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NOTES CHAPTER 1 CIGARETTES AND HIGH HEELS 1. Jason Hughes, Learning to Smoke: Tobacco Use in the West (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), p. 19. 2. World Tobacco Market Report, Euromonitor (Chicago, 1996). 3. Margaret Leroy, Some Girls Do: Why Women Do and Don’t Make the First Move (London: Harper Collins, 1997). 4. Jordan Goodman, Tobacco in History: Th e Cultures of Dependence (London: Routledge, 1993). 5. Richard Klein, Cigarettes Are Sublime (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993). 6. Michael E. Starr, “Th e Marlboro Man: Cigarette Smoking and Masculinity in America,” Journal of Popular Culture (1984), 17, pp. 45–56. 7. Tara Parker-Pope, Cigarettes: Anatomy of an Industry from Seed to Smoke (New York: New Press, 2001), p. 168. 8. According to the 1995 report of the Center for Tobacco Free Kids, near- ly 35 percent of teenagers are smokers, many of whom started smoking around thirteen years of age. Similar statistics were published in the late 1990s and the fi rst part of the 2000s. Th e CDC (Centers for Disease Control) reported in 2002 that antismoking ads, for example, did little to deter smoking among teens, highlighting the fact that the antismoking media campaigns of governments and concerned citizen groups have lit- tle eff ect—one in three still smoke, which amounts to a percentage that has not changed much since adolescents started smoking en masse in the 1950s. Th e situation is bound to change, however, as the meanings of smoking will change. I have started to notice that teenagers themselves are now fi nding smoking to be less and less attractive socially. 9. Th e original research was published in Cool: Th e Signs and Meanings of Adolescence (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994). In a follow-up project I discovered that not much had changed in virtually two decades after the original project. It would seem that in some matters of human behavior, plus ça change, plus c’est la même chose, as the French expression goes (“Th e more it changes, the more it is the same”). Th ose fi ndings were published in My Son Is an Alien: A Cultural Portrait of Today’s Youth (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefi eld, 2003). 10. Hughes, Learning to Smoke, p. 121. 220 NOTES 11. Charles Peirce’s main semiotic ideas can be found scattered in C. Hartshorne and P. Weiss, eds., Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, Vols. 1–8 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1931–58). 12. William Rossi, Th e Sex Lives of the Foot and Shoe (New York: Dutton, 1976). 13. Valerie Steele, Fetish: Fashion, Sex, and Power (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996). 14. Erving Goff man, Th e Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden City, Conn.: Doubleday, 1959). 15. In He Says, She Says (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1992), Lillian Glass argues that the language used in sexual courtship invariably betrays a gendered theatrical slant, diff erentiating the partners. 16. Desmond Morris, Th e Human Zoo (London: Cape, 1969). 17. Ferdinand de Saussure, Cours de linguistique générale (Paris: Payot, 1916). 18. John Deely, Four Ages of Understanding: Th e First Postmodern Survey of Philosophy from Ancient Times to the Turn of the Twentieth Century (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001). 19. Umberto Eco, A Th eory of Semiotics (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1976). 20. Susan Sontag, Illness as Metaphor (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1978), p. 7. 21. Jacalyn Duffi n, Disease Concepts in History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005). CHAPTER 2 WHAT DOES IT MEAN? 1. C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, Th e Meaning of Meaning (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1923). 2. C. E. Osgood, G. J. Suci, and P. H. Tannenbaum, Th e Measurement of Meaning (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1957). 3. Leonard Bloomfi eld, Language (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1933). 4. Th omas A. Sebeok, Signs (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994). 5. See D. Schmandt-Besserat, “Th e Earliest Precursor of Writing,” Scientifi c American 238 (1978), pp. 50–9. 6. David McNeill, Hand and Mind: What Gestures Reveal about Th ought (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). In his follow-up book, Gesture & Th ought (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), McNeill argues convincingly that gesturing is not a mere accessory to speech, but rather often a source of speech and thought. 7. Th e interested reader can fi nd an outline of the history of brand naming in my book titled Brands (London: Routledge, 2006). NOTES 221 CHAPTER 3 MAKEUP 1. Desmond Morris, Peter Collett, Peter Marsh, and Marie O’Shaugnessy, Gestures: Th eir Origins and Distributions (London: Cape, 1979). 2. Th e fi ndings of Ekman and his research colleagues can be found in Paul Ekman and Walter Friesen, Unmasking the Face (Englewood Cliff s, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1975); Paul Ekman, Telling Lies (New York: Norton, 1985); and Paul Ekman, Emotions Revealed (New York: Holt, 2003). 3. Ekman, Telling Lies. An interesting cultural history of the smile is the one by Angus Trimble, A Brief History of the Smile (New York: Basic Books, 2004). 4. Ken Adler, Th e Lie Detectors (New York: Free Press, 2006). 5. Helen E. Fisher, Anatomy of Love (New York: Norton, 1992), pp. 272–3. 6. Roger Wescott, Sound and Sense (Lake Bluff , Ill.: Jupiter Press, 1980). 7. See the interesting study of hairstyles by Grant McCracken, Big Hair: A Journey into the Transformation of Self (Toronto: Penguin, 1995). 8. Kathy Peiss, Hope in a Jar: Th e Making of America’s Beauty Culture (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1998). In Inventing Beauty (New York: Broadway Books, 2004), Teresa Riordan argues that when it comes to beauty it seems that human ingenuity has been at its most productive, especially in the modern era, with all kinds of inventions, from lipstick dispensers to corsets and Wonderbras. 9. Michel Foucault, Th e History of Sexuality, Vol. 1 (London: Allen Lane, 1976). 10. Andrew Synnott, Th e Body Social: Symbolism, Self and Society (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 22. 11. R. L. Birdwhistell, Introduction to Kinesics (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Ann Arbor, 1952). 12. Ibid., p. 70. 13. Teresa Green, Th e Tattoo Encyclopedia (New York: Fireside, 2003), pp. x–xi. In Spiritual Tattoo: A Cultural History of Tattooing, Piercing, Scarifi cation, Branding, and Implants (Berkeley, Calif.: Frog, 2005), John A. Rush sug- gests that tattooing may go even further back in time to 200,000 BCE. 14. L. S. Dubin, Th e History of Beads (New York: Abrams, 1987), p. 134. 15. Keith H. Basso, Western Apache Language and Culture: Essays in Linguistic Anthropology (Tucson: University of Arizona Press), pp. 15–24. 16. Marcel Danesi, My Son Is an Alien: A Cultural Portrait of Today’s Youth (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefi eld, 2003), pp. 56–7. 17. In Striptease: Th e Untold Story of the Girlie Show (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), Rachel Shteir shows convincingly how the femi- nine form has always made performances such as stripteases central ele- ments in pop culture’s history. 222 NOTES CHAPTER 4 TELL ME ABOUT YOURSELF 1. See, for example, Noam Chomsky, On Nature and Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002). 2. Charles W. Morris, Foundations of the Th eory of Signs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938). 3. See, L. S. Vygotsky, Th ought and Language (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1962). 4. Julian Jaynes, Th e Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1975). 5. An in-depth synthesis of this line of work in linguistics, known more tech- nically as cognitive linguistics, can be found in Gary B. Palmer, Toward a Th eory of Cultural Linguistics (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1996). 6. Robert Levine, A Geography of Time: Th e Temporal Misadventures of a Social Psychologist or How Every Culture Keeps Time Just a Little Bit Diff erently (New York: Basic Books, 1997). 7. Ronald W. Langacker has studied this aspect of language in Concept, Image, and Symbol: Th e Cognitive Basis of Grammar (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1990) and Grammar and Conceptualization (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1999). 8. Roger W. Brown, Psycholinguistics (New York: Free Press, 1970), pp. 258–73. 9. Th e most in-depth theory of modeling systems in semiotics is the one by Th omas A. Sebeok, Signs: An Introduction to Semiotics (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994). 10. F. M. Müller, Lectures on the Science of Language (London: Longmans, Green, 1861). 11. B. Alpher, “Feminine as the Unmarked Grammatical Gender: Buff alo Girls Are No Fools,” Australian Journal of Linguistics 7 (1987), pp. 169–87. 12. Edward Sapir, Language (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1921). 13. Brent Berlin and Paul Kay, Basic Color Terms (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1969). 14. N. McNeill, “Colour and Colour Terminology,” Journal of Linguistics 8 (1972), pp. 21–33. 15. A detailed treatment of color categories, as well as an up-to-date debate on the relation between color categories and perception, can be found in C. L. Hardin and Luisa Maffi , eds., Color Categories in Th ought and Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). 16. Leslie Savan, Slam Dunks and No-Brainers: Language in Your Life, the Media, Business, Politics, and, Like, Whatever (New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 2005). In Conversation: A History of a Declining Art (New Haven, NOTES 223 Conn.: Yale University Press, 2006), Stephen Miller also decries the loss of true conversation, which he similarly blames on media infl uence. However, I have a slightly diff erent take on this, namely that conversa- tion is a code that changes over time and it does so because the channels we use to converse are changing.
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