DOCSLIB.ORG

Implications of Short-Term Memory for a General Theory of Memory 1

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Implications of Short-Term Memory for a General Theory of Memory 1 3"OURNAL OF VERBAL LEARNING AND VERBAL BEHAVIOR 2, 1-21 (1963) ADDRESS OF CHAIRMAN OF SECTION I (Psychology) Implications of Short-Term Memory for a General Theory of Memory 1 ARTHUR W. MELTON University o/Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan Memory has never enjoyed even a small The confluence of forces responsible for fraction of the interdisciplinary interest that this sanguine prediction about future progress has been expressed in symposia, discoveries, is reflected in this AAAS program on memory and methodological innovations during the (see other articles in this issue of this last five years. Therefore, it seems probable JOURNAL). Advances in biochemistry and that the next ten years will see major, perhaps neurophysiology are permitting the formula- even definitive, advances in our understanding tion and testing of meaningful theories about of the biochemistry, neurophysiology, and the palpable stuff that is the correlate of the psychology of memory, especially if these memory trace as an hypothetical construct disciplines communicate with one another (Deutsch, 1962; Gerard, 1963; Thomas, and seek a unified theory. My thesis is, of 1962). In this work there is heavy emphasis course, that psychological studies of human on the storage mechanism and its properties, short-term memory, and particularly the especially the consolidation process, and it further exploitation of new techniques for may be expected that findings here will investigating human short-term memory, will offer important guide lines for the refine- play an important role in these advances ment of the psychologist's construct once we toward a general theory of memory. Even are clear as to what our human performance now, some critical issues are being sharpened data say it should be. by such observations. Within psychology several developments have focused attention on memory. In the 1 This paper comprises, in substance, the author's first place, among learning theorists there is a Vice-Presidential Address to Section I (Psychology) of the American Association for the Advancement of revival of interest in the appropriate assump- Science, 1962. The author is particularly indebted tions to be made about the characteristics of to the Center /or Human Learning, University of the memory traces (engrams, associations, California, Berkeley, where a research appointment bonds, sHr's ) that are the products of ex- during the Fall semester of 1962-1963 gave the periences and repetitions of experiences. Thus, freedom from academic routine and the stimulating discussions that led to the repetition of the Hebb Estes (1960) has questioned the validity of experiment and also supported the preparation of the widespread assumption (e.g., Hull, 1943; this paper. Early exploratory studies on short-term Spence, 1955) that habit strength grows in- memory and the experiment on the recall of different crementally over repetitions, and has proposed sized verbal units were supported by Project MICHI- an all-or-none conception as an alternative. GAN under Department of the Army Contract DA- 36-039-SC-78801, administered by the United States More recently, he has examined (Estes, 1962) Army Signal Corps. Reproduction for any purpose of in detail the varieties of the incremental and the United States Government is permitted. all-or-none conceptions and the evidence 2 MELTON related to them. Already, some defenders of the spate of theorizing and research on the incremental concept (Jones, 1962; Keppel immediate and short-term memory during the and Underwood, 1962; Postman, 1963) have last five years. In 1958, and increasingly taken issue with Estes' conclusions, and it thereafter, the principal journals of human would appear that this fundamental question learning and performance have been flooded about memory will loom large in theory and with experimental investigations of human experiments for some time to come. At a short-term memory. This work has been somewhat different level, the revival of ex- characterized by strong theoretical interests, perimental and theoretical interest in the and sometimes strong statements, about the notion of perseveration or consolidation of nature of memory, the characteristics of the the memory trace (Glickman, 1961), and memory trace, and the relations between attempts to embody it in a general theory of short-term memory and the memory that learning (Hebb, 1949; Walker, 1958), have results from multiple repetitions. The contrast also focused attention on a theory of memory with the preceding thirty years is stril~ing. as a fundamental component of a theory of During those years most research on short- ~earning. term memory was concerned with the memory A second strong stimulus to research on span as a capacity variable, and no more. It memory from within psychology are several is always dangerous to be an historian about findings of the last few years that have forced the last five or ten years, but I venture to major revisions in the interference theory say that Broadbent's Perception and Com- of forgetting and consequently a renaissance munication (1958), with its emphasis on of interest in it (Postman, 1961). First, there short-term memory as a major factor in human was the discovery by Underwood (1957) information-processing performance, played a that proactive inhibition had been grossly key role in this development. Fortunately, underestimated as a source of interference in many of the others who have made important forgetting. Then, the unlearning factor as a methodological and substantive contributions component of retroactive inhibition was given to this analysis of short-term memory have greater credibility by the findings of Barnes presented their most recent findings and and Underwood (1959). And finally, the thoughts in these Meetings on Memory, and joint consideration of the habit structure of they thus adequately document my assess- the individual prior to a new learning ex- ment of the vigor and importance of this perience, the compatibility or incompatibility recent development. Therefore I will refrain of the new learning with that structure, and from further documentation and analysis at the unlearning factor (among others) led to this point, since the impact of some of these the formulation of the interference theory of findings on our theory of memory is my forgetting in terms that made it applicable to main theme. all new learning (Melton, 1961; Postman, 1961; Underwood and Postman, 1960). Thus, THE DOMAIN OF A THEORY OF MEMORY this development focuses attention on the inter- A theory of memory is becoming important actions of memory traces during learning as for a number of different reasons, and some- well as their interactions at the time of how all of these reasons properly belong attempted retrieval or utilization in recogni- to a comprehensive theory of memory. Its tion, recall, or transfer. storage mechanism is the principal concern But perhaps the most vigorous force of biochemists and neurophysiologists; the directing attention within psychology to the morphology of its storage--whether as a need for a general theory of memory is multiplexed trace system with one trace per IMPLICATIONS OF SHORT-TERM MEMORY 3 repetition, or a single trace system subjected tive learning situation and any immediately to incremental changes in "strength" by subsequent trial. By convention among repetition--is becoming a principal concern psychologists, the change from Trial n to of learning theorists; its susceptibility to in- Trial n ~- 1 is referred to as a learning change hibition, interference, or confusion both at when the variable of interest is the ordinal the time of new trace formation and at the number of Trial n and not the temporal in- time of attempted trace retrieval or utilization terval between Trial n and Trial n ~ I, is the concern of forgetting and transfer and the change from Trial n to Trial n ~ 1 theorists; and the perhaps unique properties is referred to as a retention change when the of its manifestation in immediate and short- variable of interest is the interval, and the term retention is the principal concern of events during the interval, between Trial n psychologists interested in human informa- and Trial n ~ I. Learning and retention tion-processing performance. One knows in- observations generally imply that the char- tuitively that all of these different approaches acteristics of the task, situation, or to-be- emphasize valid questions or issues that must formed associations remain the same from be encompassed by a general theory of Trial n to Trial n ~ 1. When any of these memory, but nowhere--with perhaps the task or situation variables are deliberately exception of Gomulicki's (1953) historical- manipulated as independent variables between theoretical monograph on memory-trace theory Trial n and Trial n-Jr 1, the object of in- --will one find explicit systematic considera- vestigation is transfer of learning, i.e., the tion of these several different facets of the availability and utilization of the memorial problem of memory. products of Trial n in a "different" situation. Since my present, intention is to marshal Now, these operational definitions of learn- some data relevant to one of the main issues ing, retention, and transfer are completely in a general theory of memory--namely, the aseptic with respect to theory, and I think it question of whether single-repetition, short- is important to keep them so. In part, this term memory and multiple-repetition, long- is because it is useful to keep in mind the term memory are a dichotomy or points on fact that learning is never observed directly; a continuum--I feel compelled to discuss it is always an inference from an observed briefly what I believe to be the proper domain change in performance from Trial n to Trial of a theory of memory and to differentiate it n ~ 1. Furthermore--and this is the im- from a theory of learning. portant point for theory--the observed change After some exclusions that need not concern in performance is always a confounded re- us here, learning may be defined as the modi- flection of three theoretically separable events: fication of behavior as a fanction of ex- (i) the events on Trial n that result in some- perience.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Auditory and Visual Memory Skills in Normal Children
    University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School 1977 Auditory and visual memory skills in normal children Joanne Mae Moulton The University of Montana Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Moulton, Joanne Mae, "Auditory and visual memory skills in normal children" (1977). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 4956. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/4956 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact [email protected]. AUDITORY AND VISUAL MEMORY SKILLS IN NORMAL CHILDREN By Joanne M. Moulton B.A., University of Montana, 1973 Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA 1977 Approved by: an, Graduate Schoo. UMI Number: EP40420 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the uniikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oisssrtatteft PsiMisMng UMI EP40420 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC.
    [Show full text]
  • The Many Faces of Forgetting: Toward a Constructive View Of
    +Model ARTICLE IN PRESS Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition xxx (2020) xxx–xxx Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition j ournal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jarmac The Many Faces of Forgetting: Toward a Constructive View of Forgetting in Everyday Life ∗ Jonathan M. Fawcett Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada Justin C. Hulbert Bard College, USA Forgetting is often considered a fundamental cognitive failure, reflecting the undesirable and potentially embar- rassing inability to retrieve a sought-after experience or fact. For this reason, forgetfulness has been argued to form the basis of many problems associated with our memory system. We highlight instead how forgetfulness serves many purposes within our everyday experience, giving rise to some of our best characteristics. Drawing from cognitive, neuroscientific, and applied research, we contextualize our findings in terms of their contributions along three important (if not entirely independent) roles supported by forgetting, namely (a) the maintenance of a positive and coherent self-image (“Guardian”), (b) the facilitation of efficient cognitive function (“Librarian”), and (c) the development of a creative and flexible worldview (“Inventor”). Together, these roles depict an expanded understanding of how forgetting provides memory with many of its cardinal virtues. General Audience Summary Our inability to remember the name of an acquaintance or an important date is both embarrassing and frustrat- ing. For that reason, forgetting is often viewed as a sign of impending cognitive decline or even as a character flaw. These fears have even driven some toward the promise of memory-enhancing pharmaceuticals and digital technologies designed to preserve memories indefinitely.
    [Show full text]
  • Memory Processes
    6 CHAPTER Memory Processes CHAPTER OUTLINE Encoding and Transfer of Information The Constructive Nature of Memory Forms of Encoding Autobiographical Memory Short-Term Storage Memory Distortions Long-Term Storage The Eyewitness Testimony Paradigm Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory Repressed Memories to Long-Term Memory The Effect of Context on Memory Rehearsal Key Themes Organization of Information Summary Retrieval Retrieval from Short-Term Memory Thinking about Thinking: Analytical, Parallel or Serial Processing? Creative, and Practical Questions Exhaustive or Self-Terminating Processing? Key Terms The Winner—a Serial Exhaustive Model—with Some Qualifications Media Resources Retrieval from Long-Term Memory Intelligence and Retrieval Processes of Forgetting and Memory Distortion Interference Theory Decay Theory 228 CHAPTER 6 • Memory Processes 229 Here are some of the questions we will explore in this chapter: 1. What have cognitive psychologists discovered regarding how we encode information for storing it in memory? 2. What affects our ability to retrieve information from memory? 3. How does what we know or what we learn affect what we remember? n BELIEVE IT OR NOT THERE’SAREASON YOU REMEMBER THOSE ANNOYING SONGS that strengthens the connections associated with that Having a song or part of a song stuck in your head is phrase. In turn, this increases the likelihood that you will incredibly frustrating. We’ve all had the experience of the recall it, which leads to more reinforcement. song from a commercial repeatedly running through our You could break this unending cycle of repeated recall minds, even though we wanted to forget it. But sequence and reinforcement—even though this is a necessary and recall—remembering episodes or information in sequen- normal process for the strengthening and cementing of tial order (like the notes to a song)—has a special and memories—by introducing other sequences.
    [Show full text]
  • The Loss of Short-Term Visual Representations Over Time: Decay Or
    TIME-BASED FORGETTING IN VISUAL MEMORY 1 The loss of short-term visual representations over time: Decay or temporal distinctiveness? Tom Mercer Institute of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Health and Wellbeing, University of Wolverhampton, United Kingdom Correspondence address: Tom Mercer Institute of Psychology Faculty of Education, Health and Wellbeing University of Wolverhampton Wolverhampton, UK WV1 1AD Email: [email protected] Telephone: +44(0)1902 321368 Running head: Time-based forgetting in visual memory. NB This article may not exactly replicate the final version published in the APA journal. It is not the copy of record. TIME-BASED FORGETTING IN VISUAL MEMORY 2 ABSTRACT There has been much recent interest in the loss of visual short-term memories over the passage of time. According to decay theory, visual representations are gradually forgotten as time passes, reflecting a slow and steady distortion of the memory trace. However, this is controversial and decay effects can be explained in other ways. The present experiment aimed to re-examine the maintenance and loss of visual information over the short-term. Decay and temporal distinctiveness models were tested using a delayed discrimination task, where participants compared complex and novel objects over unfilled retention intervals of variable length. Experiment 1 found no significant change in the accuracy of visual memory from 2 to 6 s, but the gap separating trials reliably influenced task performance. Experiment 2 found evidence for information loss at a 10 s retention interval, but temporally separating trials restored the fidelity of visual memory, possibly because temporally isolated representations are distinct from older memory traces.
    [Show full text]
  • Mechanisms of Forgetting in Short-Term Memory
    COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2, 185-195 (1971) Mechanisms of Forgetting in Short-Term Memory JUDITH SPENCER REITMAS' The Unioersity of Michigan This paper introduces a technique applicable to the question: Does in- formation in short-term memory disappear with time? The technique appears to eliminate Ss’ rehearsal in the retention interval without introducing potentially interfering material. In the experiment, Ss read aloud three words, then engaged in a difficult auditory signal detection task intended to keep them from rehearsing for 15 set, and then attempted to recall the three words. The results provide no support for the principle of loss with time as an explanation of forgetting in short-term memory. Current theories of forgetting in short-term memory (STM) include one or more of the following four basic operating principles: Displace- ment (Waugh & Norman, 1965, 196S), decay (Brown, 1958, 1964), associative interference (Adams, 1967; Keppel & Underwood, 1962; Postman, 1961), and acid-bath interference (Posner & Konick, 1966; Reicher, Ligon, & Conrad, 1969). The latter three have in common the notion that without rehearsal information in STIM is lost in time. In the case of decay, it is straightforward. In the associative interference prin- ciple, loss in time occurs through the mechanism of unlearning; in the acid-bath principle, through the postulate that the greater the time an item is in the acid, the greater the loss. The displacement principle, on the other hand, says that it takes succeeding inputs to a limited-capacity buffer store to produce forgetting; nothing will be lost if time passes without new inputs displacing the resident items.
    [Show full text]
  • Is Neurocognition Crucial in STEM Education in the Present Scenario? S.Amutha* Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli *Corresponding Author: S
    2020 Review Article Journal of Cognitive Neuropsychology Vol.4 No.2 Is Neurocognition Crucial in STEM Education in the Present Scenario? S.Amutha* Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli *Corresponding author: S. Amutha, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, E-mail: [email protected] Tel No: +91 9443145648 1. Abstract Countries around the globe moving away from traditional rote and regurgitation learning to experiential learning. Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics are the subjects interlinked with each other. Most of the countries in the world prefer to adopt STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education because it infuses every part of our lives. Without Science and Technology our survival in this globe is questioned. Technology is constantly escalating into every aspect of our lives. Engineering is the basic subject for designing the houses, machineries, construction etc. Basically everyone need Mathematics in every occupation and every activity of lives. STEM based curriculum comprise of hands-on and minds-on activities for the student. By divulging students to explore STEM-related concepts, they will develop a passion towards it. Nevertheless of voluminous initiatives by all the countries, are on the way to impart STEM education to students due to their difference in perception, knowledge and memory. Neurocognition is the process which activates the cognitive process. Depending on the needs of the individual Neurocognitive strategies will restructure or modify their thought, feelings, perceptions and emotions. This article addresses the theoretical back drop of Neurocognition in education and how the issues related to educational performance can be solved with the help of Neurocognitive practice. 2. Keywords: Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics, (STEM) Brain, Neurocognition 3.
    [Show full text]
  • 1965 Mathematical Models for Memory and Learning. Shiffrin
    MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR MEMORY AND LEARNING by R. C. Atkinson and R. M. Shiffrin TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 79 September 20, 1965 PSYCHOLOGY SERIES Reproduction in Whole or in Part is Permitted for any purpose of the United States Government INSTITUTE FOR MATHEMATICAL STUDIES IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES STANFORD UNIVERSITY STANFORD, CALIFORNIA MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR ME:MORY AND LEARNING* by R. C. Atkinson and R. M. Shiffrin stanford University In recent years a number of models have been proposed to account for retention phenomena, with the emphasis primarily on short-term memory ex- periments. There has also been an active development of models for verbal learning, with the focus on experiments dealing with serial and paired- associate learning. Except for a few notable exceptions, most of these theoretical developments have been applicable either to memory or learning experiments, and no attempt has been made to bridge the gap. It is our feeling that theoretical and experimental work in these two areas is suffi- ciently well advanced to warrant the development of a general theory that encompasses both sets of phenomena. This, then, is the goal of the paper. We must admit, however, that the term "general theory" may not be entirely appropriate, for many features of the system are still vague and undefined. Nevertheless, the work has progressed to a point where it is possible to use the general conceptual framework to specify several mathematical models *This paper was prepared for the "Third Conference on Learning, Remembering, and Forgetting" sponsored by the New York Academy of Science at Princeton, New Jersey, October 3 to 6, 1965.
    [Show full text]
  • Decay Theory of Immediate Memory: from Brown (1958) to Today (2014)
    The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology ISSN: 1747-0218 (Print) 1747-0226 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/pqje20 Decay theory of immediate memory: From Brown (1958) to today (2014) Timothy J. Ricker, Evie Vergauwe & Nelson Cowan To cite this article: Timothy J. Ricker, Evie Vergauwe & Nelson Cowan (2016) Decay theory of immediate memory: From Brown (1958) to today (2014), The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 69:10, 1969-1995, DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2014.914546 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2014.914546 Published online: 22 May 2014. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 585 View related articles View Crossmark data Citing articles: 5 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=pqje20 Download by: [University of Missouri-Columbia] Date: 26 August 2016, At: 06:00 THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY, 2016 Vol. 69, No. 10, 1969–1995, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2014.914546 Decay theory of immediate memory: From Brown (1958) to today (2014) Timothy J. Ricker, Evie Vergauwe, and Nelson Cowan Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA (Received 30 September 2013; accepted 29 December 2013; first published online 22 May 2014) This work takes a historical approach to discussing Brown’s (1958) paper, “Some Tests of the Decay Theory of Immediate Memory”. This work was and continues to be extremely influential in the field of forgetting over the short term. Its primary importance is in establishing a theoretical basis to consider a process of fundamental importance: memory decay.
    [Show full text]
  • Wixted, J. T. (2004)
    2 Dec 2003 18:44 AR AR207-PS55-09.tex AR207-PS55-09.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: GCE 10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141555 Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2004. 55:235–69 doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141555 Copyright c 2004 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved First published online as a Review in Advance on November 3, 2003 THE PSYCHOLOGY AND NEUROSCIENCE OF FORGETTING John T. Wixted Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0109; email: [email protected] Key Words interference, consolidation, psychopharmacology, LTP, sleep ■ Abstract Traditional theories of forgetting are wedded to the notion that cue- overload interference procedures (often involving the A-B, A-C list-learning paradigm) capture the most important elements of forgetting in everyday life. However, findings from a century of work in psychology, psychopharmacology, and neuroscience con- verge on the notion that such procedures may pertain mainly to forgetting in the lab- oratory and that everyday forgetting is attributable to an altogether different form of interference. According to this idea, recently formed memories that have not yet had a chance to consolidate are vulnerable to the interfering force of mental activity and mem- ory formation (even if the interfering activity is not similar to the previously learned material). This account helps to explain why sleep, alcohol, and benzodiazepines all improve memory for a recently learned list, and it is consistent with recent work on the variables that affect the induction and
    [Show full text]
  • Memory Structures and Processes 107
    Chapter 5 distribute Memory Structuresor and Processes post, Questions to Consider •• Is memory a process, a structure, or a system? •• How many types of memoriescopy, are there? •• Are there differences in the ways we store and retrieve memories based on how old the memories are?not •• What kind of memory helps us focus on a task? •• How Dodoes our memory influence us unintentionally? •• What are the limits of our memory? 105 Copyright ©2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher. 106 Cognitive Psychology Introduction: The Pervasiveness of Memory Memory is pervasive. It is important for so many things we do in our everyday lives that it is difficult to think of something humans do that doesn’t involve memory. To better understand its importance, imagine trying to do your everyday tasks without memory. When you first wake up in the morning you know whether you need to jump out of bed and hurry to get ready to leave or whether you can lounge in bed for a while because you remember what you have to do that day and what time your first task of the day begins. Without memory, you would not know what you needed to do that day. In fact, you would not know who you are, where you are, or what you are supposed to be doing at any given moment. It would be like waking up disoriented every minute. There are, in fact, individuals who must live their lives without the aid of these kinds of memories.
    [Show full text]
  • The Relationship Between Attention and Working Memory
    In: New Research on Short-Term Memory ISBN 978-1-60456-548-5 Editor: Noah B. Johansen, pp. © 2008 Nova Science Publishers, Inc. Chapter 1 The Relationship between Attention and Working Memory Daryl Fougnie Vanderbilt University Abstract The ability to selectively process information (attention) and to retain information in an accessible state (working memory) are critical aspects of our cognitive capacities. While there has been much work devoted to understanding attention and working memory, the nature of the relationship between these constructs is not well understood. Indeed, while neither attention nor working memory represent a uniform set of processes, theories of their relationship tend to focus on only some aspects. This review of the literature examines the role of perceptual and central attention in the encoding, maintenance, and manipulation of information in working memory. While attention and working memory were found to interact closely during encoding and manipulation, the evidence suggests a limited role of attention in the maintenance of information. Additionally, only central attention was found to be necessary for manipulating information in working memory. This suggests that theories should consider the multifaceted nature of attention and working memory. The review concludes with a model describing how attention and working memory interact. I. Introduction The capacity to perform some complex tasks depends critically on the ability to retain task-relevant information in an accessible state over time (working memory) and to selectively process information in the environment (attention). As one example, consider driving a car in an unfamiliar city. In order to get to your destination, directions have to be retained and kept in working memory.
    [Show full text]
  • The World of Psychology, Portable Edition
    THE WORLD OF PSYCHOLOGY, PORTABLE EDITION © 2007 Samuel E. Wood Ellen Green Wood Denise Boyd, Houston Community College System ISBN: 0-205-49009-3 Visit www.ablongman.com/replocator to contact your local Allyn & Bacon/Longman representative. The colors in this document are not an accurate representation of the final textbook colors. SAMPLE CHAPTER 6 The pages of this Sample Chapter may have slight variations in final published form. Allyn & Bacon 75 Arlington St., Suite 300 Boston, MA 02116 www.ablongman.com 5234_Wood_ch06_pp275-326 1/24/06 2:37 PM Page 275 5 6.1 Remembering The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model The Levels-of-Processing Model Three Kinds of Memory Tasks 5 6.2 The Nature of Remembering Memory as a Reconstruction Eyewitness Testimony Recovering Repressed Memories Unusual Memory Phenomena Memory and Culture 5 6.3 Factors Influencing Retrieval The Serial Position Effect Environmental Context and Memory The State-Dependent Memory Effect 5 6.4 Biology and Memory The Hippocampus and Hippocampal Region Neuronal Changes and Memory Hormones and Memory 5 6.5 Forgetting Ebbinghaus and the First Experimental Studies on Forgetting The Causes of Forgetting 5 6.6 Improving Memory 275 5234_Wood_ch06_pp275-326 1/24/06 2:38 PM Page 276 276 5 CHAPTER 6 How accurate is your memory? Franco Magnani was born in 1934 in Pontito, an ancient village in the hills of Tuscany, Italy. His father died when 5Franco was eight. Soon after that, Nazi troops occupied the village. The Magnani family lived through many years of hardship, at times facing starvation. With the help of the village priest, Franco fulfilled a lifelong dream when he emigrated to the United States in 1958 and settled in San Francisco.
    [Show full text]