Unraveling the Differences Between Organic and Non-Organic Thai Rice Farmers' Environmental Views and Perceptions of Well-Be
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Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development ISSN: 2152-0801 online www.AgDevJournal.com Unraveling the differences between organic and non-organic Thai rice farmers’ environmental views and perceptions of well-being Alexander Harrow Kaufman * Khon Kaen University Submitted September 25, 2014 / Revised January 21, March 4, April 14, and May 4, 2015 / Accepted May 4, 2015 / Published online July 17, 2015 Citation: Kaufman, A. H. (2015). Unraveling the differences between organic and non-organic Thai rice farmers’ environmental views and perceptions of well-being. Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development, 5(4), 29–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.5304/jafscd.2015.054.002 Copyright © 2015 by New Leaf Associates, Inc. Abstract methods in the impoverished Northeast Region of Food production, a critical aspect of human devel- Thailand. Structured questionnaires were used to opment, depends on the regulating and supporting examine differences in farmers’ perspectives on services of the ecosystem. However, the expansion their own well-being. Analysis shows that a and intensification of agriculture to meet rising Buddhist environmental worldview was not human consumption levels have played havoc with exclusive to either organic or non-organic farmers. ecosystem provisioning services by way of climate Organic rice farmers were no more food secure change, biodiversity loss, soil degradation, and than those farmers who used synthetic agro- water pollution. Development experts argue that chemicals to raise productivity. Participants from modern agricultural methods also have led to the both groups also suffered from similar levels of exodus of farmers from rural to urban areas and stress due to outstanding loans. While some the disintegration of rural social safety nets. Few organic farmers sustained high levels of food studies have explored the impacts of a shift to security and were able to lower debts by using modern agricultural methods on farmers’ well- organic fertilizer methods, they also were bound by being from a holistic perspective. This research the financial demands of their families. It is highly sheds light on organic and non-organic farmers’ recommended that experts consider farmers’ environmental views, well-being, and production environmental views and perceptions of well-being before deciding on ways to attract them to organic * Alexander Harrow Kaufman, MSc, Ph.D., Research Fellow, agriculture. Research Group on Wellbeing and Sustainable Development; 2405-2406, 4th Floor, Building HS 02; Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences; Khon Kaen University; 123 Mitraparb Keywords Road, Muang District 40002; Khon Kaen Province, Thailand; organic agriculture, Buddhism, environmental, [email protected] well-being, world views Volume 5, Issue 4 / Summer 2015 29 Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development ISSN: 2152-0801 online www.AgDevJournal.com Introduction of what has been named “conventional agriculture” Food production, a critical aspect of human well- contend that the use of intensive agriculture being, depends on the regulating and supporting methods has degraded food quality (Allen, 2004; services of the ecosystem1 through nutrient cycling, Beus & Dunlap, 1990). Moreover, the expansion of primary production, and soil formation (Millen- global food supply chains has dislocated consumers nium Ecosystem Assessment [MA], 2005). Over from their “foodsheds” (Feagan, 2007). Jarosz the last century, humankind has greatly expanded (2000) found that this reconfiguration of the food the food supply through technological innovations production system has eroded the “relations of in agriculture: hybrid seeds, synthetic fertilizers, trust” that once existed between farmers and pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides. On the other consumers. Further changes associated with hand, the expansion and intensification of agricul- “conventional” forms of agricultural development ture to meet rising human consumption levels have have been blamed for the gradual decay of rural played havoc with ecosystem provisioning services society in both developing and developed (e.g., food, water, fiber, and fuel) by way of climate economies (Pretty, 2003). change, biodiversity loss, and soil degradation Although scholarship has uncovered some of (Drinkwater, Letouneau, Workneh, van Bruggen, & the societal benefits of alternative agriculture, the Shennan, 1995; Sandhu, Wratten, & Cullen, 2010; composition of food production systems in United Nations Development Program [UNDP], developing countries differ greatly from the that 2007). The excessive use of synthetic fertilizers to described in North American and European agro- raise farm productivity also has degraded water food literature (Baconguis & Cruz, 2005; Curry, quality and caused a decline in fisheries (McIsaac, 2000; Duram, 2000). A major distinction is that David, Gertner, & Goolsby, 2001). While experts Western supermarkets stock large quantities of argue that synthetic fertilizers are integral to organic and non-organic crops cultivated in expanding food production, studies show that developing countries. Moreover, North American organic methods of stimulating soil fertility offer organic farms depend on a largely migrant work- equivalent yields (Pimentel, Hepperly, Hanson, force and have reached an industrial scale (Allen, Douds, & Seidel, 2005). Moreover, researchers 2004). In contrast, the Thai organic marketplace is have found that farming methods heavily reliant on dominated by locally grown crops produced on pesticides cause serious health problems for smallholder farms of less than 12.4 acres (5 hec- farmers and their families (Schreinemachers, Schad, tares) (Panyakul & Wanlop, 2007). Smallholder Tipraqsa, Williams, Neef, Riwthong, Sangchan & farmers also have benefited from a growth in Grovermann, 2012). Despite greater knowledge of consumer demand for organic products. Then the impacts of high input, intensive agriculture on again, certified organic agriculture has only reached ecosystem services, the pursuit of increased yields one percent of Thailand’s arable land (McNeely & continues to be a dominant factor in the decision- Scherr, 2003; Willer & Yussefi, 2004). With an aim making of farmers, governmental agencies, and to increase these numbers, experts have sought to nonprofit organizations. explore the reasons so few Thai farmers have made Responding to these challenges, alternative the shift to organic agriculture (Hutanawat & agriculturalists have called for a shift to organic Hutanawat, 2006; Samerpak, 2006; Thongtawee, agriculture methods (Pretty, 2003). Scholars con- 2006; Kaufman & Mock, 2014). However, less is tend that organic agriculture represents an alterna- known about the ways farmers benefit from a shift tive paradigm of development rooted in renewable to organic agricultural methods. This article inputs, traditional knowledge, communal labor, explores differences between Thai organic and fresh markets, and localized food networks. Critics non-organic rice farmers by asking two principal 1 “An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and ecosystems” (Millennium Ecosystems Assessment [MA], 2005, microorganism communities and the nonliving environment p. 23). interacting as a functional unit. Humans are an integral part of 30 Volume 5, Issue 4 / Summer 2015 Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development ISSN: 2152-0801 online www.AgDevJournal.com questions: Is there a fundamental difference prices they attain for their goods in the marketplace between the environmental views of organic and (Sen, 1986). non-organic farmers? Do farmers who use only organic agricultural methods experience well-being The Development of Organic Agriculture in Thailand differently than farmers who rely on agro- During the latter part of the 20th century, develop- chemicals? ment policies pursued by the Thai government resulted in widespread environmental degradation. Ecosystems Services and Human Well-being A combined increase in dam projects, logging To achieve adequate levels of well-being, human concessions, and commercial farming led to society depends upon the integrity of ecosystem unprecedented levels of deforestation. To expand services. However, the ways in which people access forest cover, the government established a number these services directly affect their culture, food of national parks and reserves throughout the Thai security, health, social relationships, socio- state (Hardwick, Healey, Elliott, & Blakesley, economic status, and perceptions of well-being. Of 2004). In the process, forests became more secure. further significance, the Millennium Ecosystem However, communities along the periphery of Assessment (MA) Conceptual Framework high- these reserves were prevented from access to wild lights the intangible benefits of a healthy ecosystem foods, barter, and places of spiritual value. While to human well-being: “spiritual and religious value, social activists fought for the rights of villagers to knowledge systems, educational value, inspiration, the forest, others sought to prevent encroachment, aesthetic value, social relations, sense of place, on the grounds that nature has an intrinsic value cultural heritage and recreation” (MA, 2005, p. vii). (Darlington, 2012). Along these lines, decision-makers have shown In the 1980s, local civil society organizations greater interest in using “subjective” measures of (CSOs) began to invoke specific Buddhist scrip- well-being to evaluate