exclusion; and, more States prior to 1850, the discovery of gold in recently,of contrasting and varying degrees of sus- California in 1848 initiated a dramatic and signif- picion, tolerance, or acceptance. This chapter, icant influx of Chinese immigrants. In the next divided into six distinct but interrelated and inter- three decades, over 225,000 Chinese immigrated twined sections, presents a sociohistory of the to the United States. About 90% of the early Chinese in the United States. First, the extent of Chinese immigrants were males coming from two Chinese immigration and the subsequent discrim- southern provinces in China—Kwangtung and inatory policies and exclusionary measures are Fukien (Chinn, Lai, & Choy, 1969, pp 2–4; Purcell, presented. Then, the changing Chinese American 1965). The push factors of poor economic family is discussed. The focus of the third section and social conditions in China—overcrowding, is on an analysis of their educational achievements drought, and warfare—encouraged many Chinese followed by a discussion of their economic and to immigrate to a distant country.The discovery of Author’s Note: I would like to thank Janet Wong for her support and encouragement. 110 06-Min-4720.qxd 5/20/2005 9:30 PM Page 111 Chinese Americans 111 gold in California, tales that the streets of San this was or was not the case, it should be noted Francisco were lined with gold, and the opening of that this sojourner pattern of migration was not job opportunities in the western part of the United unique to the Chinese but was a common pattern States provided additional lures for many Chinese among many European groups (Archdeacon,1983; to seek their fortune in the United States (Chinn Kitano & Daniels, 2001; see Chan, 1984, and E. F. et al., 1969, p. 7; Dinnerstein & Reimers, 1988; Wong, 1985, for arguments suggesting that the Hirschman & Wong, 1981; Kitano, 1991; Lai & Chinese were not sojourners). Choy, 1971, p. 22; Lyman, 1974; M. G. Wong, 1988, Chinese immigration increased dramatically p. 234).See chapter 2 for a discussion of other fac- during the decade of the 1850s and 1860s.From an tors that were involved in the migration of the initial U.S. population of 43 before 1850, 41,397 Chinese to the United States. One factor made Chinese immigrated to the United States in the all this possible—improved transoceanic travel. 1850s and another 64,301 arrived in the 1860s. It was actually less expensive to travel to San Chinese males outnumbered females by at least a Francisco from Hong Kong than from Chicago 15 to 1 ratio. (Schaefer, 1991). It did not take long before xenophobic and racist attitudes developed among the general population, prompting considerable institutional Era of Antagonism: 1850–1882 resistance to this Asian influx. The Chinese were It is commonly believed that, unlike other accused of being “dangerous,” “deceitful and immigrants, most of the Chinese came to vicious,” “criminal,” “coward,” and “inferior from California, or “Gold Mountain” as it was called, as the mental and moral point of view” (Schrieke, sojourners, expecting to work for a time, accumu- 1936, p. 110). Racist legislation was passed in an late their fortune, and then return home to China attempt to restrict or exclude the Chinese from to live life at a higher socioeconomic position than immigrating to the United States. In 1852, when they left. Hence, their orientation toward the California imposed a $50 head tax on each Chinese United States was not as immigrants but as “birds passenger who arrived by ship. This legislation of passage,” here today and gone tomorrow was enforced for 20 years before it was declared (Bonacich, 1973; Sung, 1971, chap. 3). Whether unconstitutional. In 1855, a capitation tax of $50 700 625 600 529 500 445 400 (000s) 300 238 200 123 110 100 64 62 41 30 25 15 21 21 5 17 0 1850s 1860s 1870s 1880s 1890s 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s Figure 6.1 Chinese Immigrant Arrivals by Decade SOURCE: U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2003. 06-Min-4720.qxd 5/20/2005 9:30 PM Page 112 112 ASIAN AMERICANS was required of all passengers who were aliens Burlingame Treaty was signed in 1868 whereby ineligible for citizenship (i.e., Chinese), but this China granted tremendous economic incentives was declared unconstitutional 2 years later. In and advantages to American merchants and ship- 1858, the California legislature passed an act that pers hungry for the China market. In return, the sought the prevention of further immigration of United States was to guarantee the Chinese the Chinese to the state. In his inaugural address right to freely immigrate to the United States of 1862, California Governor Leland Stanford (J. Chen, 1980), a guarantee that they would not pledged that “the settlement among us of an honor. inferior race [meaning the Chinese] is to be dis- During the 1870s, the Chinese population in couraged” (C. T. Wu, 1972, p. 106). The New York the United States continued to increase dramati- Times (“Growth of the United States Through cally. By 1880, over 105,000 Chinese resided in the Emigration,”1865) warned: United States, mainly in the far western states. Although the majority of Chinese in the United We have four millions of degraded negroes in the States resided in California in every census period, South. We have political passion and religious their proportion of the state’s population con- prejudice everywhere.The strain upon the consti- tracted drastically. In 1860, the Chinese made up tution is about as great as it can bear. And if, 9.2% of California’s population; in 1940, they con- in addition, to all the adverse elements we now stituted only 0.6% (Kitano & Daniels, 2001, p. 31). have,there were to be a flood-tide of Chinese pop- Another common misconception is that the ulation—a population befouled with all the social vices, with no knowledge or appreciation of free Chinese immigrant arrived to the United States institutions or constitutional liberty, with hea- as coolie laborer or as indentured, contract slave thenish souls and heathenish propensities, whose labor. For the most part, force and coercion were character, and habits, and modes of thought are probably unnecessary as many Chinese were more firmly fixed by the consolidating influence of ages than happy to have the opportunity to come to the upon ages—we should be prepared to bid farewell United States to seek their “fortunes.”Not having to republicanism and democracy.(p. 4) the means to finance their trip to the United States, the vast majority of them used an ingenious Similarly, the California Senate opposition to method called the credit ticket system. They would Chinese immigration rested on the argument that borrow money for passage and expenses and obligate themselves to repay double the indebted- During their entire settlement in California, they ness. The persistence of this credit ticket system have never adapted themselves to our habits, for almost a century is probably the best evidence modes of dress, or our educational system, have that the Chinese were free immigrants (Melendy, never learned the sanctity of an oath, never 1984, p. 18). desired to become citizens, or to perform the In 1880, the Burlingame Treaty was amended, duties of citizenship, never discovered the differ- giving the United States the right to regulate,limit, ence between right and wrong, never ceased the or suspend Chinese immigration, but not to pro- worship of their idol gods, or advanced a step beyond the musty traditions of their native hive. hibit it absolutely. This amendment served as a Impregnable to all the influences of our Anglo- harbinger of more extensive, exclusionary immi- Saxon life, they remain the same stolid Asiatics gration policy. that have floated on the rivers and slaved in the field of China for thirty centuries of time. (Sandmeyer, 1973, p. 39) Era of Exclusion: 1882–1943 Chinese immigration continued to dramati- In partial response to this hostile atmosphere cally increase, reaching its peak of 123,201 of Chinese restriction and exclusion, the Chinese immigrants in the 1870s (see Figure 5.1). 06-Min-4720.qxd 5/20/2005 9:30 PM Page 113 Chinese Americans 113 120 100 80 60 Percent 40 20 0 1870 1880 1890 1990 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 West California Rest of U.S. Figure 6.2 Geographic Distribution of the Chinese Population, 1870–2000 SOURCES: Chinese American Data Center, 2003a; Glenn, 1983, p.