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Aspects of Cheetah (Acinonyx Jubatus) Biology, Ecology and Conservation Strategies on Namibian Farmlands

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Aspects of Cheetah (Acinonyx Jubatus) Biology, Ecology and Conservation Strategies on Namibian Farmlands Aspects of Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) Biology, Ecology and Conservation Strategies on Namibian Farmlands by Laurie L. Marker Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor Of Philosophy Lady Margaret Hall, University of Oxford Trinity Term 2002 ASPECTS OF CHEETAH (ACINONYX JUBATUS) BIOLOGY, ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION STRATEGIES ON NAMIBIAN FARMLANDS Summary In an increasingly human-dominated environment, the task of successfully conserving large carnivores, such as cheetahs, is difficult due to real or perceived threats resulting in conflict and often their local extirpation. This research describes the causes and potential solutions to this conflict in Namibia. Cheetah biology and ecology were studied through physical examination, laboratory analysis, radio-tracking and human perceptions using survey techniques. Between 1991 and 2000 data collected on over 400 live-captured and dead cheetahs showed that a perceived threat to livestock or game was the reason for 91.2% (n = 343) of cheetahs captured and 47.6% (n = 30) of wild cheetah deaths. Both were biased towards males, with 2.9 males being captured for every female, despite an apparent equality of sex ratio. Human-mediated mortality accounted for 79.4% (n = 50) of wild deaths reported, of which the majority involved prime adult animals, with a peak at around 5-6 years of age. Polymorphic microsatellite loci were used to assess 313 Namibian cheetahs’ variation, gene flow, paternity and behavioural ecology. Genetic analysis showed limited regional differentiation supporting a panmictic population and that persistence in Namibia depends on dispersal from regions throughout the country; therefore efforts of connectivity throughout the country should continue. Relatedness values confirmed family groups, and 45 new potential sire/dam offspring and 7 sibling groups were identified, providing information on dispersal and the success of translocation. Sera from wild cheetah were assessed for exposure to feline and canine virus antibodies to CDV, FCoV/FIP, FHV1, FPV, and FCV; antibodies were detected in 24%, 29%, 12%, 48%, and 65%, respectively, showing infection occurs in wild cheetahs; although there was no evidence of disease at time of capture, these diseases are known to cause serious clinical disease in captive cheetahs. Neither FIV antibodies nor FeLV antigens were present in any wild cheetahs tested, however, the first case of FeLV in a non-domestic felid is described in a captive Namibian cheetah. Concern for contact with domestic animals is discussed. Focal Palatine Erosion (FPE), a dental abnormality found in captive cheetahs, was discovered in over 70% of the wild cheetahs and was correlated with dental malocclusions, and is of concern to the long-term health of wild cheetahs. Namibian cheetahs have a mean 95% kernel home range of 1642.3 km2 (+ 1565.1 km2), the largest home ranges yet defined. Habitat type significantly affected the cheetah’s spatial distribution and prey density. Radio-collared female cheetahs were more closely related to other cheetahs in the study area than males, indicating male dispersal. Continual cheetah perturbation may partially explain the unusually low density of cheetahs in this area (estimated at only 2.5 cheetahs per 1000km2) despite the apparent abundance of prey. Namibian farmers originally surveyed revealed a mean removal of 19 cheetahs per year/farm, even when not considered a problem, and higher removals occurred on game farms. Evidence for actual livestock depredation was negligible, only 3% of reported captures. Scat analysis revealed cheetahs’ selection for indigenous game, however 5% of scats contained evidence of livestock. Research conducted on methods of conflict resolution showed that placing Anatolian Shepherd livestock guarding dogs proved to be effective, with 76% of farmers reporting a large decline in livestock losses since acquiring an Anatolian. Such solutions appear effective in increasing farmer’s tolerance for cheetahs, and by the end of the study period cheetah removals dropped to a mean of 2.1 cheetahs/farm/year. Implementing strategies such as these could be significant for reducing human-carnivore conflict in the many other places in which it occurs. ii To Khayam, who showed me the path and provided the vision Here with Loaf of Bread beneath the Bough, A Flask of Wine, a Book of Verse - and Thou Beside me singing in the Wilderness – And Wilderness is Paradise enow. In: Rubaiyuat of Omar Khayyam iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Although only one name appears on the cover, this thesis would not exist without all those who have given so generously of their time and energy over the last several years. In particular, Amy Dickman, my research assistant, who worked diligently by my side for three years and who shares my interest in science, finding answers through analysis, and good red wine! Also thanks to Bruce Brewer for managing and building the Cheetah Conservation Fund’s (CCF) Research and Education Centre while I worked on this Thesis, and Richard Jeo for his invaluable guidance, and to my International Science Advisory Board members who gave me continued encouragement during this process and have mentored me along the way, in particular Linda Munson and Steve O’Brien. I am indebted to my major supervisors, David Macdonald and Gus Mills who taught me more than they will know just from this thesis. I am also very grateful to CCF team of staff and volunteers, in particular Bonnie Schumann, Don Muroura, Matti Nghkembua, and Susan Deshaies for their valuable input and continued moral support, and to Jack Imbert our radio-tracking pilot for all the safe hours of flying. In addition, I’m grateful to Warren Johnson, Christine Breitenmoser-Wursten, and Ruth Feber for their assistance and editorial comments, and my friends and colleagues at WildCRU who made Oxford stimulating. In addition, many thanks to my board of directors of CCF-USA, CCF- Namibia, and CCF-UK for their supporting my time, both financially and morally, while working on my Thesis, in particular Vance Martin, Cathryn and Carl Hilker, Bill and Pat Miller, and Charlie Knowles. This research was conducted with the generous support of the Namibian farmers who provided access to cheetahs and allowed their release back into the wild, and who spent hours answering questions about the Namibian farmlands. In particular, Dr. Arthur Bagot- Smith for first showing me the problems facing the Namibian cheetah, the Kruger’s for making me apart of their family, and the Waterberg Conservancy farm families for being great neighbours with a great conservation vision for the future. I am thankful to the Namibian Government, particularly the Ministry of Environment and Tourism, which supported this research. And, to His Excellency, Dr. Sam Nujoma, the President of Namibia and the International Patron for the Cheetah Conservation Fund, for his interest learning about the Namibian cheetah In addition, I’d like to acknowledge the various foundations, organisations and individuals that have supported the work encompassed in this Thesis, particularly major donors of the Cheetah Conservation Fund in the United States. Partial funding for this research was provided by the African Wildlife Foundation, the Angel Fund, the American Zoo Association Conservation Endowment Fund, the Bay Foundation, the Chase Foundation, Cheetah Conservation Fund Namibia and USA, Cincinnati Zoo, Columbus Zoo, Earthwatch Institute, the Mazda Wildlife Fund, Philadelphia Zoo, Total SA, the Weeden Foundation, the WILD Foundation, White Oak Conservation Center and the WWF SA Green Trust. On a more personal note, I would like to thank my parents Marline and Ralph Bushey for teaching me that the world is an open door and one is only constrained to venture into the world by one’s own fears. They told me I could do anything I put my mind to. L.M. - Sept 2002 iv Table of Contents CONTENTS ASPECTS OF CHEETAH (ACINONYX JUBATUS) BIOLOGY, ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION STRATEGIES ON NAMIBIAN FARMLANDS Abstract………………………………………………………………………… ii Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………. iii Contents………………………………………………………………………... iv List of Tables…………………………………………………………………… vii List of Figures………………………………………………………………….. x Foreword………………………………………………………………………... xiv Chapter 1 General Introduction……………………………………………………. 1 Chapter 2 Study Area……………………………………………………………… 24 Chapter 3 Aspects of the Management of Cheetahs Trapped on Namibian Farmlands………………………………………………………………. 49 Chapter 4 Morphology, Physical Condition and Growth of Namibian Cheetahs…. 75 Chapter 5 Patterns of Molecular Genetic Variation in Namibian Cheetahs………. 92 Chapter 6 A Serosurvey of Antibodies to Viral Diseases in Wild Namibian Cheetahs………………………………………………………………... 118 Chapter 7 Lymphosarcoma Associated with Feline Leukaemia Virus Infection in a Captive Namibian Cheetah…………………………………………… 131 Chapter 8 The Incidence of Dental Abnormalities in Wild-Caught Namibian Cheetahs………………………………………………………………... 138 Chapter 9 Demography of the Namibian Cheetah………………………………… 153 Chapter 10 Notes on the Diet and Feeding Ecology of the Cheetah on Namibian Farmlands………………………………………………………………. 178 Chapter 11 Movements and Spatial Organisation of Cheetahs on North-Central Namibian Farmlands: The Influence of Prey Base, Competition and Perturbation…………………………………………………………….. 199 Chapter 12 Factors Influencing Perceptions and Tolerance towards Cheetahs on Namibian Farmlands…………………………………………………… 243 v Table of Contents CONTENTS (continued) Chapter 13 Evaluating the Effectiveness of Using Livestock Guarding Dogs as
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