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Mauna Loa, Hawaii

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Mauna Loa, Hawaii Life and Death Kure Atoll (30 Ma) of Hawaiian Gardner Pinnacles (12 Ma) meo SeamountsEmperor Volcanoes Kauai (4-5 Ma) Mauna Loa, Hawaii (<1 Ma) Pacific Plate Hawaiian Ridge Kilauea, Hawaii (<0.6 Ma) Hawaiian hotspot (28 Ma) Midway Pearl & 500 km Hermes Reef Northwest Hawaiian Islands Pacific plate Kure 9-10 cm/yr N Pioneer Bank (20 Ma) Laysan (12 Ma) Raita Gardner Salmon Pinnacles Bank St. Rogatien Lisianski Northampton (10 Ma) Maro Reef Mokumanamana Nihoa Main Hawaiian Islands Middle Brooks Bank Bank French (4-6 Ma) Frigate Kaua’i Shoals Keoea Twin (12 Ma) Banks O’ahu Pacific plate Moloka’i Emperor 9-10 cm/yr Seamounts Maui Hawaiian Ni’ihau Ridge Necker Ridge (0-1 Ma) Area Lana’i of Hawai’i map Kaho’olawe Mid-Pacific Mountains Pacific Ocean Horizon Guyot Hawaiian hotspot Salmon Pearl & Pioneer Northampton Laysan Kure Midway Bank Hermes Reef Lisianski Maro NW Bank West East SE 0 -2000 Elevation (m) -4000 2700 2650 2600 2550 2500 2450 2400 2350 2300 2250 2200 2150 2100 2050 2000 1950 1900 1850 1800 1750 1700 Gardner French Frigate St. Rogatien Brooks Twin Middle NW Raita Pinnacles Bank Shoals Mokumanamana Keoea Banks Nihoa Bank SE 0 -2000 -4000 Elevation (m) 1650 1600 1550 1500 1450 1400 1350 1300 1250 1200 1150 1100 1050 1000 950 900 850 800 750 700 Mauna Kea Mauna Loa 4000 Haleakala Hualalai East West 2000 Kaua‘i Wai‘anae West Moloka‘i Maui Lana‘i Kohala Kilauea Ni‘ihau Ko‘olau Moloka‘i Kaho‘olawe 0 NW SE Mahukona Lo‘ihi Elevation (m) -2000 -4000 600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Distance from Kilauea (km) Figure 1. Map of the Hawaiian Ridge subdivided into the Northwest Hawaiian Islands and the Main Hawaiian Islands. The Hawaiian hotspot is located at the southeast end of the ridge (orange circle) beneath the Island of Hawaii. The ages for the volcanoes, some shown on the map, increase from east to west along the ridge. The inset shows the Hawaiian‐Emperor Chain in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. Along the bottom are three profiles (with vertical 1 exaggeration) of the Hawaiian Ridge, the top one starting at the northwest end of the ridge, and the bottom one ending at the southeast end of the ridge. Green areas are land above sea‐level. The Hawaiian Ridge The Hawaiian‐Emperor Chain (Fig. 1 inset) is the classic example of a hotspot Almost all of the land above sea‐level on the Hawaiian Ridge is in the Main chain formed by a mantle plume. It is one of the tectonically simplest (distant Hawaiian Islands (> 99%; Fig. 1 profiles on bottom). There is very little land from any plate margin or continent for over 70 Myr) and longest examples of an area above sea‐level in the Northwest Hawaiian Islands. Midway Atoll in the oceanic island chain or hotspot track on Earth, with >100 volcanoes formed over Northwest Hawaiian Islands is the only island northwest of Kaua’i and Ni’ihau 82 million years and extending ~6000 km in length. The active southeast portion inhabited by humans year round. The Northwest Hawaiian Islands are mainly of the chain (the Main Hawaiian Islands) is surrounded by a ~1000 km‐wide inhabited by seabirds, green turtles and monk seals. bathymetric swell, which is thought to be associated with a hot buoyant mantle Most of the volcanic edifices of the Northwest Hawaiian Islands, northwest of plume beneath the lithosphere (Fig. 1). Mokumanamana are capped by coral reefs. The best studied example is The Hawaiian‐Emperor Chain can be subdivided into the Emperor Seamounts Midway Volcano, at the dnorthern en of the Ridge where drilling showed it is north of the Hawaiian‐Emperor Bend (~2500 km long segment with at least 45 capped by ~400 m of coralline debris with some interbedded clay. Coral reefs volcanoes), and the Hawaiian Ridge south of the Hawaiian‐Emperor Bend to the begin forming on the flanks of the volcanoes near sea level after most of the Island of Hawai’i (~3500 km long with 70 volcanoes) where the Hawaiian hotspot volcanic activity crossing the coast subsides. The coral reefs continue to grow is currently forming the largest and most productive volcanoes on Earth (Fig. 1 arounde th islands as the volcano drifts off the hotspot to the northwest, and inset). The Hawaiian Ridge extends from the northwest atolls of Kure and grow upwards near sea‐level as Hawaiian volcanoes are submerged as they Midway to currently active Kīlauea Volcano on the Island of Hawai‘i to the subside during and after their formation. southeast (Fig. 1). The Hawaiian Ridge can also be subdivided into the Northwest The volcanoes of the Northwest Hawaiian Islands are generally much less Hawaiian Islands (Kure Atoll to Middle Bank Seamount, ~2800 km long segment voluminous than those in the Main Hawaiian Islands (except around Gardner with at least 51 volcanoes) and the Main Hawaiian Islands (Ni’ihau to the Island Pinnacles). Many of these volcanoes formed as isolated features on the deep of Hawai’i, ~700 km long with 19 volcanoes). ocean floor (e.g., Kure and Midway in the NW; Fig. 1) rather than directly The Hawaiian Ridge is made up of volcanic island mountains with some of their adjacent to another volcano. However, some volcanoes formed on the flanks bases as deep as 5500 m below sea‐level and in the Main Hawaiian Islands some of adjacent volcanoes similar to the Main Hawaiian Islands (e.g., of their summits rise as high as 4200 m above sea‐level. The seventy volcanoes of Mokumanamana; .Fig. 1) the Hawaiian Ridge range in age from ~30 Myr old in the northwest (Kure Atoll) to ~12 Myr eold in th middle of the ridge (Gardner Pinnacles), to less than 1 Myr Beginning in 2006, the Northwest Hawaiian Islands became protected as the old at the southeast end of the ridge above the Hawaiian hotspot (Fig. 1). Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, one of the largest marine Hawaiian volcanoes grow from the seafloor to their full height above sea‐level in protected areas in the world. about 1 to 1.5 Myr. After their formation eachc volcani island moves off the hotspot with the Pacific plate, currently moving about 9‐10 cm/yr to the northwest. H AW (4-5.8 Ma) A B I IA Kaua’i N A R C (2-4 Ma) H O’ahu Ni’ihau (1.5-2.1 Ma) (5-6 Ma) Moloka’i H AW (1-2 Ma) A I IA Maui N M O Depth to base of the A NE Lana’i T A oceanic crust N (1.3 Ma) 11 km Kaho’olawe H (1.2 Ma) 100 km AW (0-1.1 Ma) A I IA 12 km N Hawai’i A R NW line of cross-section C 13 km Main Hawaiian Islands H Kilauea 14 km Volcano Hawaiian hotspot SW NE 0 H A W A I I A N H A W A I I A N H A W A I I A N A R C H C M O A T A R C H Maui Nui 5 Oceanic crust Flexural uplift Flexural uplift (90-100 Myr old) 10 line of cross-section Depth (km) SE Mantle 15 SW 500 400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 Distance from axis (km) Mauna Kea Mauna Loa Haleakala Hualalai East West Kaua‘i Wai‘anae West Moloka‘i Maui Lana‘i Kohala D Ko‘olau Moloka‘i Kilauea NW Ni‘ihau Kaho‘olawe SE 0 Mahukona Lo‘ihi Ocean Uplift 5 Subsidence Subsidence Flexure of oceanic crust 10 Depth (km) Oceanic crust (90-100 Myr old) 15 Mantle Thickened crust Lithospheric mantle 600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Distance from Kilauea (km) Figure 2. A) Map of the Hawaiian Islands with white contours indicating the depth to the top of the mantle beneath Hawaii. Lines are shown for profiles. B) Bathymetry of the Main Hawaiian Islands with ages and the Hawaiian Arch and Moat. Gray areas are above sea‐level. C) Profile perpendiculare to Hawaiian th Ridge across the area of Maui Nui (Maui, Molokai, Lanai and 2 Kahoolawe). D) Profile along the axis of the Hawaiian Ridge, showing areas of subsidence and uplift. Green areas are above sea‐level. Source for depths in panel A) is Watts and ten Brink (1989). The Main Hawaiian Islands The eight Main Hawaiian Islands extend from southeast to northwest, 625 km The Hawaiian Moat around the Hawaiian Islands is from flexural depression from the Island of Hawaii (the Big Island) to Ni’ihau. The Big Island has the of the oceanic crust because of the heavy load of the Hawaiian Islands as they largest land area above sea‐level, greater than all of the other Main Hawaiian form above the Hawaiian hotspot. The growing load of the Hawaiian Islands Islands combined, and has the highest elevations (~13,800 ft or 4200 m above flexes the oceanic crust downward as they form on the hotspot and cause the sea‐level). The Main Hawaiian Islands consist of 19 individual shield volcanoes, oceanic crust to be flexed upward at a radial distance of ~300 km away from with 2 shield volcanoes making up the Islands of Oahu, Molokai and Maui and the hotspot (Fig. 2D). 5 subaerial shield volcanoes on the Big Island (Fig. 2B). Hawaiian volcanoes subside (sink) during and after their formation. It is Of the entire volume of the Main Hawaiian Islands, from their base on the sea initially rapid (2.6 mm/yr for the Big Island) and thought to be caused by floor to their tops, 97% of the volume is below sea‐level and less than 3% is loading of the lithosphere from the accumulation of lavas above the Hawaiian above sea‐level.
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