Water Pollution Control - A Guide to the Use of Water Quality Management Principles Edited by Richard Helmer and Ivanildo Hespanhol Published on behalf of the United Nations Environment Programme, the Water Supply & Sanitation Collaborative Council and the World Health Organization by E. & F. Spon © 1997 WHO/UNEP ISBN 0 419 22910 8

Case Study IX* - The Danube Basin

* This case study was prepared by Ilya Natchkov

IX.1 Introduction

The Danube river basin is the heartland of central and eastern Europe (Figure IX.1). The main river is among the longest (ranked 21) in the world and the second longest in Europe. It has a total length of 2,857 km from its source at a height of 1,078 m in the Black Forest, Germany, to its delta on the Black Sea, Romania. The watershed of the Danube covers 817,000 km2 and drains all or significant parts of Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, Hungary, Croatia, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine and parts of the Federal Republics of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The watershed represents 8 per cent of the area of Europe (Figure IX.2).

Between the source and the delta, the main Danube river falls a total height of 678 m and its character varies, therefore, from a mountain stream to a lowland river. Upstream of the Danube delta the mean flow of the river is about 6,550 m3 s-1 with maximum and minimum discharges of 15,540 m3 s-1 and 1610 m3 s-1 respectively. About 120 rivers flow into the Danube, such as the Tisza and Sava which have their own significant flow. The contribution from the main tributaries is given in Figure IX.3.

The mean altitude of the river basin is only 475 m, but the maximum difference in height between the lowland and alpine peaks is over 3,000 m. However the basin can be conveniently divided into an upper, middle and lower region (according to its geological structure and geography), and the Danube delta. The range of mean monthly temperature increases in an easterly direction from 21 °C in Vienna to 23 °C in Budapest and to 26 °C in Bucharest. The average annual precipitation in the Danube river basin varies from 3,000 mm in the high mountains to 400 mm in the delta region. The mean annual evaporation varies between 450 mm and 650 mm in lower regions.

Approximately 80 million people are living in the basin (Table IX. 1). The economic conditions vary from the highly developed countries of Germany and Austria, to countries with modest economical and technological possibilities. Most of the countries in the region are in transition after recent political changes and are suffering severe economic and financial constraints. Figure IX.1 Location map showing the countries drained by the Danube river basin

IX.2 Economic activities in the basin

Throughout the basin, the tributary rivers and the main Danube river provide a vital resource for water supply, sustaining biodiversity, agriculture, industry, fishing, recreation, tourism, power generation and navigation. In addition, the river is an aquatic ecosystem with high economic, social and environmental value. A very large number of dams and reservoirs, dikes, navigation locks and other hydraulic structures have been constructed in the basin to facilitate important water uses; these include over 40 major structures on the main stream of the Danube river. These hydraulic structures have resulted in significant economic benefits but they have also caused, in some cases, significant negative impacts downstream. These impacts include, for example, increased erosion and reduced assimilative capacity where river diversions have resulted in reductions in flow below the minimum required for desired water uses, such as fisheries and maintenance of aquatic ecosystems. Figure IX.2 Detailed map of the catchment area of the Danube river basin

Figure IX.3 The contribution made to the total flow of the Danube river by the various tributaries along its length

Table IX.1 Area and population data for the countries included in Environmental Programme for Danube river basin1

Country Total Area Danube Population Population Danube Urban area within basin (% (106) in (106) basin (% population (103 (103 of the of the (%) km2) km2) total) total) Germany 356.9 59.60 16.7 80.0 9.00 11.25 Austria 83.9 80.70 96.2 7.42 7.42 100.00 Czech Republic 78.9 22.49 28.5 10.36 2.74 26.45 78 Slovak Republic 49.0 48.68 99.3 5.31 5.10 96.00 78 Hungary 93.0 93.0 100.0 10.60 10.60 100.00 61 Croatia 56.5 33.75 59.7 4.76 3.25 68.30 51 Slovenia 20.25 15.20 75.0 2.00 1.76 87.75 56 Bulgaria 111.0 48.20 43.4 8.80 4.07 46.25 68 Romania 238.0 233.20 98.0 22.76 22.00 96.70 54 Moldova 33.7 8.79 26.1 4.34 0.77 17.60 47 Ukraine 604.0 36.31 6.0 51.70 3.00 5.80 67 Total in the area 679.92 69.7 of EPDRB FR Yugoslavia, 134.25 10.5 Bosnia and Herzegovina Others 2.83 80.2 Total 817.00 1 Some data are estimates because statistics were not available specifically for the Danube river basin

The main water uses in the basin are domestic drinking water supply, industry and irrigation. Many water works along the Danube and its tributaries use bank-filtered water. The Nussdorf water works provides about 15 per cent (150,000 m3 d-1) of Vienna's water demand from bank wells. The water supply of Bratislava relies on bank-filtered water (160,000 m3 d-1). In Hungary, most drinking water (90 per cent) actually comes from sub- surface water resources. The total pumped amount is approximately 6,000 × 106 m3 d-1 of which 70 per cent provides public water supplies and 30 per cent is used for irrigation and industrial purposes. In Bulgaria, the total water abstraction from the Danube is 1,142 × 106 m3 a-1 (surface and bank-filtered) of which 70 per cent goes to irrigation, 20 per cent serves industry and 10 per cent provides public water supplies. In the downstream countries the main user is agriculture, which accounts for 85 per cent of total use in Moldova. In upstream countries, such as Slovakia, the main water user is industry (accounting for up to 71 per cent of total surface water withdrawals).

Economic activities and land use in this large river basin are very diverse, including numerous large urban centres and a wide range of industrial, agriculture, forestry and mining activities. There are also numerous important natural areas, such as wetlands and flood plain forests. The water resources and the environmental quality of the basin are under great pressure from these activities. Microbiological contamination is evident throughout the river system and is generally due to the discharge of urban wastewater and storm water. Urban and industrial discharges from inadequate waste treatment and disposal facilities also contribute significant quantities of oxygen depleting substances (measured in terms of their biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)). Nutrients from domestic and industrial sources, chemical fertilisers used in agriculture, and manure from intensive and large-scale livestock operations, have leached into the groundwater and into the surface waters and their sediments. The resultant increases in nutrient levels have stimulated eutrophication and degraded the aquatic ecosystem. Water quality for the eight countries of the Danube basin is summarised in Table IX.2.

The countries of the middle and lower Danube basin are undergoing a major restructuring and transformation of their political, social, administrative and economic systems. From an environmental perspective, some of the most important changes will be in the industrial sector, where the nearly exclusive emphasis on production in the past resulted in significant pollution and waste of resources. Some institutional changes, such as the decentralisation of management and financial responsibility for water supply and wastewater management to local authorities, are creating opportunities for substantial improvements in water services and in environmental benefits.

Table IX.2 Proportion of river network conforming to different water quality classes in eight countries of the Danube basin (according to national classification systems)

Water Quality Class Country I II IIIIV V Austria1 23 71 6 0 Bulgaria2 37 22 24 16 1 Czech Republic3 Oxygen regime 0 22 19 36 23 Basic physical and chemical indicators 0 0 0 1 99 Biological and microbiological parameters 4 26 66 4 0 Germany4 Baden Württemberg 17 75 7 Bavaria 8 87 4 Hungary5 31 54 15 Romania6 42 24 24 12 22 Slovakia Oxygen regime 0 22 33 16 29 Basic physical and chemical indicators 0 0 17 27 56 Chemical components 16 26 11 26 21 Biological and microbiological parameters 0 0 13 18 69 Slovenia7 0 5032 12 6 Unless otherwise noted the water quality classification is based on five classes.

1 I & I-II, II & II-III, III & III-IV, IV system for 1992; Source: IUCN, 1994 2 Source: IUCN, 1994

3 Source: Haskoning, 1994

4 I & I-II, II & II-III, III & III-IV, IV system; Source: IUCN, 1994

5 I, II. III system, 1991 figures; Source: IUCN, 1994

6 Source: IUCN, 1994

7 I & I-II, II-III, III-IV, IV system for Drava basin only; Source: Haskoning, 1994

IX.3 The Environmental Programme for the Danube river basin

Recognising the growing regional and transboundary character of water resources management and the related environmental problems, the Danube countries (together with the interested members of the international community) met in Sofia in September 1991 to consider a new regional initiative to support and to enhance national activities for the management of the Danube basin. The countries agreed to develop and to implement a programme of priority actions and studies in preparation for the eventual agreement of a new convention that would provide an effective mechanism for regional co-operation. The countries also agreed to form a Task Force to oversee this programme, and the Commission of the European Communities (CEC) agreed to provide support and co-ordination for the Task Force.

The international community agreed to assist the participating countries to develop a three-year programme of pre-investment activities, data collection, studies and fact finding to support the development of a strategic action plan. The Environmental Programme for the Danube River Basin (EPDRB) includes national reviews, basin-wide studies of point and non-point sources of pollution and biological resources, institutional strengthening and capacity building activities, and pre-investment studies in selected tributary river basins. Many activities are ongoing, such as the development of international systems for monitoring, data collection and assessment and emergency response systems. International funding for these activities is provided by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), CEC-PHARE, the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) partners (including the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)), the World Bank, several bilateral donors (including the Austrian, Netherlands and USA governments), and the private Barbara Gauntlett Foundation.

Furthermore, to secure the legal basis for protecting the water resources, the Danube river basin countries and the European Union (EU) signed the Convention on Cooperation for the Protection and Sustainable Use of the River Danube (the Danube River Protection Convention) of 29 June 1994, in Sofia. The Convention is aimed at achieving sustainable and equitable water management. In parallel, the development of the strategic action plan has been a major task of the environmental programme for the Danube river basin. The action plan makes a significant contribution to efforts to improve water and environmental management in the Danube basin as defined in the Convention, and contributes to the implementation of the Environmental Action Programme for Central and Eastern Europe.

IX.4 The strategic action plan

The action plan provides direction and a framework for achieving the goals of regional integrated water management and riverine environmental management for the period 1995-2005. It also aims to provide a framework in support of the transition from central management to a decentralised and balanced strategy of regulation and market-based incentives. The action plan lays out strategies for overcoming the environment problems related to water in the Danube river basin. It sets short-, medium- and long-term targets and defines a series of actions to meet these targets.

Despite the diversity of problems, interests and priorities across the Danube river basin, the countries share certain important values and have agreed on principles that underlie the goals and actions of the plan. They include the precautionary principle, the use of best available techniques (BAT) and best environmental practice (BEP) for the control of pollution, the control of pollution at source, the polluter-pays-principle; and a commitment to regional co-operation and shared information among the partners implementing the action plan.

The action plan has four equally important goals:

• Reduce the negative impacts of activities in the Danube river basin on riverine ecosystems and the Black Sea.

• Maintain and improve the availability and quality of water in the Danube river basin.

• Establish control of hazards from accidental spills.

• Develop regional water management co-operation.

The approaches to be taken are set out in a series of strategic directions covering key sectors and policies, including phased expansion of sewerage and municipal wastewater treatment capacity; reduction of discharges from industry; reduction of emissions from agriculture; conservation, restoration and management of the wetland and flood plain areas of the tributaries and main stream of the Danube river basin; integrated water management; environmentally sound sectoral policies; control of risks from accidents; and investments.

IX.5 Problems and priorities

Five priority problems that affect water quality, water use and ecosystems were identified in the basin. These were:

• Microbiological contamination. • Contamination with substances that enhance the growth of heterotrophic organisms and with oxygen-depleting substances.

• High nutrient loads and eutrophication.

• Contamination with hazardous substances including oil.

• Competition for available water.

Table IX. 3 indicates the relationship between these five water management problems in the Danube river basin and the primary water uses of drinking water, fisheries, industry, irrigation and recreation.

Microbiological contamination is probably the most important health-related water quality problem in the region. The generally agreed conclusion, based on available data, is that the Danube and its tributaries are heavily polluted with faecal bacteria and viruses in most river reaches. The overall situation is that the Danube should not be used as a drinking water source without treatment, such as extensive sand filtration, and that bathing in the river should be discouraged. Current health statistics are believed to record only a limited number of the actual incidents of water-born diseases. Some information suggests that there are a number of epidemics each year and that thousands of people in the basin suffer each year from water-born diseases including dysentery, hepatitis A, rotavirus and cholera.

Table IX.3 Relations between key water management problems and the primary water uses in the Danube river basin

Problem Drinking water Fisheries Industry Irrigation Recreation supply Nutrient load and Increased cost Loss of Increased Degradation of eutrophication; of treatment; sensitive cost of environmental Factor: nitrogen consumer species treatment quality and loss and phosphorus; acceptance and reduction of opportunities Sources: municipal problems; nitrate in some and benefits wastewater, contamination of uses, e.g. industry, groundwater cooling agriculture Hazardous The presence of these pollutants in significant concentrations would substances, seriously affect drinking water, fisheries and the riverine ecosystems. including oils; However, present data and monitoring systems are inadequate to establish Sources: industry, current levels in most areas of the basin and to determine the overall priority agriculture, for dealing with these pollutants. At the local level, serious problems may transport already exist in some tributary river basins. Metals and some micro- pollutants that are readily absorbed onto fine particles may be stored in the sediments trapped by the numerous hydraulic structures in the Danube basin Microbiological Renders surface Increases Water unfit Loss of pollution; Factor: waters and cost of for certain opportunity, bacteria, viruses, ground-water treatment in crops including etc.; Sources: unfit for water some types elimination of municipal supply or of processes, some uses such wastewater, increases the particularly as bathing and livestock, lack of cost of treatment food other contact adequate processing activities sanitation Growth of Surface water Severe loss Increased Modern Loss of heterotrophic unfit for water of habitat cost of water irrigation opportunity and organisms and supply; reduced when O2 treatment equipment economic oxygen depletion; groundwater conc. drop may clog benefits Factor: Organic infiltration and below matter, ammonia; lower quality minimum Sources: municipal water required; wastewater, fish loss due industry, livestock to toxic conc. of ammonia Competition for Reduced or Loss of Reduced or Reduced Loss of available water; intermittent habitats; intermittent water opportunity and Factor: water supplies disrupted water supply supply economic planning, migration during the benefits allocation, and and critical crop operation; spawning growth Sources: sectorial patterns period authorities Source: Strategic Action Plan of the Danube River Basin, 1994

Microbiological contamination is normally a local problem, because most pathogens have a limited survival time in water. However, there are reported situations where regional or transboundary impacts occur such as in the Koros river flowing between Romania and Hungary.

Hazardous and toxic substances are of particular concern, particularly pesticides, other organic micropollutants such as PCBs and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and heavy metals. There are serious concerns about pollutants accumulated in sediments in reservoirs and in river reaches downstream of industrial areas. A survey of 55 sites in 1991, along the Danube River, revealed that 23 of these sites should be treated as hazardous waste. The main sources of such pollution are industry and mining.

Transport activities appear to be important sources of oil pollution, and the main source of lead, to the Danube and its tributaries. The transport of oil in pipelines has also created continues and accidental spills into the rivers of the basin. The most recent accident occurred when an oil pipeline in the Ukraine led to contamination of the River Tisza and threatened water supplies in Ukraine and Hungary.

Diffuse discharges from agriculture are important sources of micro-pollutants. About 300-500 different active agents of pesticides have been used in the basin.

Serious health concerns also exist due to the high levels of nitrogen found in drinking water and that can lead to methaemoglobinaemia. High levels of nitrate have been reported in groundwaters from aquifers in several parts of the basin, particularly in the intensively cultivated areas of Hungary, Romania and Slovakia. The nitrate level in the Danube has increased four to five times in recent years. If this is allowed to continue, the region will face a serious health problem.

Organic materials discharged into a water body enhance the growth of heterotrophic organisms which consume the available dissolved oxygen. This can lead to changes in natural biodiversity as has been observed in some Danube tributaries; for example, the Vit River in Bulgaria is unable to support fish downstream of the city of Pleven, primarily due to the discharges from a sugar factory.

Competition for available water is a serious problem in some regions of the Danube river basin, particularly in Hungary and the tributaries in Romania and Bulgaria. The numerous diversions of water, combined with a large seasonal variation in flow, often result in a water supply shortage. A number of reservoirs have been constructed on the tributaries but the allocation of the available water resources among the users causes many conflicts and problems for reservoir operation. The challenges and problems of multipurpose water allocation have been growing in recent years because of a 10-year drought experienced in the lower Danube region. The city of Sofia is now supplied from the bottom of an almost empty reservoir and suffers from severe shortage in water supply. In addition, the water quality does not meet current standards, but no alternative is available.

Practices and policies in different sectors can be a cause of environmental problems or a constraint to effective action. Some of the sources of the pollution problems, and therefore the water quantity problems, result from the activities of cities, rural towns and villages, industry, energy production and transport, and agriculture.

In all sectors, the key actions required to bring about change must come from the public authorities, public and private enterprises, NGOs and the general public (as both citizens and as consumers). The relationships between these "actors" and the principal sectors and sources of pollution in the Danube river basin are outlined in Table IX.4.

IX.6 Strategic directions

The action plan provides long-term strategies and direction for developing detailed measures and programmes in each sector, and for the necessary management infrastructure and institutions that will be needed. The impact of the plan will be incremental and its success will be measured in step-by-step improvements.

Achieving the goals of the plan will occur through sustained and integrated action in the long-term. Although the countries in transition have seen declines in industrial production and changes in the agriculture sector that have resulted in reduced emissions and nutrient run-off, the resulting improvements in water and environmental quality may be only short-lived once economic activity in the countries picks up again. Unless there is a concerted effort to promote modernisation and restructuring in the industrial sector, based on cleaner technologies and production processes, and a policy shift in the direction of a more sustainable agriculture, the recent improvements in the middle and lower basin of the Danube will be short-lived. Progress in such areas as municipal wastewater treatment and control of industrial emissions, has apparently been much greater in Austria and Germany. However, the quality of the Danube and several of its tributaries in the upper basin suggests that far more must be done to achieve reasonable ambient water quality objectives.

Table IX.4 Management actions required by the three groups involved in use and control of water resources according to the main sectors and sources of pollution in the Danube river basin

Actions required in Actors Cities Rural towns and villages Industry Agriculture and livestock Public Invest in Manage sanitation and Regulate Administer training authorities infrastructure. drinking water protection hazardous and extension Establish programmes. Optimise waste. programmes. standards of water allocation and Regulate waste Administer effective drinking water distribution water water fees. service. discharges. Optimise water Insure adequate Administer allocation and tariffs. effective water distribution Optimise water and pollution allocation and fees. distribution Optimise water allocation and distribution Public and Operate Control seeping from Pre-treat Adopt imported private wastewater solid waste disposal into industrial practices for use of enterprises treatment groundwater. waste. fertilisers and facilities. Dispose of hazardous Reduce and agrochemicals. Pre-treat waste safely treat industrial Manage livestock industrial waste waste manure General Pay for service. Pay to protect drinking Support water Support water quality public and Conserve water. water sources. quality objectives. NGOs Adopt Adopt environmental objectives. Manage livestock environmental consumption standards. Support manure. consumption Manage household and effective Promote organic standards. farm wastes. regulations farming. Manage Support effective Support effective household regulations regulations hazardous wastes. Support effective regulations Source: Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin, 1994

An effective water management system requires an efficient monitoring strategy. Nearly all the countries in the basin need to improve their existing monitoring systems. In the meantime the countries have agreed to harmonise monitoring and assessment methods, to develop joint monitoring systems, to implement joint programmes, and to elaborate an interconnected data base management system. The international monitoring system that was being developed and initiated in 1993, funded by the EPDRB, consists of 224 stations for meteorological, hydrological, water and sediment quality monitoring. The lessons learned during the implementation of the EPDRB and the development of the strategic action plan show that the institutional and the policy issues are fundamental to its success. There are three important participants in that process: public authorities, public and private enterprises, and the general public and NGOs. The public authorities have to play the critical role as regulators and facilitators. The greatest contribution to its success may come from a sound institutional and policy framework, including modern laws, water management practices and administrative arrangements. The policy framework varies considerably throughout the basin. The following five key areas indicate where institutional and policy reform could have broad beneficial impacts on water management in the basin:

• Realistic and achievable emission limits and water quality standards. In central and eastern European areas of the basin, the water quality standards on which discharge limits are based are, in some cases, too stringent to be measured and, in many other cases, they are too stringent to be met in. They are, nevertheless, arguably correct from a scientific point of view. The result is that these standards have often been ignored because of the technical and financial difficulties in achieving them. The development of a coherent system of water classification, of water quality objectives tailored to meet local needs, i.e. the water uses to be supported in a particular river reach, and of water quality standards, would provide a better basis for water management and regulation.

• Implementation and enforcement. The choice of approach for implementing water quality objectives and standards is often represented as the choice between the "command and control" approach and the "market based" approach. The former has been relied upon heavily in the past in western countries in the basin. A combined approach of water quality standards, discharge limits for individual facilities and financial instruments can be most effective in bringing about improvement in an industrial enterprise's environmental performance.

• Incentives and disincentives. Nearly all countries in the basin have some form of discharge fee and penalty system in place. Water-use and pollution charges can be used as incentives for large or medium-sized industrial and municipal wastewater treatment plants to improve their performance. In the past, these charges or fines have usually been too low to cause any change in behaviour by enterprises.

• Monitoring and information systems. Information is needed to develop integrated water management plans, to assess ambient water quality, to monitor wastewater discharges, to implement and enforce laws and regulations, and to inform the public and decision- makers about the state of the environment and the performance of specific facilities. The preparation of the action plan has been notably weakened in key areas because of the lack of appropriate, consistent and reliable data. No adequate baseline exists against which to measure progress towards the action plan's objectives. The current monitoring systems in nearly all the basin countries are not able to support more effective integrated management systems.

• Integrated regional or river basin planning. Central planning and resource allocation were an important feature of water and environmental management in most of the central and eastern European countries in the basin. This has been abandoned for a decentralised approach without the benefit of sufficient time to develop and strengthen institutions at the district and local level so that they are able to carry out such planning. This is not just a problem of creating local capacity, however, because the nature of planning itself must change. The new approach must stress the integration of all sectors and objectives. It must be based on the application of benefit-cost or least-cost analysis, and it must rely on much greater participation on the part of the general public and other concerned groups.

Public and private enterprises both play an important role in some of the water resources management problems. Environmental audits, waste minimisation and demand management can provide a basis for the preparation of step-by-step, low-cost programmes for environmental improvement in industrial facilities. Waste minimisation could be aided by a programme of environmental improvement that includes training, changes in technology to avoid the generation of waste, and "win-win" solutions to reuse wastes. Demand management will decrease considerably water consumption and will provide the basis for increasing water use efficiency.

The general public and NGOs will play an important role in raising public awareness of, and participation in, governmental decisions about resource management and land use. These are vital to sustaining a political commitment to sound water policies. A strong base of support for the action plan will depend on developing mechanisms for the effective participation of the general public and concerned groups in the policies to be developed and the actions to be carried out under the action plan.

IX.7 Conclusions

Four key activities are required to support the proposed action in this large international river basin which covers countries with different economical, political and social conditions. These activities are aimed at water resources management and consist of:

• Enhancing regional and international co-operation. • Applying an integrated river basin approach. • Mobilising national financial and human resources. • Obtaining support from international organisations and financial institutions. The management process will be complex because it will be necessary to integrate capacity building at the same time as the operations are being improved, operators are being trained, and new equipment is being procured and installed. Furthermore, the action will need to be sustained over at least 20 years.

The cost of the programme is likely to be very large. This fact alone will challenge the political decision-makers in each country who must decide priorities. Much has to be done and the programme has given the impetus required to make a good start. It is hoped that the national action plans will facilitate the commissioning of new wastewater treatment plants and the development of policy, legislature and enforcement mechanisms, as well as encouraging attention to diffuse pollution in order to protect the Black Sea, which is badly needed.

IX.8 References

Task Force 1994 Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin, December, 1994. The Task Force for the Programme. IUCN 1994 Analysis and Synthesis of National Reviews. IUCN European Programme. Final report. The World Conservation Union, Gland.

Haskoning 1994 Danube Integrated Environmental Study. Final Report.