Lecture (6) Objectives

• Define memory • List three basic memory processes (, and retrieval) and describe each one • List types of memory codes and describe each one • Describe three stage memory model (sensory, short and long term memory) and describe each stage of memory • Describe anatomical and physiological basis of memory • Describe and some factors that lead to it e.g. interference, transience • Describe • Describe some methods to improve memory Memory

Memory refers to the processes that allow us to record, store, and later retrieve experiences and information. Memory

Memory is the basis for knowing your friends, your neighbors, the English language, and yourself.

If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be a stranger to you; every language foreign; every task new; and even you yourself would be a stranger. Memory processes

Memory involves three main processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Memory processes

Keyboard Disk Monitor (Encoding) (Storage) (Retrieval) Sequential Process Memory processes

1. Encoding: modification of information to fit the preferred format for the memory.

2. Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.

3. Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage. ____is the process of getting the information 1 out of memory storage?

A. Encoding B. Storage C. Retrieval D. Rehearsal ______is the modification of information to 2 fit the preferred format for the memory?

A. Encoding B. Storage C. Retrieval D. Rehearsal I. Encoding.

Encoding is the process by which we place the things that we experience into memory.

Encoding: Is the modification of information to fit the preferred format for the memory.

Memory codes are mental representations of some type of information or stimulus. Memory codes

Memory codes can take various forms: 1. Semantic Encoding encoding of meaning including meaning of words 2. Phonological Encoding encoding of sound especially sound of words 3. Visual Encoding encoding of picture images 4. Motor Encoding encoding code patterns of movement E.g. sports or playing musical instruments Encoding-Levels of Processing

Processing a word by its meaning (semantic encoding) produces better recognition of it lat a later time. II. Storage.

Storage is at the heart of memory.

Storage is the process of holding information in memory over time to be processed or used. Three stage memory

Memory have three major stages: • , • working (short-term) memory, and • long-term memory. Three stages of memory are shown below: The three stages of memory in order are 3 _____?

A. Sensory → long term → working B. Working → sensory → long term C. Sensory → working → long term D. Long-term -> working → sensory 1. Sensory memory.

It is the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended. Sensory memory generally holds information received through the five senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch. Sensory memory holds a large amount of information, far more than ever reaches consciousness. Sensory memory is the shortest of our , lasting only for a fraction of a second. Sensory memory.

It comprises different subsystems, called sensory registers. •Visual sensory register is called the . Auditory sensory register, called the , that for touch as the Sensory Memories

• Sensory memory is the shortest-term element of memory. • The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.

Iconic 0.5 sec. long Echoic 3-4 sec. long Hepatic < 1 sec. long Sperling’s Test George Sperling flashed a group of letters (see left) for 1/20 of a second. People could only about half K Z R of the letters

When he signaled to recall a Q B T particular row immediately after the letters disappeared with a specific tone, they S G N could do so with near-perfect accuracy. 2. Short-Term Memory

Most of the information that gets into sensory memory is forgotten, but information that we turn our to, with the goal of remembering it, may pass into → short-term memory.

Short-term memory is the place where small amounts of information can be temporarily kept for more than a few seconds but usually for less than one minute. Short term memory () Amount: Short-term memory can hold only a limited amount of information at a time (typically no more than five to nine meaningful items).

Duration •Without rehearsal, information in short-term memory generally has a duration of up to 20 seconds. Short term memory (Working memory)

Working memory is subject to two limitations: limited capacity and short duration.

We do have coping mechanisms, however: Chunking Rehearsal Chunking

A chunk is any memory pattern or meaningful unit of memory. Chunking is Combining individual items into chunks; larger units of meaningful groups. Each chunk represents just one of the 5 - 9 items that can be stored in short-term memory. "Chunking" of information can lead to an increase in the short- term memory capacity.

Example: 5036574100 vs. 503-657-4100 Chunking SKOOBYROTSDAERNACI Rehearsal Maintenance Rehearsal

Another memory technique is called maintenance rehearsal. Information is repeated to keep it from forrgetting while in working memory. . Rehearsal Maintenance Rehearsal 3. Long-term Memory

If information makes it past short term-memory it may enter long-term memory (LTM), memory storage that can hold information for days, months, and years. Long- term memory

The capacity of long- term memory is large, and there is no known limit to what we can remember . Although we may forget at least some information after we learn it, other things will stay with us forever. Structure and Function of LTM

Long Term Memory

Declarative Memory (Explicitly Memory) () (knowing what) (knowing how)

Semantic Memory: Includes: -language -Motor skills -Events -Facts -Operant Conditioning -Personal Experiences -General Knowledge - Types of memory

When dealing with long term memory retrieval, there are two types of memory:

1. Implicit memory 2. Explicit Memory

Explicit memory refers to knowledge or and (وعي) experiences that can be consciously .remembered (إراديا) intentionally Ex. The three stages of memory

Explicit memories always involve consciousness. Implicit memory

Implicit memory doesn't require conscious awareness. Implicit memories may be retrieved without an intention to remember.

Iimplicit memory can affect behavior or mental processes without becoming fully conscious. Implicit memory

Procedural memory (implicit) is the part of long term memory where we store memories of how things are done. Procedural memory allows us to perform complex tasks, even though we may not be able to explain to others how we do them.

It is difficult to tell someone how to ride a bicycle; a person has to learn by doing it. Declarative (Explicit) Memory

Declarative (Explicit) memory has two divisions:

Episodic Memory • Stores personal • Stores general events or knowledge, facts and “episodes.” language meaning. • Information stored in • Information stored semantic memory is in episodic memory not linked to specific is linked to a place or time. particular place and time. III. Retrieval Refers to the process of reactivating information that has been stored in memory.

→Memory would be useless without the ability to retrieve the memories that we have created. long-term potentiation (LTP)

Memories are stored in connected synapses through the process of long-term potentiation (LTP). long- term potentiation (LTP), refers to the strengthening of the synaptic connections between neurons as result of frequent stimulation

Location of Memory

In addition to the cortex, other parts of the , including the hippocampus, cerebellum, and the amygdala, are also important in memory

Different brain structures help us remember different types of information. The hippocampus is particularly .memories واضح important in explicit The cerebellum is particularly important .Procedural) memories) ضمني in implicit The amygdala is particularly important in emotional memories Hippocampus

Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic

system that processes explicit memories. Weidenfield & Nicolson archives Nicolson & Weidenfield Cerebellum Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain that processes procedural (implicit) memories. Forgetting

An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval. Encoding Failure

We cannot remember what we do not encode. Absent-mindedness

Absent-mindedness: forgetting caused by lapses in attention. Inattention to details → leading to encoding failure

Example: Forgetting where you parked your car. Retrieval Failure

• Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed. • (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon: Failing to retrieve a word or term from memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling that retrieval is imminent - Transience

Transience also known as “decay theory.”: Transience refers to the gradual weakening or loss of a specific memory over time

Ebbinghaus’s

For most memories, there is a sharp decline in memory, followed by declining rate of loss Interference

Learning some new information may disrupt retrieval of other older information. Serial Position effect

• The serial position effect is a form of interference related to the sequence in which material is presented. • Primacy: relative ease of remembering the first information in a series. • Recency: Strong memories of the most recent information in a series • Generally items in the middle are remembered less. Encoding: Serial Position Effect

Percent 90 age of 80 words Serial Position recalled 70 Effect--tendency 60 to recall best the last items in a list 50 40 30 20 10 Immediate recall 0 Later recall 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Position of word in list Misinformation

•It has been observed in various psychological studies that long- .(غير دقيقة) term memory is very inaccurate •One of the contributing factors to this is the misinformation effect. of (تضمين) Misinformation effect refers to the incorporation• information into one's memory after the (مضللة) misleading event. Misinformation effect Depiction of actual accident

Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned Leading question: Leading question: “About how fast were the cars How fast were the cars going going when they smashed into when they bumped into each each other?” other?

Memory construction Types of and forgetting • is a form of amnesia where someone will be unable to recall events that occurred before the development of amnesia. • is a loss of the ability to create memories after the event that caused the amnesia occurs. Improving Memory

1. Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall. 2. Spend more time or actively thinking about the material. 3. Use devices: ▪ associate with peg words ▪ make up a story اختصارات acronyms —قطع chunk ▪ Improving Memory

5. Recall events while they are fresh — before you encounter misinformation. 6. Minimize interference: 1. Test your own knowledge. and then determine what you do تدريب Rehearse .2 not yet know.

1. Memory in Long term memory lasts for:

A. Fraction of a second B. 20 seconds C. Years or to end of life 2. The duration of holding information in short term memory can be increased by:

A. Rehearsal B. Chunking C. Use of mnemonic devices 3. Smallest type of memory in capacity is ______A. The sensory memory B. The working memory C. The long-term memory 4. The part of sensory memory hat store Auditory sensory information is called

A. Iconic memory B. Echoic memory C. Haptic memory 5. Combining individual items into larger units of meaningful groups is called A. Rehearsal B. Chunking 6. Refers to the process of reactivating information that has been stored in memory

A. Retrieval B. Storage C. encoding 7. ………….is particularly important in explicit memories

A. Cerebellum B. Hippocampus C. amygdala 8. Information that is linked to a particular place and time are called A. Episodic Memory B. Semantic Memory C. Implicit memory D. Explicit memory 9. The fact that Learning some new information may disrupt retrieval of other older information is called

A. Interference B. Misinformation C. Transience D. Decay theory 10. In Serial Position effect, the information that are in the ______are remembered less

Beginning End Start Short Notes

Enumerate memory processes How to increase short term memory capacity and Duration. Compare episodic and semantic memory Mention three causes of forgetting