Analysis of RC4 Encryption Algorithm
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Failures of Secret-Key Cryptography D
Failures of secret-key cryptography D. J. Bernstein University of Illinois at Chicago & Technische Universiteit Eindhoven http://xkcd.com/538/ 2011 Grigg{Gutmann: In the past 15 years \no one ever lost money to an attack on a properly designed cryptosystem (meaning one that didn't use homebrew crypto or toy keys) in the Internet or commercial worlds". 2011 Grigg{Gutmann: In the past 15 years \no one ever lost money to an attack on a properly designed cryptosystem (meaning one that didn't use homebrew crypto or toy keys) in the Internet or commercial worlds". 2002 Shamir:\Cryptography is usually bypassed. I am not aware of any major world-class security system employing cryptography in which the hackers penetrated the system by actually going through the cryptanalysis." Do these people mean that it's actually infeasible to break real-world crypto? Do these people mean that it's actually infeasible to break real-world crypto? Or do they mean that breaks are feasible but still not worthwhile for the attackers? Do these people mean that it's actually infeasible to break real-world crypto? Or do they mean that breaks are feasible but still not worthwhile for the attackers? Or are they simply wrong: real-world crypto is breakable; is in fact being broken; is one of many ongoing disaster areas in security? Do these people mean that it's actually infeasible to break real-world crypto? Or do they mean that breaks are feasible but still not worthwhile for the attackers? Or are they simply wrong: real-world crypto is breakable; is in fact being broken; is one of many ongoing disaster areas in security? Let's look at some examples. -
Making Sense of Snowden, Part II: What's Significant in the NSA
web extra Making Sense of Snowden, Part II: What’s Significant in the NSA Revelations Susan Landau, Google hen The Guardian began publishing a widely used cryptographic standard has vastly wider impact, leaked documents from the National especially because industry relies so heavily on secure Inter- Security Agency (NSA) on 6 June 2013, net commerce. Then The Guardian and Der Spiegel revealed each day brought startling news. From extensive, directed US eavesdropping on European leaders7 as the NSA’s collection of metadata re- well as broad surveillance by its fellow members of the “Five cords of all calls made within the US1 Eyes”: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the UK. Finally, to programs that collected and stored data of “non-US” per- there were documents showing the NSA targeting Google and W2 8,9 sons to the UK Government Communications Headquarters’ Yahoo’s inter-datacenter communications. (GCHQs’) interception of 200 transatlantic fiberoptic cables I summarized the initial revelations in the July/August is- at the point where they reached Britain3 to the NSA’s pene- sue of IEEE Security & Privacy.10 This installment, written in tration of communications by leaders at the G20 summit, the late December, examines the more recent ones; as a Web ex- pot was boiling over. But by late June, things had slowed to a tra, it offers more details on the teaser I wrote for the January/ simmer. The summer carried news that the NSA was partially February 2014 issue of IEEE Security & Privacy magazine funding the GCHQ’s surveillance efforts,4 and The Guardian (www.computer.org/security). -
A Uniform Framework for Cryptanalysis of the Bluetooth E0
1 A Uniform Framework for Cryptanalysis of the Bluetooth E0 Cipher Ophir Levy and Avishai Wool School of Electrical Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 69978, ISRAEL. [email protected], [email protected] . Abstract— In this paper we analyze the E0 cipher, which “short key” attacks, that need at most 240 known is the encryption system used in the Bluetooth specification. keystream bits and are applicable in the Bluetooth We suggest a uniform framework for cryptanalysis of the setting; and “long key” attacks, that are applicable only E0 cipher. Our method requires 128 known bits of the if the E0 cipher is used outside the Bluetooth mode of keystream in order to recover the initial state of the LFSRs, operation. which reflects the secret key of this encryption engine. In one setting, our framework reduces to an attack of 1) Short Key Attacks: D. Bleichenbacher has shown D. Bleichenbacher. In another setting, our framework is in [1] that an attacker can guess the content of the equivalent to an attack presented by Fluhrer and Lucks. registers of the three smaller LFSRs and of the E0 − Our best attack can recover the initial state of the LFSRs combiner state registers with a probability of 2 93. Then after solving 286 boolean linear systems of equations, which the attacker can compute the the contents of the largest is roughly equivalent to the results obtained by Fluhrer and LFSR (of length 39 bit) by “reverse engineering” it Lucks. from the outputs of the other LFSRs and the combiner states. This attack requires a total of 128 bits of known I. -
Public Key Cryptography And
PublicPublic KeyKey CryptographyCryptography andand RSARSA Raj Jain Washington University in Saint Louis Saint Louis, MO 63130 [email protected] Audio/Video recordings of this lecture are available at: http://www.cse.wustl.edu/~jain/cse571-11/ Washington University in St. Louis CSE571S ©2011 Raj Jain 9-1 OverviewOverview 1. Public Key Encryption 2. Symmetric vs. Public-Key 3. RSA Public Key Encryption 4. RSA Key Construction 5. Optimizing Private Key Operations 6. RSA Security These slides are based partly on Lawrie Brown’s slides supplied with William Stallings’s book “Cryptography and Network Security: Principles and Practice,” 5th Ed, 2011. Washington University in St. Louis CSE571S ©2011 Raj Jain 9-2 PublicPublic KeyKey EncryptionEncryption Invented in 1975 by Diffie and Hellman at Stanford Encrypted_Message = Encrypt(Key1, Message) Message = Decrypt(Key2, Encrypted_Message) Key1 Key2 Text Ciphertext Text Keys are interchangeable: Key2 Key1 Text Ciphertext Text One key is made public while the other is kept private Sender knows only public key of the receiver Asymmetric Washington University in St. Louis CSE571S ©2011 Raj Jain 9-3 PublicPublic KeyKey EncryptionEncryption ExampleExample Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman at MIT RSA: Encrypted_Message = m3 mod 187 Message = Encrypted_Message107 mod 187 Key1 = <3,187>, Key2 = <107,187> Message = 5 Encrypted Message = 53 = 125 Message = 125107 mod 187 = 5 = 125(64+32+8+2+1) mod 187 = {(12564 mod 187)(12532 mod 187)... (1252 mod 187)(125 mod 187)} mod 187 Washington University in -
Crypto Wars of the 1990S
Danielle Kehl, Andi Wilson, and Kevin Bankston DOOMED TO REPEAT HISTORY? LESSONS FROM THE CRYPTO WARS OF THE 1990S CYBERSECURITY June 2015 | INITIATIVE © 2015 NEW AMERICA This report carries a Creative Commons license, which permits non-commercial re-use of New America content when proper attribution is provided. This means you are free to copy, display and distribute New America’s work, or in- clude our content in derivative works, under the following conditions: ATTRIBUTION. NONCOMMERCIAL. SHARE ALIKE. You must clearly attribute the work You may not use this work for If you alter, transform, or build to New America, and provide a link commercial purposes without upon this work, you may distribute back to www.newamerica.org. explicit prior permission from the resulting work only under a New America. license identical to this one. For the full legal code of this Creative Commons license, please visit creativecommons.org. If you have any questions about citing or reusing New America content, please contact us. AUTHORS Danielle Kehl, Senior Policy Analyst, Open Technology Institute Andi Wilson, Program Associate, Open Technology Institute Kevin Bankston, Director, Open Technology Institute ABOUT THE OPEN TECHNOLOGY INSTITUTE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Open Technology Institute at New America is committed to freedom The authors would like to thank and social justice in the digital age. To achieve these goals, it intervenes Hal Abelson, Steven Bellovin, Jerry in traditional policy debates, builds technology, and deploys tools with Berman, Matt Blaze, Alan David- communities. OTI brings together a unique mix of technologists, policy son, Joseph Hall, Lance Hoffman, experts, lawyers, community organizers, and urban planners to examine the Seth Schoen, and Danny Weitzner impacts of technology and policy on people, commerce, and communities. -
Key Differentiation Attacks on Stream Ciphers
Key differentiation attacks on stream ciphers Abstract In this paper the applicability of differential cryptanalytic tool to stream ciphers is elaborated using the algebraic representation similar to early Shannon’s postulates regarding the concept of confusion. In 2007, Biham and Dunkelman [3] have formally introduced the concept of differential cryptanalysis in stream ciphers by addressing the three different scenarios of interest. Here we mainly consider the first scenario where the key difference and/or IV difference influence the internal state of the cipher (∆key, ∆IV ) → ∆S. We then show that under certain circumstances a chosen IV attack may be transformed in the key chosen attack. That is, whenever at some stage of the key/IV setup algorithm (KSA) we may identify linear relations between some subset of key and IV bits, and these key variables only appear through these linear relations, then using the differentiation of internal state variables (through chosen IV scenario of attack) we are able to eliminate the presence of corresponding key variables. The method leads to an attack whose complexity is beyond the exhaustive search, whenever the cipher admits exact algebraic description of internal state variables and the keystream computation is not complex. A successful application is especially noted in the context of stream ciphers whose keystream bits evolve relatively slow as a function of secret state bits. A modification of the attack can be applied to the TRIVIUM stream cipher [8], in this case 12 linear relations could be identified but at the same time the same 12 key variables appear in another part of state register. -
GCM) for Confidentiality And
NIST Special Publication 800-38D Recommendation for Block DRAFT (April, 2006) Cipher Modes of Operation: Galois/Counter Mode (GCM) for Confidentiality and Authentication Morris Dworkin C O M P U T E R S E C U R I T Y Abstract This Recommendation specifies the Galois/Counter Mode (GCM), an authenticated encryption mode of operation for a symmetric key block cipher. KEY WORDS: authentication; block cipher; cryptography; information security; integrity; message authentication code; mode of operation. i Table of Contents 1 PURPOSE...........................................................................................................................................................1 2 AUTHORITY.....................................................................................................................................................1 3 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................................1 4 DEFINITIONS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS.................................................................................2 4.1 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................................2 4.2 SYMBOLS ....................................................................................................................................................4 4.2.1 Variables................................................................................................................................................4 -
(SMC) MODULE of RC4 STREAM CIPHER ALGORITHM for Wi-Fi ENCRYPTION
InternationalINTERNATIONAL Journal of Electronics and JOURNAL Communication OF Engineering ELECTRONICS & Technology (IJECET),AND ISSN 0976 – 6464(Print), ISSN 0976 – 6472(Online), Volume 6, Issue 1, January (2015), pp. 79-85 © IAEME COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY (IJECET) ISSN 0976 – 6464(Print) IJECET ISSN 0976 – 6472(Online) Volume 6, Issue 1, January (2015), pp. 79-85 © IAEME: http://www.iaeme.com/IJECET.asp © I A E M E Journal Impact Factor (2015): 7.9817 (Calculated by GISI) www.jifactor.com VHDL MODELING OF THE SRAM MODULE AND STATE MACHINE CONTROLLER (SMC) MODULE OF RC4 STREAM CIPHER ALGORITHM FOR Wi-Fi ENCRYPTION Dr.A.M. Bhavikatti 1 Mallikarjun.Mugali 2 1,2Dept of CSE, BKIT, Bhalki, Karnataka State, India ABSTRACT In this paper, VHDL modeling of the SRAM module and State Machine Controller (SMC) module of RC4 stream cipher algorithm for Wi-Fi encryption is proposed. Various individual modules of Wi-Fi security have been designed, verified functionally using VHDL-simulator. In cryptography RC4 is the most widely used software stream cipher and is used in popular protocols such as Transport Layer Security (TLS) (to protect Internet traffic) and WEP (to secure wireless networks). While remarkable for its simplicity and speed in software, RC4 has weaknesses that argue against its use in new systems. It is especially vulnerable when the beginning of the output key stream is not discarded, or when nonrandom or related keys are used; some ways of using RC4 can lead to very insecure cryptosystems such as WEP . Many stream ciphers are based on linear feedback shift registers (LFSRs), which, while efficient in hardware, are less so in software. -
A Practical Attack on Broadcast RC4
A Practical Attack on Broadcast RC4 Itsik Mantin and Adi Shamir Computer Science Department, The Weizmann Institute, Rehovot 76100, Israel. {itsik,shamir}@wisdom.weizmann.ac.il Abstract. RC4is the most widely deployed stream cipher in software applications. In this paper we describe a major statistical weakness in RC4, which makes it trivial to distinguish between short outputs of RC4 and random strings by analyzing their second bytes. This weakness can be used to mount a practical ciphertext-only attack on RC4in some broadcast applications, in which the same plaintext is sent to multiple recipients under different keys. 1 Introduction A large number of stream ciphers were proposed and implemented over the last twenty years. Most of these ciphers were based on various combinations of linear feedback shift registers, which were easy to implement in hardware, but relatively slow in software. In 1987Ron Rivest designed the RC4 stream cipher, which was based on a different and more software friendly paradigm. It was integrated into Microsoft Windows, Lotus Notes, Apple AOCE, Oracle Secure SQL, and many other applications, and has thus become the most widely used software- based stream cipher. In addition, it was chosen to be part of the Cellular Digital Packet Data specification. Its design was kept a trade secret until 1994, when someone anonymously posted its source code to the Cypherpunks mailing list. The correctness of this unofficial description was confirmed by comparing its outputs to those produced by licensed implementations. RC4 has a secret internal state which is a permutation of all the N =2n possible n bits words. -
Stream Ciphers (Contd.)
Stream Ciphers (contd.) Debdeep Mukhopadhyay Assistant Professor Department of Computer Science and Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur INDIA -721302 Objectives • Non-linear feedback shift registers • Stream ciphers using LFSRs: – Non-linear combination generators – Non-linear filter generators – Clock controlled generators – Other Stream Ciphers Low Power Ajit Pal IIT Kharagpur 1 Non-linear feedback shift registers • A Feedback Shift Register (FSR) is non-singular iff for all possible initial states every output sequence of the FSR is periodic. de Bruijn Sequence An FSR with feedback function fs(jj−−12 , s ,..., s jL − ) is non-singular iff f is of the form: fs=⊕jL−−−−+ gss( j12 , j ,..., s jL 1 ) for some Boolean function g. The period of a non-singular FSR with length L is at most 2L . If the period of the output sequence for any initial state of a non-singular FSR of length L is 2L , then the FSR is called a de Bruijn FSR, and the output sequence is called a de Bruijn sequence. Low Power Ajit Pal IIT Kharagpur 2 Example f (,xxx123 , )1= ⊕⊕⊕ x 2 x 3 xx 12 t x1 x2 x3 t x1 x2 x3 0 0 0 0 4 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 5 1 0 1 2 1 1 0 6 0 1 0 3 1 1 1 3 0 0 1 Converting a maximal length LFSR to a de-Bruijn FSR Let R1 be a maximum length LFSR of length L with linear feedback function: fs(jj−−12 , s ,..., s jL − ). Then the FSR R2 with feedback function: gs(jj−−12 , s ,..., s jL − )=⊕ f sjj−−12 , s ,..., s j −L+1 is a de Bruijn FSR. -
RC4 Encryption
Ralph (Eddie) Rise Suk-Hyun Cho Devin Kaylor RC4 Encryption RC4 is an encryption algorithm that was created by Ronald Rivest of RSA Security. It is used in WEP and WPA, which are encryption protocols commonly used on wireless routers. The workings of RC4 used to be a secret, but its code was leaked onto the internet in 1994. RC4 was originally very widely used due to its simplicity and speed. Typically 16 byte keys are used for strong encryption, but shorter key lengths are also widely used due to export restrictions. Over time this code was shown to produce biased outputs towards certain sequences, mostly in first few bytes of the keystream generated. This led to a future version of the RC4 code that is more widely used today, called RC4-drop[n], in which the first n bytes of the keystream are dropped in order to get rid of this biased output. Some notable uses of RC4 are implemented in Microsoft Excel, Adobe's Acrobat 2.0 (1994), and BitTorrent clients. To begin the process of RC4 encryption, you need a key, which is often user-defined and between 40-bits and 256-bits. A 40-bit key represents a five character ASCII code that gets translated into its 40 character binary equivalent (for example, the ASCII key "pwd12" is equivalent to 0111000001110111011001000011000100110010 in binary). The next part of RC4 is the key-scheduling algorithm (KSA), listed below (from Wikipedia). for i from 0 to 255 S[i] := i endfor j := 0 for i from 0 to 255 j := (j + S[i] + key[i mod keylength]) mod 256 swap(S[i],S[j]) endfor KSA creates an array S that contains 256 entries with the digits 0 through 255, as in the table below. -
Recommendation for Block Cipher Modes of Operation Methods
NIST Special Publication 800-38A Recommendation for Block 2001 Edition Cipher Modes of Operation Methods and Techniques Morris Dworkin C O M P U T E R S E C U R I T Y ii C O M P U T E R S E C U R I T Y Computer Security Division Information Technology Laboratory National Institute of Standards and Technology Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8930 December 2001 U.S. Department of Commerce Donald L. Evans, Secretary Technology Administration Phillip J. Bond, Under Secretary of Commerce for Technology National Institute of Standards and Technology Arden L. Bement, Jr., Director iii Reports on Information Security Technology The Information Technology Laboratory (ITL) at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) promotes the U.S. economy and public welfare by providing technical leadership for the Nation’s measurement and standards infrastructure. ITL develops tests, test methods, reference data, proof of concept implementations, and technical analyses to advance the development and productive use of information technology. ITL’s responsibilities include the development of technical, physical, administrative, and management standards and guidelines for the cost-effective security and privacy of sensitive unclassified information in Federal computer systems. This Special Publication 800-series reports on ITL’s research, guidance, and outreach efforts in computer security, and its collaborative activities with industry, government, and academic organizations. Certain commercial entities, equipment, or materials may be identified in this document in order to describe an experimental procedure or concept adequately. Such identification is not intended to imply recommendation or endorsement by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor is it intended to imply that the entities, materials, or equipment are necessarily the best available for the purpose.