Boscovich and the Brera Observatory

Mem. S.A.It. Suppl. Vol. 22, 16 Memorie della c SAIt 2013 Supplementi

E. Antonello

Istituto Nazionale di Astroﬁsica – Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via E. Bianchi 46, I-23807 Merate, Italy, e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. In the mid 18th century both theoretical and practical astronomy were culti- vated in Milan by Barnabites and Jesuits. In 1763 Boscovich was appointed to the chair of mathematics of the University of Pavia in the Duchy of Milan, and the following year he designed an observatory for the Jesuit Collegium of Brera in Milan. The Specola was built in 1765 and it became quickly one of the main european observatories. We discuss the relation between Boscovich and Brera in the framework of a short biography. An account is given of the initial research activity in the Specola, of the departure of Boscovich from Milan in 1773 and his coming back just before his death.

1. Introduction omy, government, education, science, arts and culture. Probably it is not by chance that even The Brera Observatory in Milan is one of the astronomy took advantage of this favorable many european observatories built by Jesuits period. The Barnabite Paolo Frisi was inter- (Ud´ıas 2003), and its basic characteristics, that ested in physics and theoretical astronomy (and were maintained for many years, were es- also mathematics, hydraulics and engineer- sentially those planned by Boscovich. Several ing). While he was teaching astronomy at the publications have been dedicated to the rela- Barnabite school, some Jesuits were making tion between Boscovich and Brera, and two astronomical observations with amateur instru- meetings were held here, the first in 1962 on mentation as complement to lessons in their occasion of the 250 years of his birth (AA.VV. Collegium of Brera. Owing to the strong in- 1963), and the second in 1987 for the 200 years terest in this matter, it was decided to move an of his death (AA.VV. 1988). The latter in par- expert astronomer, the Father Louis Lagrange, ticular marked the beginning of a renewed ac- from the Jesuit observatory of Marseille to tivity in the observatory on the research fields Brera. Lagrange arrived in Milan at the end of representing the challenges of contemporary 1762, and here he planned rigorously the as- astronomy and astrophysics, an activity that tronomical and meteorological research. That ideally joined with the fervor of Boscovich’s could be considered the beginning of the pro- times. fessional observational astronomy in Milan. In the mid 18th century the Duchy of Milan The following year, Boscovich was appointed (figure 1) was ruled by the austrian Habsburg to the chair of mathematics of the university house, and important reforms were introduced of Pavia (the university of the Duchy). He was that allowed progresses in many fields, econ- a polymath and gave contributions to mathematics, geometry, optics, astronomy, geodesy, Send offprint requests to: E. Antonello engineering, hydraulics, and also to poetry; he Antonello: Boscovich and Brera 17 of Jesuits (Collegium Ragusinum; figure 2), and being a well promising student he was sent off to Rome at age 14. He completed the scientific and humanistic studies in the Collegium Romanum, where he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in 1740, and after the theo- logical studies took his vows as a priest in 1744. The years from 1744 to 1758 repre- sent his most prolific period of mature schol- arship1. At the same time these are also years of development as a polished Jesuit in society. After 1758, that experience gradually removed him from the Collegium Romanum into a life which was regarded as being more necessary for the Jesuit Order, then passing through difficult days, which Boscovich was committed Fig. 1. A map of Northern Italy with the Duchy of to serve implicitly and loyally to the end (Hill Milan. 1961). He was introduced into the Accademia degli Arcadi, and this gave him the opportunity to meet an exceptionally wide circle of influen- was an architectural advisor to Popes, theolo- tial european personages. gian and a cosmopolitan diplomat. His very wide interests show that the clearcut division of the cultural disciplines did not ex- ist yet in 18th century, but with the increasing specialization of the scientific research this separation would have been inevitable. His most famous work, the Theoria Philosophiae Naturalis (1758, 1763), had an enormous im- pact on the scientific and philosophical thought of the 19th century. According to Barrow (2007), Boscovich was the first to have a scientific vision of a Theory of Everything, and the influence of his Theoria was wide and deep especially in Britain, where Faraday, Maxwell and Kelvin would record their indebtedness to its inspiration. The philosopher Nietzsche compared Boscovich to Copernicus for his rev- olutionary hypothesis on the structure of matter (Nietzsche 1886).

2. Before the year 1764 Boscovich born 300 years ago in Ragusa (Dubrovnik, Croatia), a small republic in Dalmatia. Ragusa was struggling to keep its independence against the great powers of that Fig. 2. The Collegium Ragusinum in Dubrovnik. time (e.g. the Ottoman Empire), and Boscovich himself will serve his country in his diplomatic 1 A catalogue of his works can be found in the activity. He got education at the primary school website of the Edizione Nazionale R.G. Boscovich. 18 Antonello: Boscovich and Brera

Fig. 4. The model of the Brera Observatory, made presumably at the beginning of 1765. It is exhibited at the Museo Nazionale della Scienza e della Tecnologia. Note the upper large octagonal room.

Fig. 3. The second edition of the Theoria. situation of Jesuits was increasingly difficult, and in 1758 they were expelled from Portugal. Up to that time Boscovich apparently did His first mission outside the Papal States not resented such difficulties, since he was occurred in 1756, and he went as an expert hy- considered an important european scholar drographer to Lucca to arbitrate a dispute that and was appreciated in cultural and political had arisen between the Republic of Lucca and circles. In 1759 he was in France and visited the Grand Duchy of Tuscany over adjacent wa- several Jesuit Collegii, in particular Lyon and ters. The Tuscany was under the Austrian rule, Marseille with their observatories. In Paris and Boscovich went also to Vienna, where he he had high level meetings with scholars had the opportunity to publish his first edition and politicians. He had similar meetings of the Theoria. When he was back in Rome also in Great Britain, where he visited the in 1758, he already knew that he was to go Greenwich observatory. The subsequent steps abroad for a longer diplomatic mission, that of the journey included the Netherlands, would have included France, Germany and the Germany and Lorraine in 1761, then Venice Netherlands. No document has been found as and Constantinople. During his life Boscovich yet about the political purpose and the details suffered sometimes from disease, but when of such a mission. he was in Constantinople he fell ill for some months with a dangerous infection in a leg. He then recovered, but the problems with the From 1756 the Seven Years’ War was leg will be never completely solved. In 1762 shacking Europe, with the involvement of Boscovich left from Turkey and travelled Austria, France, Sweden, Russia, Spain, to Poland in two months; he wrote a diary some Germany states, Great Britain, Prussia, of this long journey, which presents great Portugal and several colonies2. The political interest for it is one of the few travel records of the eighteenth century that cover that area 2 For example, the North America, where the war of Turkey, Bulgaria and Moldavia. In 1763 between French and British began in 1754. he was in Italy, and during the summer he Antonello: Boscovich and Brera 19

Fig. 5. An image of the Observatory, built above the Brera Palace. The image has been taken from the Ephemerides of 1776 for the year 1777, published by the astronomers of Brera.

Table 1. Timetable of milanese astronomy and Enlightenment

1762 Beginning of the astronomical research in Brera 1763 P. Verri, Meditazioni sulla felicitá [Reflections on happiness] 1763 G. Parini, Il Mattino (Il Giorno) [The Morning (The Day)] 1763 Boscovich is appointed at the University of Pavia 1764 C. Beccaria, Dei delitti e delle pene [On Crimes and Punishement] 1764 Project of the Brera Observatory 1765 G. Parini, Il Mezzogiorno (Il Giorno) [The Midday (The Day)] 1765 Building of the Brera Observatory 1764 -1766 Il Caffe` by P. Verri et al. [The Coffee House]

published the second edition of the Theoria in 3. In the Duchy of Milan Venice (figure 3), before going back to Rome. In 1763 Boscovich received the invitation to occupy the chair of mathematics in the As summarized by Hill (1961), Boscovich University of Pavia. At that time, the ques- was now in his fifty-second year. He had seen tion of reforming Pavia University was a much Europe from one end to the other, he had made discussed topic in the Duchy of Milan and in hosts of friends and some enemies, he was Vienna. The austrian Chancellor (prime minis- versed in the trend of political events, he knew ter) Kaunitz decided to enlarge the structure, the situation of the Jesuit Order in many coun- increase the library, attract good professors. tries. It is therefore not surprising that Boscovich 20 Antonello: Boscovich and Brera should have been invited. Before leaving from the main astronomical instrument, a large mu- Rome, Boscovich had to tackle the centuries ral quadrant, in France, since the french instru- old problem of the drainage of the Pontine ments (Canivet) were less expensive though marshes, and in the spring of 1764 he handed probably less accurate than the english ones over to the Papal Government his study. Then (Bird). Also an order for a large sextant was he took up his Pavia appointment (Hill 1961). placed to Canivet. The quadrant and the sex- On april Boscovich arrived at the Brera tant are the oldest instruments still existing. Collegium. Probably it was during his short It may be worth remarking those years, so stay in Milan, before going to Pavia, that he important for the milanese astronomy. They was informed about the local researches in as- were very important also for the culture and tronomy and the desire for the realisation of the society in general, since it was then that the a Specola. He probably expressed his ideas milanese Enlightenment flourished (see Table about an observatory that had to be at the level 1). A discussion of this movement and its rel- of the best european institutes, and wrote to the evance can be found for example in the recent Father General in Rome informing him about book by Israel (2011). The periodical Il Caffé, the Specola (Proverbio 1997). During the sum- i.e. Coffee House, was an important vehicle mer vacations, with much enthusiasm he gave modelled after Joseph Addisons’ Spectator and his expert advice at every stage of the project. designed to promote the Enlightenment and its The plan of the building was entrusted to him, ideas. Il Caffé did not publish book reviews in view of his skill as a mathematician and or news, however the Editor accepted to make structural engineer combined with his knowl- an exception upon a request by Boscovich, de- edge of astronomy. His remarkable plans for a fined in the periodical as ”uno de’ piu´ rag- modern observatory, including those for the re- guardevoli Letterati d’Europa” (one of the inforcement of the existing structure on which most respectable European scholars), to pub- it would be based, were passed by the gover- lish a review of the recent Traitéd’Astronomie nor and by the local minister plenipotentiary of Lalande (Verri 1766). Count Firmian (Hill 1961). Boscovich devoted much energy to this enterprise which was be- 4. From 1765 to 1772 ing realised at the expense of the Jesuit College and by contributions from individual Jesuits. The Risposta written by Boscovich in 1772 Boscovich himself spent much of his own (see next Section) contains detailed informa- money on the building of the observatory and tion on the observatory. At the upper level on the instrumentation. A large wooden model there was a large octagonal hall with six large (figure 4) was produced probably at the begin- windows. Some refracting and two reflecting ning of 1765. The Father General gave his ap- telescopes were installed in the hall, and one proval and the construction of the Specola be- telescope (Short) had an achromatic objec- gan around april of that year (Proverbio 1997). tive micrometer; moreover, such a large room The observatory was located in the south-east contained clocks, instruments for optics ex- corner of the Brera Palace (figure 5). During periments, celestial maps and models of in- the summer, Boscovich went with the french struments intended also for the public educa- astronomer Lalande in his Voyage en Italie tion, such as a wooden large parallactic ma- (Lalande 1769). Lalande was a friend of him chine. There was also a heliostat builded by and of several italian astronomers; he will give Boscovich both for performing experiments a strong help to Boscovich after the Jesuit and for public observations of solar spots and suppression, and later on he will take care of eclipses. Above the flat roof there were two the troubled astronomers during the napoleonic small towers that had a conical shape. A transit campaign of Italy (Antonello 2010). The ob- instrument, a parallactic machine and a clock servatory building was completed before the were installed in one tower, while the large end of 1765. Given the significant expenses sextant of Canivet (with two telescopes) and a for the construction, it was decided to purchase clock were installed in the other. Some slots Antonello: Boscovich and Brera 21 on the flat roof allowed the observations with his description of a working day in Brera is, the telescopes placed in the hall. Four rooms as far as we know, unique in the literature. were located downstairs under the hall: two Burney attended at the experiments of optics were used as private rooms (with bed, chair, that Boscovich was performing with the helio- table and bookshelf) of observing astronomers, stat, and noted many young assistants, presum- one contained meteorological instruments and ably students. He wrote an enthusiastic opin- under the other there was a small stock room. ion: ”If any new discoveries are to be made Stairs and balconies completed the building, in astronomy, they may be expected from this along with two side rooms: one was essen- learned Jesuit; whose attention to the optical tially an entrance hall (the model shown in experiments for the improvement of glasses, Figure 4 was placed originally in this room), upon which so much depends; and whose great and the other contained the large mural quad- number of admirable instruments of all sort, rant, a telescope and a clock. joined to the excellence of the climate, and The research activity in this period in- the wonderful sagacity he has discovered in cluded the determination of the latitude and the construction of his observatory and ma- longitude of the site and the related observa- chines, form a concurrence of favourable cir- tions of the eclipses of Sun, Moon, Jupiter cumstances, not easily to be found elsewhere” satellites and stellar occultations, some obser- (Burney 1773). In 1769 Boscovich had been vations of comets (probably that of Lexell of in Paris and then Bruxelles trying to solve the 1770), Boscovich’s method for the determina- health problems regarding his leg. According tion of comet orbits, and the problem of as- to Burney (1773), ”he was refused admis- tronomical refractions. An intense effort con- sion into the French academy, when at Paris, cerned the development of methods and tech- though a member, by the parliament, on ac- niques for the determination of the instrument count of his being a Jesuit; but if all Jesuits errors for a better reliability of the measure- were like this father, making use only of su- ments. Meteorological observations were also perior learning and intellects for the avance- performed regularly. ment of science, and the happiness of mankind, The education, previously a responsibility one would have wished this society to be as mainly of religious orders, and of the Senato durable as the world”. These remarkable opin- as regards the University of Pavia, had been ions could leave some doubts since Burney progressively taken in charge by the Austrian was not strictly a scientist. Actually they co- Government. The courses of applied mathe- incide with those of other scholars and as- matics were moved from Pavia to the Scuole tronomers such as Lalande (Proverbio 1987), Palatine in Milan in 1769, with a chair for and those of Schiaparelli (1938), who a cen- Boscovich (optics, gnomonics and astronomy) tury later wrote an essay (published posthu- and one for Frisi (hydraulics, engineering). mously) on the activity of Boscovich in Milan. Boscovich gave lessons and organized a lab- ”Così in breve tempo era sorto in Milano un oratory of optics in Brera. An interesting tes- Osservatorio, per quell’epoca assai ben costi- timony of such an activity is that of Charles tuito. E` certo che se il Boscovich avesse potuto Burney. He was a musician and historian of condurre a compimento tutte le sue idee, e se music, and also very interested in science, egli fosse stato lealmente e vigorosamente sec- for example he wrote an essay for the his- ondato, l’Osservatorio di Milano avrebbe po- tory of comets. Burney was making a tour in tuto fin da quel tempo essere uno dei primi, o France and Italy to collect information and forse il primo, almeno sul Continente”. An ob- documentation on the music in those coun- servatory was made in Milan in a very short tries, since he had planned to write a his- time, and it was very well planned. Surely, tory of music. According to the experts in if Boscovich had been able to realize all his the field, his work was one the most impor- ideas, and if he had been strongly supported, tant on that subject. During his stay in Milan, the observatory of Milan would have been one on july 1770 he visited the observatory, and of the first, or may be even the first, at least 22 Antonello: Boscovich and Brera in the Continent. Schiaparelli then added ”ma library, the observing programs. Here we com- le passioni umane entrarono in mezzo ad im- ment briefly two points: the problems with the pedire un sì bell’esito”; however, the human quadrant, and the activity on the public out- passions prevented such a beautiful outcome. reach. The description of the painful difficulties with the quadrant of Canivet (figure 6) is sur- 5. Leaving from Milan prising: ”Per le divisioni del nostro quadrante There was an increasing disagreement between ... ho faticato infinitamente, ne` fin ora ho potuto Boscovich and other Jesuits of Brera, such as avere alcuna sicurezza de’ metodi adoperati”. In spite of the efforts, Boscovich was not sure Lagrange, and part of the difficulties probably 3 derived from Boscovich’s character. While the about the accuracy obtained . Several prob- chair at the Scuole Palatine allowed him to stay lems with such an instrument derived from close to the observatory (actually he probably its structural flexures. The astronomers spent lived in Brera), that may have exacerbated the some years devising many methods and tools problems related to the contrasting opinions on for the calibration, the accurate division in an- its management. Several complaints arrived in gular units, and the error analysis. Boscovich Vienna, where the Government was beginning wrote several study reports describing the tech- to take care of the probable future manage- niques devised by him. ment of the large Brera Collegium, given the To Kaunitz’s objection of the observa- difficulties of Jesuits. In 1771 the chancellor tory as ”oggetto di puro sterile spettacolo”, Kaunitz wrote to his minister plenipotentiary Boscovich replied that he designed the Specola in Milan, Firmian, a letter where objections just also for its use as a show, but he never were risen concerning Brera (Proverbio 1987). considered it sterile, as his purpose was to He complained the few published works, the give idea to the people about the astronomical low quality of the astronomical measurements, instruments and observations: ”Io veramente and the use of the observatory just for a sterile nel darne il disegno ho avuto espressamente show (”sterile spettacolo”). He requested a new in vista che potesse anche servire di spetta- plan, that is, Boscovich had to prepare what colo; ma non l’ho mai creduto sterile ... il fine could be called a development plan. We may mio si era di dar idea nel paese degli istru- presume that Kaunitz would have liked to sat- menti, dell’uso loro, e delle osservazioni as- isfy the needs of a serious scientific research tronomiche ... vi ho fatta fare una gran sala in an observatory that had to be of public util- ottangolare, appunto, per potervi far dentro ity and not just a private institute. For exam- delle osservazioni in presenza di un numero ple the astronomers should have made the ob- considerabile di spettatori”. The large octago- servations needed for cartography (Proverbio nal room was designed by Boscovich indeed 1987), and this will occur fifteen years later for to allow the participation of many visitors at the map of the Duchy. His criticism therefore the observations. He concluded recalling his had to be intended in a constructive sense, but indefatigable activity on the public outreach: Boscovich considered it a personal offence. He ”Quanti Signori, quanti Religiosi non ho mai sent to Firmian the requested plan as a part of a serviti di persona la su spiegando ogni cosa very detailed document, the Risposta to a para- ... Questa e` stata fra le tante mie occupazioni graph in a letter by Prince Kaunitz, which is e cure una delle piu` assidue e faticose”. The very useful for the history of the observatory. It public outreach and education was continued gives information on the research activity and 3 ”Vi e` ancora da faticar molto, e spender molto, its organization, it includes a description of the prima che sia ridotto all’ultima perfezione ... Se Specola and the astronomical instrumentation. l’avessi voluto adoprare senza queste precauzioni, The plan for the future includes the recruitment avrei dato un gran numero di osservazioni erronee, of new personnel, the tests still to be performed o dubiose, come fanno tanti altri, che si fidano degli on the available instrumentation, the new in- Artefici non mai totalmente esatti nei loro lavori” struments needed, the request for an adequate (Proverbio 1987)(p. 216) Antonello: Boscovich and Brera 23

Fig. 6. The quadrant of Canivet of 1768. It is presently exhibited at the site of Merate of Brera Observatory. after Boscovich, but less intensively. During wars. For example, the optics for an achro- the first half of 19th century a public school matic telescope were purchased in England, of astronomy was operative, and during the and the telescope mounting was realized by twenties of the last century a Planetarium was Giuseppe Megele, an engineer who was moved built in Milan. However, it is only from about from Vienna to Milan. Also an equatorial tele- twenty years that specific resources, buildings scope of Sisson was purchased, and it was used and personnel in the observatory are dedicated (with some improvements) for almost a cen- to the public outreach, with the same spirit of tury; with this instrument Schiaparelli discov- Boscovich’s time. ered Esperia in 1861. When Lagrange retired Boscovich was very upset, and in spite of in 1776, the astronomers working in the obser- the attempts of Firmian for a reasonable so- vatory were his collaborator Francesco Reggio, lution following Kaunitz’s decisions concern- Boscovich’s pupil Angelo De Cesaris, and the ing the direction of the observatory, in 1772 he young Barnaba Oriani, a Barnabite priest that gave up the chair and his duties. Some months had been Frisi’s pupil. For an historical outline later the Jesuit Order was suppressed by the of the observatory in 18th and 19th centuries, Pope, and the friends in France were able to see Antonello (2010) (in italian). offer to Boscovich a prestigious assignment in In France, Boscovich studied in particular Paris, director of naval optics of French ma- the achromatic telescopes, and he kept in touch rine. with the astronomers of Brera. He prepared Many of the proposals of Boscovich re- his monumental work Opera pertinentia (fig- garding the observatory of Brera were accepted ure 7), in which his new and old studies in op- by Kaunitz, and it must be emphasized the tics and astronomy were collected. In 1782 he thoughtfulness and care of Vienna for the de- got the permission for a two years’ leave from velopment of the Specola, until the napoleonic France for printing this work in Italy; then he 24 Antonello: Boscovich and Brera got other extensions, and he went no more back to France.

6. The last years After having spent two years in Tuscany, in the Papal Sates and the Venetian Republic, in 1785 he came back to Milan. Boscovich wished to complete the commentary to the phi- losophy of Benedetto Stay and he lived near Brera for a more convenient consultation of the books in the Braidense Library. He had be- gun the commentary many years before and it was published only in part. He considered this as his most important work. However, the health worsened and he suffered also of increasing mental disorders. After a short period in a mental hospital, Boscovich died in 1787, and was buried in Santa Maria Podone; unfor- tunately, there are no more indications of his grave. According to Schiaparelli (1938), in the lucid moments of the last months he regret- ted having spent his life time studying instead of devoting himself to spiritual matters. One Fig. 7. The Opera pertinentia of 1785 where could wonder if he was really lucid, or whether Boscovich collected his works on optics and astron- the letters of the last years contained already omy. some clues of a repentance. In her work, Hill (1961) complained of the non availability of Boscovich’ letters, vivacita,` onde i suoi colloqui erano tutto fuoco. concluding that her biographical essay was ... Di sognate offese eragli fabbro la fantasia, necessarily incomplete and psychologically al soperchio ardor della quale vuolsi ascrivere Boscovich remained largely unrevealed. For tale difetto ... Il massimo [dei suoi difetti] fu example, according to Hill, only his ene- la vanagloria; e traspare da tutte le parole, da mies and smaller minds, perhaps envious of tutti gli scritti, da tutta la vita di lui: pero` che his success, described him as vainglorious. parlando, parlava sempre di se,´ e sempre lo- Schiaparelli (1938) however concluded his dandosi, e si argomentava di provare ben anche work quoting Camillo Ugoni, who had re- alle dame quale Geometra egli fosse ... Riscatto` marked that vainglory was actually the main il Boscovich ampiamente questo difetto con defect of Boscovich. It seems that Hill, who doti bellissime; pur tuttavia gli nocque assai, wrote a good and detailed biography, did not e piu` in Francia, perche´ la lode e` tributo che read, or had not the possibility of reading the il mondo paga a grande stento, se lo esigono i documentation regarding Boscovich preserved creditori”. During all his life he was obsessed in the Brera Observatory, and in particular the by an unrestrained passion for glory. To this work of Schiaparelli (1938) that was based on idolatry he added a big liveliness so that his several letters. According to Ugoni, Boscovich discussions were heated. His fantasy created had a very good health (”una salute erculea”), unreal suffered offences, a defect that usually but this does not appear to be true. He wrote: is ascribed to excessive imagination. His major ”La passione che lo invase per tutta la vita fu defect was the vainglory, and all his words, all una stemperata ansieta` di gloria ... A questa his writings, all his life betray it. He spoke al- idolatria di gloria accoppio` egli una grande ways about himself, and always boasting, and Antonello: Boscovich and Brera 25 trying to show even to the ladies how an im- Istituto Lombardo Accademia di portant mathematician he was. His redeeming Scienze e Lettere and Osservatorio features were other very beautiful gifts; how- Astronomico di Brera, in press, ever such a defect damaged his reputation, es- http://www.brera.inaf.it/archeo/Lombardo- pecially in France, since the praise is a trib- testo-1.pdf ute that the world renders with difficulty if it Barrow, J.D. 2007, New Theories of is claimed by the creditor. Everything, Oxford University Press, As a conclusion, let me quote Hill (1961) p. 20 once again. She hoped that the unpublished Burney, C. 1773, The present state of music manuscripts and large number of letters (that in France and Italy, London: Th. Becket and were still in private hands) would have be- Co. longed to some public institution: would it not Nietzsche, F. 1886, Jenseits von Gut und Bose¨ be desirable in the interests of the history of (Beyond Good and Evil, ch. I, 12) science that a copy of all his works be de- Hill, E. 1961, Roger Boscovich. A biograph- posited in important museums and libraries? ical essay, in Roger Joseph Boscovich S.J., She remarked that the letters of this excep- F.R.S., 1711-1787. Studies of his life and tional eighteenth-century scholar with so wide work on the 250th anniversary of his birth, a circle of correspondents among great fig- Whyte L. L. (ed.), London: G. Allen and ures that are part of the history of Europe Unwin, 17-101 should be published, and that would have been Israel, I.J. 2011, Democratic enlightenment, a service to scholarship and a worthy inter- Oxford University Press national monument to Boscovich. It seems Lalande J.J.L. de, 1769, Voyage d’un francais to me that now scholars are responding to en Italie fait dans les annee´ 1765 et 1766, such a plea. The National Edition (Edizione Paris: Desaint; 3rd edition 1790, Geneve´ Nazionale delle Opere e della Corrispondenza Proverbio, E. 1987, Historic and critical com- di R.G. Boscovich) is collecting and publish- ment on the Risposta of R.J. Boscovich to ing the correspondence, the manuscrpits, the a paragraph in a letter by Prince Kaunitz, works. The publications are in italian, and it Nuncius, 2, 171 would be important to translate them in other Proverbio, E. 1997, Il progetto di R.G. languages. Boscovich e la realizzazione della Specola di Brera in Milano (1764-1765), Quaderni di References Storia della Fisica, 1, 173 Schiaparelli, G.V. 1938, Sull’attivita` del AA.VV. 1963, Atti del Convegno inter- Boscovich quale astronomo in Milano, nazionale, celebrativo del 250o anniver- Pubbl. R. Oss. Astron. Milano-Merate, sario della Nascita di R.G. Boscovich Nuova Serie, n. 2 e del 200o anniversario della fondazione Ud´ıas, A. 2003, Searching the Heavens and the dell’Osservatorio di Brera. Milano-Merate Earth: The History of Jesuit Observatories, 6-8 ottobre 1962. Milano, Istituto Italiano Astrophysics and Space Science Library, per la storia della tecnica 289, Kluwer Academic Publishers AA.VV. 1988, Bicentennial commemoration Verri P. 1766, presentation of the ”Estratto del of R. G. Boscovich: Proceedings, M. Bossi trattato astronomico del Sig. De La Lande”, & P. Tucci (eds.), Unicopli, Milano in Il Caffe´ o sia brevi e vari discorsi gia´ dis- Antonello, E. 2010, I primi 150 anni tribuiti in fogli periodici, Vol. I, Venezia, p. dell’Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, 430 in Dalla Luna, a Marte, all’Infinito,