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Article Title: Nebraska Nursing Education during World War II

Full Citation: Michele L Fagan, “Nebraska Nursing Education During World War II,” Nebraska History 73 (1992): 126-137.

URL of article: http://www.nebraskahistory.org/publish/publicat/history/full-text/NH1992NursingEd.pdf

Date: 1/20/2015

Article Summary: One aspect of the wartime government’s efforts to draw more women into the workforce was the federal government’s increasing participation in nursing education.

Cataloging Information:

Names: Evelyn Lindgren Carlson, Eugene McAuliffe, Charlotte Burgess, Thomas Parran, Etta Lubberts, Eileen Weiss, Dwight Griswold, Judith Whitaker, Sister M Fulgentia, Lucile Petry, C W M Poynter, Sister M Livina, Hazel Hinds, Frances Payne Bolton, Molly Parnis, Lulu Wolf, Robert G Simmons, P D Widiner, Blanche Graves, Sally Jeffries, Margaret Strawser

Keywords: Labor-Federal Security Appropriation Act of 1942; US Public Health Service; Nurses’ Training Act of 1943 (Bolton Act); US Cadet Nurse Corps; Nebraska State Nurses’ Association; Bureau of Education and Registration for Nurses; Bishop Clarkson Memorial Hospital (Omaha); University of Nebraska School of Nursing; Legislative Committee of the Nebraska State Nursing Association; Lincoln General Hospital; St Elizabeth Hospital; Nebraska Methodist School of Nursing; Creighton St Joseph’s; Lincoln General Hospital; RN—Serving All Mankind (film); US Public Health Service; St Catherine’s Hospital School of Nursing of Creighton University; University of Nebraska Medical School; Cadet Nurse Corps; Army Nurse Corps (ANC), National Defense Housing Act of 1940 (Lanham Act); National Japanese Student Relocation Council; National Nursing Council for War Service; Bureau of Indian Affairs; Veterans Administration’, Federal Nurse Traineeship Program; Special Consultive Group on Nursing

Photographs / Images: Evelyn Lindgren Carlson in her US Cadet Nurse Corps uniform 1945; Graduation Program, Immanuel Hospital School of Nursing, February 20, 1948; US Cadet Nurse Corps brochure excerpts; Charlotte Burgess; Dr C W M Poynter; St Catherine’s Hospital nurses’ home unit, Omaha; Bishop Clarkson Memorial Hospital nursing school, Omaha; Army hospital brochure NEBRASKA NURSING EDUCATION DURING WORLD WAR II

By Michele L. Fagan

"These are troubled times, fearful schools meeting the program's stan­ ment appropriation implicitly recog­ times, yetitis an exciting and exhilarat­ dards. Learning from the problems nized the profession's importance. ing period," the president of the Ne­ that arose during attempts to rapidly However, the act's requirements braska State Nurses' Association told enlarge the student nurse population worried some educators who feared other members after the United States under the Labor-Federal Security that the proposed shorter or entered World War II. These words Appropriation Act, the originators of accelerated curriculum would turn out must have struck home for adminis­ the Bolton Act sought to streamline many half-educated nurses and jeopar­ trators of Nebraska's nursing schools and centralize the recruitment efforts dize hard-won professional gains. as federal involvement in nursing by working closely with state boards of Only a few years earlier during the education grew in response to the war­ nursing. The U.S. Cadet Nurse Corps Depression hospitals began to employ time crisis. 1 produced enough students to cover RNs on the wards and nursing students Even before December 1941 civilian needs without disrupting the spent more time in the classroom. national nursing organizations, govern­ schools. Omaha and Lincoln schools of Before that hospitals had depended ment agencies, and the public feared nursing exemplify the increasing almost entirely on nursing students for that the United States faced a critical federal participation in nursing educa­ patient care. Hospitals, in fact, shortage of registered nurses (RNs) to tion that was another aspect ofthe war­ traditionally had established nursing cover the rapidly growing civilian and time government's efforts to draw more schools to provide cheap labor while military health care needs.2 Shortly women into the workforce. the graduate nurses usually entered before the war many schools started Congress made its first appropria­ the private duty field. 6 The wartime expanding anyway as more people, tion to fund nursing education in July demands for more students and a aided by the development of health 1941, five months before the Japanese shorter training period seemed to be insurance, public health programs, and attack on Pearl Harbor. The Labor­ forcing hospitals and schools to return social security benefits, began to enter Federal Security Appropriation Act of to the recent past when students did hospitals for care instead of being 1942 made $1.2 million available to most of the nursing. The president of treated at home.3 In response to this increase nursing school enrollments, to the Nebraska State Nurses' Association need Congress in July 1941 passed the provide refresher courses for inactive alluded to this concern when she wrote Labor-Federal Security Appropriation graduates, and to support post­ to the director of the state's Bureau of Act of 1942 to fund nursing education graduate education in special fields. 4 Education and Registration for Nurses and bring inactive registered nurses Federal funds enabled school adminis­ requesting that each school increase back to work. The U.S. Public Health trators to offer individual scholarships the size and number of its classes to Service administered this act, working for enrollment costs and subsistence to meet the emergency without "sacrific­ with individual schools to attract new qualified but financially strapped ing the quality of its educational nursing students. When the legislation students. Other clauses of the act pro­ program."7 did not produce the hoped for num­ vided for hiring more instructors, add­ Some Nebraska nursing educators bers, Congress passed the Nurses' ing certain types of facilities, and supported the accelerated class Training Act of 1943 (Bolton Act) that affiliating with other schools or groups schedule or at least complied willingly. called for a nation-wide uniformed for specialized training. The act did not Eugene McAuliffe, the vice-president corps of nursing students based in subsidize the construction of new of Bishop Clarkson Memorial Hospital buildings, although its provisions could (Omaha), strongly disapproved of the be stretched to include "securing shorter training period and inter­ Michele L. Fagan is an archivistllibrarian, additional dormitories."5 ference from the federal government, now head of the Special Collections Depart­ The federal funding delighted many but he concluded that the change was ment, Memphis (Tennessee) State University. nursing leaders because the govern­ probably inevitable since the Univer­ 126 Nursing Education

sity of Nebraska School of Nursing minute changes, alterations of family seemed committed to it.8 plans, all affect prospective students."13 Although the federal government In August 1942, the Lincoln General pressed for a thirty-month course, Hospital director of nurses learned most state boards ofnursing, including that because she estimated only one Nebraska's, required thirty-six months student more in the fall, "you would not of schooling. In January 1942 Charlotte be eligible to receive aid this coming Burgess, director of the University of year unless you admit a February class, Nebraska School of Nursing, told and one which was larger than the 1941 Thomas Parran, U.S. Surgeon General, class." However, this incoming class that "the Lieutenant Governor has would not be eligible for the small assist­ informed us that unless our present law ance available until January 1943.0 is amended the three-year program Expansion in 1940 had hurt Lincoln must be adhered to. The Legislative General. A new addition to the hospital Committee of the Nebraska State that year caused the school to accept Nursing Association will present to the one of its largest classes to care for the state Legislature, in the near future, increased number of patients. The either a recommendation for shorten­ Public Health Service used this ing the three-year program for the extraordinarily high figure as the base Duration, or if necessary, an amend­ for its calculations and expected Lin­ ment of our present law."9 Eventually coln General to keep increasing.14 The the need to accelerate obliged nursing University of Nebraska School of schools to restructure their curriculum. Nursing faced a similar situation. The administrators of the Omaha Charlotte Burgess, director of nurs­ and Lincoln schools who applied for ing, understood that since the Septem­ federal funds under the Labor-Federal ber 1942 class was only one person Security Appropriation Act had to larger than the September 1941 class, implement a rapid expansion before she could offer only one student finan­ they could receive money. This caused cial aid. Unfortunately three students many headaches as they tried under in this class had recently withdrawn to wartime conditions to attract and "return to the business field as they are house students, hire more staff, build unable to meet the expenses of their new facilities, meet federal deadlines, nursing education. "15 and fill out federal forms. Prospective students learned that Nursing school directors had to they might be able to get financial help, increase class size over the 1940-41 but this led to some confusion. As enrollment, which the U.S. Public Burgess said, "Students are hearing Health Service used as a base figure for about it, of course, from so many eligibility for federal funding. As the sources, and they seem to think, they director of the St. Elizabeth Hospital have been given to understand that School of Nursing in Lincoln dis­ anyone who wants help may apply for covered, class numbers needed to it." In fact the University of Nebraska increase before the school could apply School of Nursing had so many for any aid except individual inquiries that Burgess realized she had scholarships. to Because of the federal requested too little financial aid in her deadlines, schools projected their earlier budget projections.16 With budgets before the student count was youthful confidence and an incomplete definite, butifitwas less than originally understanding about registration pro­ estimated, the Public Health Service Evelyn Lindgren Carlson, originally of cedures, many applicants had written reduced that school's allotment. 11 Etta Lyons, Nebraska, in her U.S. Cadet to recruitment committee members as Lubberts of Nebraska Methodist Hos­ Nurse Corps uniform in the spring of radio broadcasts suggested. The girls pital in Omaha had originally expected 1945. Courtesy of Evelyn Lindgren thought that the letters they received fifteen students in February 1943, but Carlson. acknowledging their inquiry assured only ten actually attended. "Last them of aid and a place in some school. 127 Nebraska History - Fall 1992

~ . . Although the U.S. Cadet Nurse Corps ~.. :;s ~ .:~ :.~:( ~., .. .& is not mentioned in this program, the majority ofthe graduating nurses par­ ticipated. Courtesy ofEvelyn Lindgren Graduation Program Carlson. • Immanuel Hospital School of Nursing Alfred Bloom Hall, February 20, 1948 do, suggested that Weiss return home and "find what the real situation is .... I • am very reluctant to lose her, and she is Class Motto quite as reluctant to give up her work." "ENTER TO LEARN, GO FORWARD TO SERVE." Burgess was able to get the student a Class Flower Cla~s Colors scholarship, and Weiss returned to AMERICAN BEAUTY AMERICAN BEAUTY RED CARNATION £0. and SILVER school. After a short time, however, • • • "she was obliged to return home because of the serious illness of her Processional: "War March of the Priests" Mendelssohn father .... She will not be returning to Scripture and Prayer Rev. Gerald K. Johnson the school at present."19 Selections "Let All My Life Be Music" Spross At the beginning of the war Lincoln "I Know a Lovely Garden" D'Hardelot and Omaha schools followed their "Land Sighting" Grieg Nurses' Chorus unaggressive peacetime recruiting pro­ cedures. St. Elizabeth administrators Address Rev. Edgar M. Carlson, Ph.D. President, Gustavu~ Adolphus College had one of the most active programs, St. Peter, Minnesota routinely sending copies of the school Selection "Seraphic Song" Rubinstein bulletin to high school vocational direc­ Nurses' Chorus tors and giving some pre-nursing Greeting Dr. A. David Cloyd 20 President, Immanuel Hospital Staff courses. Most schools simply waited for inquiries. Both Nebraska Methodist Rev. S. M. I\Hller, D.O. ' Awarding of Diplomas and Creighton St. Joseph's sent Solo "My Creed" Alexander bulletins to prospective students.21 Miss Phyllis Kavan Lincoln General took a more individual Benediction Rev. V. T. Matson approach. The staff made "a conscien­ Recessional tious effort to take time to describe in Nurses' Chorus Justin Helgren, Director detail when inquiries were made."22 Marie Uhlig Edwards, Accompanist When the nursing demand became Assisted by Mrs. Samuel Miller, Violinist critical in 1942, Clarkson students Albert Sand, Organist originated their school's most success­ Paul ,L. Anderson, Baritone ful recruiting measures. The nursing students themselves went back to their high schools to speak about their Some resigned from jobs before they their nursing work."18 The students did experiences.23 had even applied and been accepted by not seem to connect the financial aid Acting at the state level, the Ne­ a nursing school.17 with a shortage of nurses. braska State Nurses' Association and Many who were awarded scholar­ Even with financial help some State Nursing Council for War Service ships were grateful. Burgess wrote on students were not able to continue persuaded Governor Dwight Griswold behalf of eight students who received because family obligations often took to declare the first two weeks of May aid. "These students are most precedence over education for 1943 as Nurse Recruitment Weeks. appreciative, I can assure you. They daughters. Burgess tried to get a Judith Whitaker then toured the state, asked me if they should write to you scholarship for Eileen Weiss, a member giving talks and showing the film, RN­ individually to express their thanks ... of the September 1942 class, because Serving All Mankind, to more than and to let you know how much this financial difficulties at home were forc­ fifty groups.24 assistance is meaning to them. They ing her to quit school. The director, tak­ Early in 1943 Nebraska Methodist would like you to know that this help is ing time for individual student cases as administrators saw that they were hav­ making it possible for them to continue many of the administrators seemed to ing trouble getting students, as did the 128 Nursing Education

University ofNebraska. "Itis a difficult matter to assemble good material for INDUCTION PLEDGE ... WEAR IT PROUDLY our Schools. With the W.A.V.E.S., W.A.A.Cs, S.P.A.R.s, the splendid At this moment of my induction into the salaries offered in various lines of United States Cadet Nurse Corps of the United States Public Health Service: industry . . . added to these the marriage problem, to secure interest­ I am solemnly aware of the obli9 d • tions I assume toward my cOOl1try ing, desirable students is not an easy

tors on the staff who have been teach­ for the new program would be.38 ing have left or are leaving." Director of Bookkeeping for the federal funds Nursing Hazel Hinds spent much more presented small but persistent prob­ of her own time on the wards to cover lems for nursing school adminis­ staff losses. This frustration undoubt­ trators. Since nursing schools had edly caused her to remind Lucile traditionally been part of hospitals, Petry, her former instructor at the administrators found these new re­ University of Minnesota in 1940, that sponsibilities confusing. Before World "you emphasized the education of War II hospital administrators did not students before getting hospital work do basic accounting and "most hos­ done."34 Provisions of the Labor­ pitals did not know the cost of running a Federal Security Appropriation Act training school."39 St. Catherine's included salaries for new staff, but no administrators, for example, had to one at the federal or state level knew rework the budget to meet federal where to find more teachers. guidelines.40 Application Form 100 con­ The necessity of coordinating fused Dean Poynter ofthe University of federal deadlines and class schedules, Nebraska. He wrote to the U.S. Public sometimes on short notice, hampered Health Service for clarification "as to the school's funding. The University of how the blanks should be filled out in a Nebraska College of Medicine school number of questions," because the calendar and the U.S. Public Health Charlotte Burgess. Courtesy of UN Medical College and the School of Service plan would not mesh, obliging Medical Center. Nursing shared the same cost­ the University of Nebraska School of accounting system and the salaries of Nursing to follow the medical school. the director and assistant director The previous February Burgess leaving St. Joseph's with a smaller than came from both the hospital and the understood that her school would not anticipated class.36 Hazel Hinds, Lin­ school.41 Charlotte Burgess recalled, be eligible for federal funding unless coln General, tried to help two students "Dean Poynter and I were laughing yes­ the beginning of class was postponed who had dropped 01,lt of school for terday about the difficulties we had in until June. Since the medical college financial reasons. But by the time she filling out the budget sheet. We both would not offer necessary courses to had received permission from Wash­ are hoping you haven't decided that we accommodate summer nursing classes, ington to offer the young women are unforgivably dumb."42 As a result of the nursing school had to proceed with scholarships, they had already these problems, the Public Health Ser­ a February class, losing a chance to "secured positions and do not wish to vice officials who administered the apply for federal funds. Dean C. W. M. give them Up."37 newly established Cadet Corps Poynter of the University of Nebraska Being dependent on yearly con­ informed the schools about the types of College of Medicine frankly doubted if gressional appropriations and new specific ledgers to be used for federal the school could qualify for any of the legislation also obliged directors to accounts: the cash journal, the general money in 1943 because the forms had give uncertain answers to students ledger, and student ledger, with been returned to Washington late.35 about scholarships. In February 1943 instructions on how to use each.43 The federal deadlines and time Burgess reported to Washington that Despite the valiant efforts of schedules also lost students for some the University of Nebraska was getting individual schools in Nebraska and schools. Sister M. Livina of St. requests for scholarships for the com­ throughout the country too few Joseph's School of Nursing, struggling ing September, but she had to inform students were applying. The scholar­ to produce a larger class, notified the students "that whether or not the ships offered by the schools did not Public Health Service in June 1942 that Government will provide this assis­ attract enough girls, and many people if her school began classes earlier to tance will depend upon legislation. Ifit feared that the nation still faced a criti­ squeeze in three classes a year, several is possible to give them more assur­ cal shortage of nurses.44 The federal promising applicants who were work­ ances than this, I shall appreciate your government decided to become more ing during the summer for tuition advice in the matter." Burgess knew involved with the recruiting of student money could not attend St. Joseph's. that new legislation was being debated nurses by offering greaterinducements These young women would not be in Congress which eventually did and relieving some of the administra­ financially able to begin school sooner, establish the Cadet Nurse Corps, but tive pressures of the individual delaying or perhaps forfeiting their none of the nursing school directors schools. chance to enter nursing school, and had yet learned what the requirements Frances Payne Bolton, congress­ 130 Nursing Education

woman from Ohio, sponsored the 1943 Participation in the Cadet Nurse Senior Cadets in federal or civilian hos­ Nurse Training Act to remedy quickly Corps program benefited both schools pitals. The federal government reim­ the difficulties 'of recruiting young and students. In addition to the bursed the participating schools for women for the nursing profession. uniformed corps of student nurses the students' tuition, fees, and main­ While still based in individual schools Bolton Act of July 1, 1943, provided for tenance during the first nine months of the Cadet Nurse Corps was a cen­ postgraduate training grants to RNs. training. This allowed the schools to tralized, nationwide recruiting drive Schools shortened the coursework cover the additional costs of increased specifically designed to attract interest period from thirty-six to thirty months, enrollments. The cadets received full and fill civilian hospitals with student and students spent six months more as scholarships including books, uni­ nurses. At the state level under the forms, and a monthly allowance. In Bolton Act, the U.S. Public Health Ser­ Dr. C. W. M. Poynter. Courtesy of UN return they agreed to "remain in essen­ vice officials now worked with the nurs­ Medical Center. tial nursing service, military or civilian, ing boards rather than with the individual schools. This concentrated effort to attract students has been called one of the "greatest recruitment[s] of nursing students in history."45 It was certainly one of the most widely advertised with information and photos appearing in national magazines, radio programs, movie shorts, posters, and department store window displays. Many nurses found the Madison Avenue approach distasteful, but promoters countered the complaints by arguing that the stiff competition from other areas for potential students made drastic measures necessary.46 Before Congress appropriated the money for the corps, congressional committee members heard from a number of interested parties, perhaps the most convincing being hospital administrators who painted a des­ perate scene in the civilian hospitals. After a few months of training it was argued, three student nurses would be able to replace two graduate nurses for many hospital activities and free the graduates for other postS.47 Army officials, perhaps believing thatthe CadetNurse Corpswould train future Army Nurse Corps (ANC) officers, supported the program during its embryo stages, but by 1944 despite the military-sounding name and uniform, the corps remained a civilian measure. Later when battle casualties rose and military nurses seemed in short supply an Omaha reporter ques­ tioned whether "someone slipped when the Cadet Corps was established as a civilian rather than a military agency."48 131 Nebraska History - Fall 19~2

for the duration of the war." However, program members became Senior ing uniform and the publicity helped the pledge each took was not a legally Cadets with the option of working in bring young women into the corps and binding contract, but only a statement another hospital. Senior Cadets who eventually into nursing. of good intentions.49 The Labor-Federal spent six months in federal service On the national level the Public Security Act had only offered financial received a monthly allowance of $60; Health Service made great efforts to help to those in need. The Cadet Corps those who went to civilian hospitals recruit minorities into the program. provided the same type of support to generally got $30. 51 The possibility of African-American anyone who joined. Inside the hospitals students wore applicants did not seem to concern Another program, the National the traditional school uniform although Nebraska school directors, possibly Defense Housing Act of 1940 or federal subsidies paid for it. The out­ because the state's total black popula­ Lanham Act, now allowed schools to door uniform, designed by Molly Parnis tion was small, but they did have ques­ get funds to expand residences and add and also covered by federal funds, was tions about responding to inquiries additional facilities. The U.S. Public "worn with pride, but obtained with dif­ from young Japanese-American Health Service officials convinced the ficulty." Wartime cloth shortages pre­ women.53 Federal Works Agency to use funds vented some of the cadets from getting When Lulu Wolf, professor of nurs­ provided in this older law for construc­ their uniforms from J. C. Penney as ing education at Vanderbilt University, tion of student housing.50 quickly as they would have liked. spoke at a two-day conference in Lin­ Members of the corps moved The outdoor wear was chosen for its coln about the plans of the National through different levels during their attractiveness and appeal. The winter Nursing Council for War Service to education. The first nine months con­ uniform included a gray flannel skirt, shorten training programs, several stituted the pre-cadet period. During jacket with silver buttons, beret with directors asked the consultant about this time a student received one winter the Public Health Service insignia, gray admitting Japanese-Americans. She and two summer uniforms and a flannel reefer coat, raincoat, blouse, and took a pessimistic view, pointing out monthly allowance of $15. Then she handbag. The summer uniform consist­ "the responsibility that any school became a Junior Cadet with $20 ptr ed ofa gray and white striped dress and would assume in admitting one of these month. After twenty-one months in the gray felt hat with red band.52 The Strik­ students. There would always be mis­ trust in the minds ofthe patients as well as the doctors and nurses." These students also would be under FBI sur­ veillance. She advised against it. 54 However, a few months after the Bolton Act passed, the National Japanese-American Student Reloca­ tion Council, headquartered in Philadelphia, asked state boards, including Nebraska's, about which schools had the corps program. The National Nursing Council for War Ser­ vice offered its assistance to the Relocation Council but was "greatly concerned that they [Japanese­ American students] be admitted to good schools of nursing ... Japanese­ American students will be hand­ icapped at best in securing employment, but it would be a great pity if in addition they were to be

St. Catherine's Hospital nurses' home unit, Omaha. A federal grant of $87,000 helped with total construction costs ofmore than $175,000. Courtesy of Omaha World-Herald. 132 Nursing Education

graduated from schools which did not He had previously been a public These duties brought Nebraska's give them an adequate preparation." It relations officer for General Patton's board into contact with other boards is not known if any Japanese­ Third Army. 58 and nursing schools throughout the Americans did apply to the Nebraska Publicity also helped the corps keep country.61 schools.55 in touch with its scattered members. Joining the Cadet Corps offered the To encourage esprit de corps and Nebraska Methodist's Probe, for exam­ student potential travel to other parts attract publicity the Public Health Ser­ ple, informed students, most of whom of the country during the Senior Cadet vice made the induction ceremonies as belonged to the corps, of news about experience. Some seniors preferred to memorable as possible. The first the assignments of the school's Senior do their last six months at their home pledging during which the cadets took Cadets. Hospital newsletters where the schools, but a number of Nebraska their oath became a national media Senior Cadets were stationed often students went to army or navy general event with radio linking many induc­ carried news of their doings. The hospitals in Springfield, Missouri; tions across the country at the same "Cadet Chatter" column of Cornhusker Denver; or San Diego. The majority time. On May 13, 1944, celebrities Veteran, the Lincoln VA Hospital's in­ stayed closer to home. Blanche Graves, gathered in Constitution Hall, house publication, reported on the Director ofEducation and Registration Washington, D.C., with 750 cadets from graduation of one of the cadets - "her for Nurses who oversaw the place­ the area for a ceremony thatwas broad­ last day as one of US."59 ments, had slots in the Indian Service cast throughout the country. In Omaha Individual schools submitted their at Winnebago, the Veterans Adminis­ 500 cadets came to Joslyn Concert Hall own publications to the Cadet Nurse tration Hospital in Lincoln, and the to hear the broadcast and take the oath Corps News, the nationwide newsletter Omaha Visiting Nurses Association. administered over the radio by Dr. which often reprinted articles from the Senior Cadets could do psychiatric Thomas Parran, Surgeon General of local ones. It praised the Probe, de­ work, for example, at St. Vincent's Hos­ the U.S. Public Health Service. scribing it as "literally stuffed with pital in St. Louis or in Omaha's Eleanor Roosevelt, U.S. Representa­ items of interest .... This paper is Lutheran Hospital.62 tive Frances Bolton, and actress Helen designed to keep students 'in the know' A number of out-of-state hospitals Hays spoke in Washington while the in all matters pertaining to nursing, able to accept Senior Cadets contacted cadets in Omaha listened. A number of their school, their city and their Graves about their programs. The Ne­ high school girls interested in nursing nation." The national corps made great braska Board of Nurses Examiners liked education attended the Omaha efforts to make individuals feel that the one offered by the North Per­ ceremony as guests.56 they were part of the organization and manente Foundation in Vancouver, That same day, May 13, 100 nursing contributing to the war effort.60 Washington. Graves sent the director students gathered in St. Paul's In Nebraska the Office of the State of nursing a list of Nebraska schools Methodist Church, Lincoln. After an Director of Nursing Education with the cadet program, suggesting that introduction by Hazel Hinds, the direc­ benefited as much as ,the students and she contact them.63 The Wisconsin tor of nursing at Lincoln General Hos­ the schools from the federal program. State Sanitorium in Statesan informed pital and former chair ofthe Red Cross Since the office had been established Graves about that hospital's affiliation Nurses Recruitment Committee, Chief its staff had pressed the Nebraska in tuberculosis nursing, stating that the Justice Robert G. Simmons adminis­ schools to standardize curriculum. The approved course "follows very closely tered the induction oath. The passage ofthe Bolton Act strengthened the course set up for student affiliates, Northeast High School Girls' Glee Club the director's ability to do this. When except that [Senior Cadets] are expect­ sang. At 3:30 P.M. the whole audience Lucille Petry, the newly appointed ed to carry more responsibilities."64 listened to the national broadcast over director of the corps, explained about Recruitment for the Cadet Corps Radio WOW.57 the program to Blanche Graves, the ceased in August 1945, but students The nation-wide induction became a state director, she stated that the registered for the program and in tradition for the Cadet Corps and the Public Health Service administrators school by October 15 continued until second one aired over the radio in May envisioned the state boards as the they completed their education, 1945. In Joslyn Hall, Omaha, 283 "clearing houses" through which the including the Senior Cadet experience, students gathered to take their pledge corps could reach individual hospitals. in 1948. Hospitals throughout the coun­ on May 10 as "one ofa series ofnation­ The board played a pivotal role in the try continued to seek their services. wide ceremonies conducted simul­ Cadet Corps program, helping the Johns Hopkins Hospital sent informa­ taneously." A sixty-member Cadet schools establish their new accelerated tion in July 1945 and Kansas City Corps chorus formed part ofthe enter­ programs, keep essential teaching General Hospital offered experiences tainment, and Major P. D. Widiner staff, recruit students, and assign the in surgery in 1946, although the director from Camp Carson, Colorado, spoke. Senior Cadets for their six months. warned that the cadets would find the 133 Nebraska History - Fall 1992

same post war difficulties with limited had an impact on Omaha and Lincoln Jommg off-campus organizations. housing facilities that they would as well. In 1944 an Omaha newspaper Although the wartime pressures did anywhere.65 reporter tracked the first batch of not totally reverse administrators' Several federal government agencies Senior Cadets "going out to their positions, there were some changes. that ran hospitals tried to attract the assignments all over the city this Clarkson and other schools tolerated Senior Cadets including the Bureau of week." The reporter spotlighted smoking in the residences and allowed Indian Affairs (BIA) and the Veterans Dorothy Johnson of Nebraska married students to enter their pro­ Administration (VA). In 1945 the VA Methodist who was assigned to the grams. Lincoln General listed a smok­ had a large number of Senior Cadets North Side Baby Clinic, a Visiting ing room as well as other recreational from all over the country coming to Nurses Association facility.70 features like ping pong and billiards. their nation-wide facilities, so many Although the wartime emergency Lulu Wolf, the consultant from Vander­ that students encountered crowded liv­ pushed most Nebraska schools into bilt University, responded to questions ing conditions. However, because RNs growth and overcrowding, the federal about discipline by suggesting that "if were in very short supply, "the service funding available through the Lanham the students were given more freedom of these Senior Cadet Nurses are Act eventually allowed them to build. in carrying on their own student urgently needed at this time."66 After St. Catherine's received $87,000 to government there would be a more the war the VA oversaw the most Senior begin construction in 1944 on an addi­ wholesome attitude about in the hospi­ Cadets of any agency and benefited. tion to its nurses' home that the Omaha tal and in the nurses' home." Later the When the Cadet Corps program began World-Herald called the second of its Cadet Corps program re-emphasized to be phased out, the VA's Nursing Ser­ kind and the largest to date. Immanuel student independence for Senior vice studied the possibility of maintain­ Hospital in Omaha had also applied for Cadets who received their six months ing the teaching program begun in the construction money. By May 1945 the service in the army general hospitals agency's hospitals to accommodate the St. Catherine's addition and one at of FitzSimmons, O'Reilly and Schick, Senior Cadets and affiliating with Bishop Clarkson Hospital were nearly in the Seventh Service Command. individual schools.67 ready.7) They would "live in army nurses quar­ The Bureau of Indian Affairs request­ Clarkson's Eugene McAuliffe had ters at the hospital and will organize ed that members of the Nebraska realized in 1943 that the school needed their own student cooperative Bureau of Education and Registration more space, but he 'Was "personally government."73 for Nurses visit the hospital at the Win­ opposed to the further entrance of Leaders of Nebraska nursing not nebago reservation to approve it for government control." So in September only loosened some restrictions for Senior Cadet experience. The inspec­ 1943, the hospital began its own fund­ students, the nurses revised some of tors reported that the Winnebago raising campaign. When this did not their own ideas. The very successful facility would "offer a very fine garner the necessary money, McAuliffe recruitment tactics ofthe Cadet Corps introduction to Public Health Nursing was obliged to apply for a federal grant. program showed Nebraska women that and its problems. It will also give a The only way to grow was to accept advertising did attract students. Lucile knowledge of the cultural and social Washington's presence in local affairs. Petry, who headed the Cadet Corps patterns of a racial group that should Looking back, a historian of Saint program, recalled that working with be of great value to the Senior Cadet Elizabeth's thought that the Cadet public relations people was "a novel Nurse in her future contacts with Corps program signaled the beginning experience for a nurse at that time." peoples of different races."68 of the hospital's aggressive main­ Other nursing administrators initially In October 1944, Sally Jeffries ofthe tenance and renovation program. Many considered publicity undignified and BIA pointed out that only a few N e­ other schools probably had similar demeaning. Margaret Strawser pre­ braska students seemed interested in experiences.72 faced her remarks to the Nebraska Senior Cadet work at the agency. The need to attract and hold State Historical Society on the need for Because the Winnebago hospital had students forced nursing schools to give more nurses in 1943 with an apology limited facilities, she wanted Graves to the young women who enrolled more that "now I am going to do something approve other reservation hospitals in independence than had previously which I rather dislike doing." Soon Arizona, Oklahoma, and South Dakota been allowed. Most nursing schools of after the war, however, Blanche Graves for Nebraska cadets. Graves respond­ the era took their protective role pointed out the postwar need for ed that the Senior Cadets had "so very seriously and sought to shelter the nurses since many women were not re­ many things to choose from that it students. A 1936 graduate of the entering the civilian profession when seems to be somewhat difficult for University ofNebraska School ofNurs­ they returned from military service. them to make a decision. "69 ing remembered that students then Nebraska again wanted more nursing Understandably, the Senior Cadets had to get special permission before students. Graves and the bureaujoined 134 Nursing Education

wholeheartedly in the nationwide pro­ gram that relied on many of the same techniques successfully used by the Cadet Corps, such as cards placed in buses, films, newspaper publicity, and speakers.74 The federal programs retarded but did not change one trend. Philosophi­ cal differences that nursing educators had with the provisions of the Labor­ Federal Security Appropriation Act and the Nurse Training Act about accelerated curriculum and student labor had been set aside during the wartime emergency. After the war, however, leaders in the profession reversed the emphasis of the federal programs designed to provide hospital staffing by moving the students out of the hospital wards and into the classrooms more than ever before.75 The increasing federal participation in nursing education during the warhad major consequences for the profession in Nebraska. The experiences Ne­ braska nursing schools had with federal funding programs including the Cadet Nurse Corps undoubtedly paralleled Bishop Clarkson Memorial Hospital General of the U.S. Public Health Ser­ those of institutions throughout the nursing school, Omaha, was construct­ United States. vice. The resultant 1964 Nurse Train­ ed with the aid offederal funds. Cour­ ing Act provided scholarships and low The Cadet Nurse Corps program tesy of Omaha World-Herald. 76 may have strengthened Nebraska;s cost loans for nursing students. board. Lucile Petry described it as a Finally the federal financial aid gave many young women an otherwise clearinghouse, and once the Cadet the war. The nation experienced a impossible chance to further their Nurse program was in place the Public severe postwar nursing shortage which education. What they thought about Health Service encouraged the board prompted Elbert Thomas, senator being part of a nation-wide drive to re­ to coordinate the schools in the state. from Utah, to propose a five-year pro­ cruit women for an essential part ofthe The program also allowed Graves to gram to assist nursing education in work force during wartime remains communicate with other schools' 1949. But the newly established locked in their individual memories. boards throughout the country. National Organization of Hospital The nursing profession became very Schools members, fearing regimenta­ NOTES visible, and its significant contribution tion by the U.S. Public Health Service, ILona L. Trott, ed., The First Fifty Years: Ne­ to health care, both military and fought the measure until the bill braska State Nurses' Association, 1906-1956 civilian, was implicit in public dis­ bogged down and disappeared in a con­ (Lincoln: Nebraska State Nurses' Association, n.d.),13. cussions of shortages of RNs. The war­ gressional committee. Nothing more 2Federal Security Agency, U.S. Public Health time need for more nurses prompted was heard of federal aid to the nursing Service, The United States Cadet Nurse Corps the federal funding that many nursing profession until 1956 when the Federal and Other Federal Nurse Training Programs (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, leaders interpreted as crucial recogni­ Nurse Traineeship Program offered 1950), 2, 4, 214; Florence A. Blanchfield, Army tion ofthe field's importance. The pro­ financial assistance to RNs studying Nurse Corps in World War II, technical prepara­ gram established the precedent that tion by Mary W. Standlee, typescript, University full time for administrative or teaching of Texas Libraries, Austin, Texas, 104. "By 1940 could be used later to request more positions. The next significant piece of the national nursing organizations were making federal aid for professional education. legislation grew out of the recommen­ efforts to meet the requirements ofan expanding defense nursing program to encourage an Supporters, however, did not have dations by the Special Consultive increasing number of entering students in nurs­ an easy task in securing more aid after Group on Nursing to the Surgeon ing schools." 135 Nebraska History - Fall 1992

3Federal Security Agency, Cadet Corps, 4. Omaha, Nebraska, to Lucile Petry, Feb. 8, 1943, Lucile Petry to Sister M. Livina, Director, School 4Ibid.,8. RG90,NARA. of Nursing, Creighton Memorial Saint Joseph's sIbid.,9. 13Lucile Petry to Hazel Hinds, Director, School Hospital, May 1, 1942. In an intervening letter, 6Wendell W. Oderkirk, "Organize or Perish: of Nursing, Lincoln General Hospital, Lincoln, Sister M. Fulgentia included a pennanent sur­ The Transfonnation of Nebraska Nursing Nebraska, Aug. 14, 1942, RG 90, NARA. face tennis court along with other renovations, Education, 1888-1941" (Ph.D dissertation, 14Hazel Hinds to Lucile Petry, Aug. 17, 1942, but someone at the U.S. Public Health Service University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 1987),359. RG 90, NARA. placed a question mark by this request. Sister M. 7Arta Lewis to Carol Maret, Feb. 25, 1941, Ne­ ISLucile Petry to Charlotte Burgess, Jan. 28, Fulgentia to Federal Security Agency, U.S. braska State Board of Health Records, RG027.1, 1943, RG 90, NARA. Public Health Service, States Relations Division, State Archives, Nebraska State Historical 16Charlotte Burgess to Lucile Petry, Jan. 23, Washington, D.C., Apr. 11, 1942, RG 90, Society, Lincoln, Nebraska (hereafter RG027.1, 1943, RG 90, NARA. NARA. NSHS). 17Ibid., Jan. 28, 1943. 27Lincoln General Hospital, Fonn II-B, Section 8Wendell W. Oderkirk, Learning to Care: A 18Ibid., Mar. 31, 1943. VI, Conditions of Living and Work, Aug. 5, 1942, Century ofNursing Education at Bishop Clarkson 19Ibid., Feb. 3, 1943; in a Feb. 20, 1943, letter RG90,NARA. College (Omaha, Nebraska: Bishop Clarkson Burgess stated that Weiss had done two years of 28Barbara Melosh, The Physician's Hand: Work College of Nursing, 1988), 136. college on her own and still contributed to her Culture and Conflict in American Nursing 9Blanche Graves, Director, Bureau of Educa­ family's finances; ibid., Mar. 1, 1943, RG 90, (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982), tion and Registration for Nurses, to Wayne W. NARA. 37,49. Reed, State Superintendent, Department of 2°S aint Elizabeth Hospital, Fonn II-B, Sec­ 29Hazel Hinds to Nursing Education Unit, Public Instruction, Lincoln, Nebraska, Apr. 9, tion VII, Public Infonnation, Jan. 7, 1943, RG Federal Security Agency, U.S. Public Health Ser­ 1943, RG 027.1, NSHS; Charlotte Burgess, Direc­ 90, NARA. vice, Washington, D.C., Aug. 6,1942; Hazel Hinds tor, University of Nebraska School of Nursing, 21Nebraska Methodist Hospital, Fonn II-B, to Lucile Petry, Sept. 9, 1942, RG 90, NARA. Omaha, Nebraska, to Dr. Thomas Parran, Sur­ Section VII, Public Infonnation, June 29, 1943; 30Etta Lubberts to Lucile Petry, Nov. 28, 1942, geon General, U.S. Public Health Service, Creighton Memorial St. Joseph's Hospital, Fonn RG90,NARA. Washington, D.C., Jan. 25, 1943, RG 90, Public II-B, Section VII, Public Infonnation, Apr. 9, 31St. Catherine's, Fonn II-B, Section VI, Con­ Health Service, U.S. Cadet Nurse Corps, Basic 1942, RG 90, NARA. ditions of Living and Work, Apr. 8, 1942, RG Programs, Pre-Bolton Records Alphabetical by 22Lincoln General Hospital, Fonn II -B, Section 90, NARA. Name of School, 1941-43, National Archives and VII, Public Infonnation, Aug. 5, 1942, RG 90, 32C. W. M. Poynter, Dean, College of Medicine, Records Administration (hereafter RG90, NARA. University of Nebraska, Omaha, Nebraska, to NARA); "Nursing Education in War Time," n.d., 230derkirk, Learning to Care, 134-35. Lucile Petry, Dec. 29, 1942, RG 90, NARA. possibly May 1943, RG 027.1, NSHS. 24"Conference Held in Lincoln with Field Con­ 33Etta Lubberts to Lucile Petry, June 25, 1942, IOLucile Petry, Senior Nursing Education Con­ sultant of the National Nursing Council for War RG90, NARA. sultant, U.S. Public Health Service, Washington, Service," n.d., RG 027.1, NSHS. 34Hazel Hinds to Lucile Petry, Aug. 17, 1942, D.C., to Sister Mary Hugolina, Director, School 2SEtta Lubberts to Lucile Petry, Feb. 8, 1943; RG 90, NARA. Someone in the U.S. Public of Nursing, St. Elizabeth Hospital, Lincoln, Charlotte Burgess to Lucile Petry, Jan. 23, 1943, Health Service, perhaps Petry, marked this Nebraska, Dec. 24,1942, RG 90, NARA. RG90,NARA. paragraph with an exclamation mark. IIIbid., Mar. 4, 1943, RG 90, NARA. 26Sister M. Fulgentia, Superior, Creighton 3sCharlotte Burgess to Dr. Thomas Parran, I2Etta Lubberts, Director of Nursing, Ne­ Memorial Saint Joseph's Hospital, Omaha, Ne­ Aug. 31, 1942; C. W. M. Poynter to Lucile Petry, braska Methodist Hospital School of Nursing, braska, to Dr. Thomas Parran, Dec. 11, 1941; Dec. 29,1942, RG 90, NARA. 36Sister M. Livina to Lucile Petry, June 16, 1942, RG 90, NARA. 37Hazel Hinds to Lucile Petry, Sept. 3, 1942; Caring for t11e Army's wounded and sick telegram, Lucile Petry to Hazel Hinds, Sept. 4, is a big job. It call for the kill to attend 1942, RG 90, NARA. soldiers suffering from every type of war 38Charlotte Burgess to Lucile Petry, Feb. 5, injury and illness ... for the stamina to wOl'k 1943, RG 90, NARA. long hours in the knowledge that you are 390derkirk, "Organize or Perish," 347. The ministering to a nation'" h(!roes ... for the Cadet Corps had trouble administering funds patience to give individual attention, though because most schools were not corporate you must care for so many ... and for under­ entities. Few had separate accounting pro­ standing of the Army' special problem. But cedures and budgets caused them problems. See Army nursing has its own rewards. The Federal Security Agency, Cadet Corps, 59. young woman who ministers to our fighting 4°Lucile Petry to Sister Mary Kevin, Director, men is playing a vital role in the Battle School ofNursing, St. Catherine's Hospital, May of Freedom. She is gaining unparalleled ex­ 29, 1942; June 18, 1942, RG 90, NARA. perience in her chosen profession. And the 41C . W. M. Poynter to Jane Taylor, RN, U.S. Army Cadet Nurse has the added sati faction Public Health Service, Yale School of Nursing, of preparing for a noble career as a member New Haven, Connecticut, Oct. 28, 1942, RG 90, of the Army Nurse Corps. NARA. 42Charlotte Burgess to Lucile Petry, Feb. 5, 1943, RG 90, NARA. 43"Enclosures relating to U.S. Cadet Nurse Corps, Dec. 30, 1943, Lucile Petry, to Directors, Schools of Nursing, RE: Suggested Accounting Procedures," 3, RG 027.1, NSHS.

Yes, the Army has urgent lleed of your services. Choose an Army hospital for the senior period of your course as a United States Cadet Nurse. You will he relieving Army nurses for service overseas - and soon Senior Cadet nurses were encouraged you may wear the gold bars of an Army nurse! to enter army hospitals for their final training. From brochure courtesy of Evelyn Lindgren Carlson. 136 Nursing Education

44Nursing Council for War Service, "Seek Star, May 12, 1944, 10. D.C., to Blanche Graves, Mar. 25, 1946, RG United Action," pamphlet (n.p.: n.d.), RG 58"Rites Honor Nurse Corps," May 6, 1945; 027.1, NSHS. 027.1, NSHS. "283 Cadet Nurses to Receive Pledge," May 10, 68Sallie Jeffries, Director of Nursing, U.S. 45Federal Security Agency, Cadet Corps, 1, 7. 1945, Omaha World-Herald clipping file, Department of Interior, Office of Indian Affairs, 46Beatrice J. Kalisch and Philip A. Kalisch, HSDC. Chicago, Ill., to Blanche Graves, Apr. 7, 20,1944; "The Girl with a Future," Nursing Outlook, 21 59The Probe, l(September 1945); Cornhusker "Report Summary of Facilities at Winnebago (July 1973): 445; Federal Security Agency, Cadet Veteran, l(Oct. 29, 1946): 5. Both in RG 027.1, Indian Hospital, Winnebago, Nebraska, Feb­ Corps, 10-12. J. Walter Thompson was the well­ NSHS. ruary, 1944," RG 027.1, NSHS. known advertising firm that did the work. 6°"Cadet Parade," Cadet Nurse Corps News, 69S allie Jeffries to Blanche Graves, Oct. 10, 47Federal Security Agency. Cadet Corps, 1, l(November 1945): 4, RG 027.1, NSHS. 1944; Blanche Graves to Sallie Jeffries, Apr. 5, 17. 6lOderkirk, "Organize or Perish," 405; Lucile 1945, RG 027 .1, NSHS. 48Florence Blanchfield, Organized Nursing Petry to Blanche Graves, July 12, 1943, RG 70" Omaha Senior Cadet Nurses to Help Ease and the Army in Three Wars, 408-09; "Nurse 027.1, NSHS. Shortage in City's Hospitals," Omaha World­ Recruits Need Growing: Call Out for 18,000 More 62 Federal Security Agency, Cadet Corps, 44,73. Herald clipping file, May 4, 1944, HSDC. At Once," Omaha World-Herald clipping file, A majority of US students stayed in their home 7lBlanchfield, Organized Nursing, 569; Jan. 21, 1945, Historical Society of Douglas schools. Sometimes the schools did not tell them Federal Security Agency, Cadet Corps, 52; County (hereafter HSDC), Omaha, Nebraska. that they could go elsewhere or urged them to "Hospital Bids Due June 22: St. Catherine's 49Federal Security Agency, Cadet Corps, 19, remain; "Summary of Annual Report ofthe State Plans Nurses Home," June 9, 1944; "Nurses 38. Director of Education and Registration for Home Fund Granted," Feb. 3, 1945; "Clarkson, 50Ibid., 18,52; Beatrice J. Kalisch and Philip A. Nurses," n.d. (after July 1, 1943), RG 027.1, St. Catherine's Nurses Homes Nearly Ready," Kalisch, "Nurse in American History: The Cadet NSHS. May 13, 1945, Omaha World-Herald clipping Nurse Corps - World War II," American Journal 63 Blanche Graves to Evelyn Rose, Director of file, HSDC. of Nursing, 76 (February 1976):240, 242. Nursing Education, North Permanente Founda­ nOderkirk, Learning to Care, 135, 139, 144; 51Federal Security Agency, Cadet Corps, 35­ tion, Vancouver, Washington, July 24, 1944, RG Saint Elizabeth Hospital, Perspectives, 2(Fall 37. 027.1, NSHS. 1989):3. 52Ibid., 30, 36. 64Thelma Burke, Superintendent of Nurses, 73Nancy W. Schneckloth, The University of 53Ibid., 31; The 1940 Census showed 14,171 Wisconsin State Sanatorium, Statesan, Wiscon­ Nebraska College ofNursing, 1917-1987 (Omaha, African-Americans in the state out of a total pop­ sin, to Blanche Graves, Sept. 19, 1944, RG Nebraska: University of Nebraska Medical Cen­ ulation of 1,315,834 or 1.1 percent. See u.s. Cen­ 027.1, NSHS. ter, 1987),8; Oderkirk, Learning to Care, 148; Lin­ sus: 1940: Vol. II, Characteristics of the 65The last of the cadet nurses graduated in coln General Hospital, Form II-B, Section VI. Population, Part 4 (Washington, D.C.: Govern­ June 1948, and the program officially ceased. See Conditions of Living and Work, July 31,1942, RG ment Printing Office, 1943), 584. Federal Security Agency, Cadet Corps, 33; Anna 90, NARA: "Conference Held in Lincoln with 54"Conference Held in Lincoln with the Field Wolf, Director, School of Nursing and Nursing Field Consultant ofthe National Nursing Council Consultant of the National Nursing Council of Service, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, for War Services," n.d. (possibly May 1943), RG War Service," n.d. (possibly May, 1943), RG Maryland, to State Board of Examiners of 027.1, NSHS; "Nurses School Sites Chosen: 027.1, NSHS. Nurses, Aug. 7, 1945; Constance Long, Nurse Command Selects 3 Hospital Centers," Omaha 55Form letter, National Japanese-American Education Consultant, Division of Nurse Educa­ World-Herald clipping file, Feb. 11, 1944, Student Relocation Council, Philadelphia, to tion, Kansas City District, to Blanche Graves, HSDC. Blanche Graves, Oct. 25, 1943; Katherine Faville, Dec. 20, 1945; Constance Long, Kansas City Dis­ 74"Lucile Petry Leone," Geriatric Nursing Chairman, Committee on Recruitment of Nurses, trict, to Kathleen Ellis, Director, School ofNurs­ (May-June 1988): 181; "War Work with a Future," National Nursing Council for War Service, to ing, Bishop Clarkson Memorial Hospital, Margaret Strawser, Nebraska History, 24 (July­ Blanche Graves, Dec. 10, 1943, RG 027.1, Omaha, Nebraska, Mar. 11, 1946, RG 027.1, Sept. 1943): 164; Blanche Graves, "Shortage of NSHS. NSHS. Nursing Personnel in Meeting Present Demands 56"500 Students Take Pledge, Cadet Nurse 66C harles P . Griffin, Medical Director, in Hospitals," n.d., RG 027 .1, NSHS. Corps Ceremony," Omaha World-Herald clip­ Veterans Administration, Washington, D.C., to 750derkirk, "Organize or Perish," 406. ping file, May 14, 1944, HSDC. Blanche Graves, Feb. 28, 1945, RG 027.1, 76Beatrice J. Kalisch and Philip A. Kalisch, 57"US Cadet Corps to hold Induction NSHS. Advance of American Nursing (Boston: Little, Ceremony," Lincoln Star, May 9,1944,7; "Nurse 67Gwen Andrew, Acting Director, Nursing Ser­ Brown, and Company, 1986), 573, 644, 661, 664, Cadets to Take Oath Here Saturday," Lincoln vice, Veterans Administration, Washington, 679.

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