Lecture (6) Memory Objectives • Define memory • List three basic memory processes (encoding, storage and retrieval) and describe each one • List types of memory codes and describe each one • Describe three stage memory model (sensory, short and long term memory) and describe each stage of memory • Describe anatomical and physiological basis of memory • Describe forgetting and some factors that lead to it e.g. interference, transience • Describe misinformation effect • Describe some methods to improve memory Memory Memory refers to the processes that allow us to record, store, and later retrieve experiences and information. Memory Memory is the basis for knowing your friends, your neighbors, the English language, and yourself. If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be a stranger to you; every language foreign; every task new; and even you yourself would be a stranger. Memory processes Memory involves three main processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Memory processes Keyboard Disk Monitor (Encoding) (Storage) (Retrieval) Sequential Process Memory processes 1. Encoding: modification of information to fit the preferred format for the memory. 2. Storage: The retention of encoded material over time. 3. Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage. ____is the process of getting the information 1 out of memory storage? A. Encoding B. Storage C. Retrieval D. Rehearsal ______ is the modification of information to 2 fit the preferred format for the memory? A. Encoding B. Storage C. Retrieval D. Rehearsal I. Encoding. Encoding is the process by which we place the things that we experience into memory. Encoding: Is the modification of information to fit the preferred format for the memory. Memory codes are mental representations of some type of information or stimulus. Memory codes Memory codes can take various forms: 1. Semantic Encoding encoding of meaning including meaning of words 2. Phonological Encoding encoding of sound especially sound of words 3. Visual Encoding encoding of picture images 4. Motor Encoding encoding code patterns of movement E.g. learning sports or playing musical instruments Encoding-Levels of Processing Processing a word by its meaning (semantic encoding) produces better recognition of it lat a later time. II. Storage. Storage is at the heart of memory. Storage is the process of holding information in memory over time to be processed or used. Three stage memory Memory have three major stages: • sensory memory, • working (short-term) memory, and • long-term memory. Three stages of memory are shown below: The three stages of memory in order are 3 _____? A. Sensory → long term → working B. Working → sensory → long term C. Sensory → working → long term D. Long-term -> working → sensory 1. Sensory memory. It is the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended. Sensory memory generally holds information received through the five senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch. Sensory memory holds a large amount of information, far more than ever reaches consciousness. Sensory memory is the shortest of our memories, lasting only for a fraction of a second. Sensory memory. It comprises different subsystems, called sensory registers. •Visual sensory register is called the iconic memory. Auditory sensory register, called the echoic memory, that for touch as the haptic memory Sensory Memories • Sensory memory is the shortest-term element of memory. • The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses. Iconic 0.5 sec. long Echoic 3-4 sec. long Hepatic < 1 sec. long Sperling’s Test George Sperling flashed a group of letters (see left) for 1/20 of a second. People could recall only about half K Z R of the letters When he signaled to recall a Q B T particular row immediately after the letters disappeared with a specific tone, they S G N could do so with near-perfect accuracy. 2. Short-Term Memory Most of the information that gets into sensory memory is forgotten, but information that we turn our attention to, with the goal of remembering it, may pass into → short-term memory. Short-term memory is the place where small amounts of information can be temporarily kept for more than a few seconds but usually for less than one minute. Short term memory (Working memory) Amount: Short-term memory can hold only a limited amount of information at a time (typically no more than five to nine meaningful items). Duration •Without rehearsal, information in short-term memory generally has a duration of up to 20 seconds. Short term memory (Working memory) Working memory is subject to two limitations: limited capacity and short duration. We do have coping mechanisms, however: Chunking Rehearsal Chunking A chunk is any memory pattern or meaningful unit of memory. Chunking is Combining individual items into chunks; larger units of meaningful groups. Each chunk represents just one of the 5 - 9 items that can be stored in short-term memory. "Chunking" of information can lead to an increase in the short- term memory capacity. Example: 5036574100 vs. 503-657-4100 Chunking SKOOBYROTSDAERNACI Rehearsal Maintenance Rehearsal Another memory technique is called maintenance rehearsal. Information is repeated to keep it from forrgetting while in working memory. Rehearsal Maintenance Rehearsal 3. Long-term Memory If information makes it past short term-memory it may enter long-term memory (LTM), memory storage that can hold information for days, months, and years. Long- term memory The capacity of long- term memory is large, and there is no known limit to what we can remember . Although we may forget at least some information after we learn it, other things will stay with us forever. Structure and Function of LTM Long Term Memory Declarative Memory Procedural Memory (Explicitly Memory) (Implicit Memory) (knowing what) (knowing how) Semantic Memory: Includes: Episodic Memory -language -Motor skills -Events -Facts -Operant Conditioning -Personal Experiences -General Knowledge -Classical Conditioning Types of memory When dealing with long term memory retrieval, there are two types of memory: 1. Implicit memory 2. Explicit memory Explicit Memory Explicit memory refers to knowledge or and (وعي) experiences that can be consciously .remembered (إراديا) intentionally Ex. The three stages of memory Explicit memories always involve consciousness. Implicit memory Implicit memory doesn't require conscious awareness. Implicit memories may be retrieved without an intention to remember. Iimplicit memory can affect behavior or mental processes without becoming fully conscious. Implicit memory Procedural memory (implicit) is the part of long term memory where we store memories of how things are done. Procedural memory allows us to perform complex tasks, even though we may not be able to explain to others how we do them. It is difficult to tell someone how to ride a bicycle; a person has to learn by doing it. Declarative (Explicit) Memory Declarative (Explicit) memory has two divisions: Episodic Memory Semantic Memory • Stores personal • Stores general events or knowledge, facts and “episodes.” language meaning. • Information stored in • Information stored semantic memory is in episodic memory not linked to specific is linked to a place or time. particular place and time. III. Retrieval Refers to the process of reactivating information that has been stored in memory. →Memory would be useless without the ability to retrieve the memories that we have created. long-term potentiation (LTP) Memories are stored in connected synapses through the process of long-term potentiation (LTP). long- term potentiation (LTP), refers to the strengthening of the synaptic connections between neurons as result of frequent stimulation Location of Memory In addition to the cortex, other parts of the brain, including the hippocampus, cerebellum, and the amygdala, are also important in memory Different brain structures help us remember different types of information. The hippocampus is particularly .memories واضح important in explicit The cerebellum is particularly important .Procedural) memories) ضمني in implicit The amygdala is particularly important in emotional memories Hippocampus Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories. Weidenfield & Nicolson archives Cerebellum Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain that processes procedural (implicit) memories. Forgetting An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval. Encoding Failure We cannot remember what we do not encode. Absent-mindedness Absent-mindedness: forgetting caused by lapses in attention. Inattention to details → leading to encoding failure Example: Forgetting where you parked your car. Retrieval Failure • Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed. • Tip of the tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon: Failing to retrieve a word or term from memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling that retrieval is imminent Decay theory - Transience Transience also known as “decay theory.”: Transience refers to the gradual weakening or loss of a specific memory over time Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve For most memories, there is a sharp decline in memory, followed by declining rate of loss Interference Learning some new information may disrupt retrieval of other older information. Serial Position effect • The serial position effect is a form of interference related to the sequence in which material is presented. • Primacy: