lunch : dialect 96 Bilgisi [Lectureson ] a wayofdefining,“Whatis  Inhislectures, Taut discussedfivecomponents(proportion, technique,construction,function,andquality)as Publishers, 1973). Werkbund beforetheFirst World War. See Wolfgang Pehnt, all tooclearto Taut sincehehad alreadyfoughtabattleagainstthe explored whilethedifferences havebeenexaggerated. The popularizingagendaoftheInternationalStylewas international styleinitself.Inmyopinion,thesimilaritiesbetweentheset wo campshavenotbeenadequately national Style Russell HitchcockandPhillipJohnsonin1932(See,Henry-RussellPhilipJohnson’s,  Bytheterm,“internationalstyles”z,Iamreferringnotonlytonternational Style asdefinedbyHenry- Akademisi. �����������  , MOB, 1993),52-66. in ],” BirBa “Do Germanspeaking Architects in Turkey, 1925-1955],(: Verlag furBau wesen, 1998);ManfredSpeidel, Nicolai, ModerneundExil:Deutschsprachige Architeckten inder Turkei, 1925-1955[ModernistsandExile: 1938,” in The Educationofthe Architect, ed.MarthaPollak,(Cambridge:MIT Press,1997),163-192;Bernd 2005). Also see,SibelBozdo German-Turkish ExchangesinLandSettlementandResidentialCulture”(Ph.D.diss.,ColumbiaUniversity, ferred toasavernacularcosmopolitanism,seeEsra Akcan, “Modernityin Translation: Early T For otherstudiesthatdiscussBruno Taut’s workin Turkey, histrans-nationalismorwhatEsra Akcan hasre in re-visits Taut’s then paper and following (1933-36) Japan in first exile, his during work discourse. architectural exclusive an of rationality the to confined system ordering autonomous an as conception traditional more its to contrast in culture-specific and site- made also is hardly it but architecture, of component definitive most the as is identified only not is proportion of conception particular Taut’smentioned in the existing discussions of example,this building, For period. this from consistent entirely been not have Turkey (1937-39) (Figure 1). in University the at building Geography and History Languages, of Faculty the able to put this program to use in the design and construction of his last major commission, program thatsimultaneouslycontainedbothregionalandtrans-nationalcomponents. architectural Tautstyles, an international devised of subtexts imperialist and capitalist the also but states, paternalistic of agendas homogenizing the only not resist to attempt an In 1940s. early and 1930s late the during states nation new of contexts nationalizing yet and culture and place of qualities particular to attention draw to began explicitly, this phrase conveyed the predicament that many modern architects faced as they the National and the �������������������������������� ��������������������������������� in Fine Arts of Academy Bruno national,” Tautis architecture good the all at students his to expressed (1880-1938) Ph.D. Candidate, Architectural History Burak Erdim Bruno Taut’s Trans-national Detailsfrom 1933to1938 From GermanytoJapanand Turkey: Modernity, Locality, and ğ allık veÖzgürlük:Bruno Taut’un Türkiye’deki Yapıları [NaturalnessandFreedom:Bruno Taut’s Buildings Just before his untimely death during his exile in exile his during death untimely his before Just but bad, is architecture nationalist “All dictum, phrased carefully the Through 1938), 333. , 1932,(New York: W.W. Norton,1966)),butalsotoClassical Mimari Bilgisi[Lectureson Architecture] ş kentin Olu International styles in architecture. Architecture?”, whichbecamethetitle oftheopeningchapterhisbook, ğ an, “AgainstStyle:Bruno Taut’s PedagogicalProgramin Turkey, 1936- ş umu: Ankara, 1923-1950[TheMakingofaCapital: Ankara], (Ankara: TM �������������������������������� I�������������������������������� ard the formal concerns of both of concerns formal the toward position critical his stanbul . It is interesting to note that existing readings of this building ith the ideas expressed in Taut’sin expressed ideas program the architectural with , Trans. ����� Expressionist Architecture Adnan Kolatan.(:GüzelSanatlar design forexport while, in Taut’s program, proportion  At the same time and perhaps less ��������� ���������� stanbul (1936-38), Taut (1936-38), Istanbul Architecture whichisofcoursean ithin the modernizing the within policiesoftheGerman , (New York: Praeger  ����� wentieth Century �������� The Inter

Mimari   The

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Burak Erdim Burak Turkey and Japan to Germany From 97 lunch : dialect 98 1937-39. University in Ankara, BrunoTaut, Geography buildingatthe Ankara Faculty ofLanguages,History, and Figure 1 but transcendsregionalornationalboundaries. logic ofconstructionthatisresponsive tospecificphysicalphenomena, ally definedelement, Taut finds ittobethemanifestationofauniversal is interestingtonotethatwhileFramptonseesthetectonicas region ing thedialecticbetweenglobalandregional. At thesametime,it interesting thattheybothfocusedon tectonicsintheirdiscussionregard Kenneth Framptonwouldhavedisagreedonthisissueofresistance,itis that aredevisedbyindustrializednations.EventhoughBruno Taut and tance oratleastacriticalacceptanceofthesocialandeconomicsystems 26-8. Framptonsuggeststhatdevelopingnationsshouldfosteraresis especially thesub-chaptertitled,“TheResistanceofPlace-Form,” thetic: EssaysonPost-ModernCulture Points foran Architecture ofResistance,”HalFoster, ed., Frampton’s influentialessay, “Towards aCriticalRegionalism:Six  HereIamreferringtotheresistancethatisadvocatedbyKenneth Johnson Phillip and Hitchcock Henry-Russell by word, this of use stylistic the and formalistic the example, for to, relative mid-1930s, and early- the during Taut, to mean “international” word, the did What question: the asking his architecturalprogram. between the regional and the trans-national components of a resistance of instead interaction, sustained a promoted therefore He architecture. modern of development continuous the to also but career, own his of continuation the to only not the dialectic between the local and the global that felt Tautmodernity, of margins the be to considered Working from this displaced position and in what was then of position conception unusual his legitimize existential and understand to sought Taut’s he as modernity reflected also they , European of limits the theoretical the and formal challenge to served program architectural Taut’s of that throughout the the masonry pattern, but also the dimensional relationships of dimensioning the only not informed have may system actual regionally responsive element since this proportional Taut’son based uncovered, the then as is program, system primary element. national the as identified trans- a as read be instead could component, nationalizing repeatedly been has building, Languages which of Faculty the of pattern coursing makes two primary claims. First, it argues that the masonry program. consistent with the ideas expressed in his final architectural Turkey (1936-38) in order to provide a reading that is more hile the regional and the trans-national components trans-national the and regional the while One can begin the analysis of Taut’sby of program analysis the begin can One paper the re-examination, this of result a As e dfeet utrs n rgos and regions and cultures different between , whole building. Second, the paper suggests rig s displaced a as working A site- and culture-specific proportional culture-specific and site- 

, (New York: Norton1983),see sen expert. western was essential The Anti-Aes - - - - Adnan Kolatan.(Istanbul:GüzelSanatlar Japan in Berlin,mostof Taut’s writingsfromthisperiodcanbefoundingpublications: inthefollo 11 10 Junghanns,221. 86-99. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987),and,IvanZaknic,“OfLeCorbusier’s EasternJourney,” Corbusier (Charles-EdouardJeanneret), extended onlyasfarIstanbulin1911 whenCorbusierasyoungandatthebeginningofhiscareer. See,Le Taut’s journeytotheEastcouldalsobecomparedandcontrastedwithLeCorbusier’s journeytotheEastwhich following .See, Wolfgang Pehnt, collaboration ofBruno Taut, ,andMiesvanderRoheespeciallyduringtheyearsimmediately  Wolfgang Pehnt,forexample, haspointedoutthesimilarroots,commonbeliefs,andclosefriendship  SibelBozdo ������������������������������ grams andManifestoeson20th-Century Architecture free plan,horizontalwindos,andfaçade,in,“FivePointstoardsaNe Architecture,” 1926,in book, with athirdproscribingarbitraryapplieddecoration,marktheproductionsofinternationalstyle,”intheir ondly, regularityratherthanaxialsymmetryservesas thechiefmeansoforderingdesign. These twoprinciples, formal terms. They wrote,“Thereis,first,anewconceptionofarchitectureas volumeratherthanasmass.Sec States, theydeliberatelyavoideditssocialandpoliticalcontentdefineditastheInternationaltyleinpurely  As Henry-RussellHitchcockandPhillipJohnsonsoughttopopularizeModern Architecture intheUnited precedents. regional and historical of analysis an on based formulating a theoretical foundation for the development of a modern Japanese architecture commissions. began to develop during his exile in Japan principles tochallengethelimitsofEuropeanModernism? new architecture. Taut as its architectural tradition responded to the tectonic and the spiritual principles of the to the United to go to the East, while, for example, Walter Moscow He traveled over land and sea routes through Marseilles, Naples, Athens, of Federation Japanese the Architects, Taut from left via Switzerland and began invitation a long and arduous journey an at the age of 53. accepting After execution. possible and modern housing design in Berlin, Taut had to flee 1933. and 1931 between Union Soviet the in involvement and interest extensive his to due particularly 1933 in bolshevist Taut experienced a life-changing displacement nationalist states. new the by invented being were that identities and populations homogenizing the fit not groups minority and ethnic many time, that At Worldof Warend the following Europe in created were that populations trans-national political as well as artistic implications and reflected the actual conditions of the displaced years? same very those during KurtJunghanns,“Bruno Taut,” Aside fromhisremainingmanuscripts andletters,mostofwhichcanbefoundinthe , Tokyo: SanseidoCo.Ltd.,1937,2nded,1958;and, The InternationalStyle , and Vladivostok in order to get to Japan. to get to and order , in Vladivostok ers to these questions in lectures, essays, and books that he that books and essays, lectures, in questions these to answers provided Taut Along ğ an, “AgainstStyle…,”164. States? sed te aaee eeain fAciet etutd i te ak of task the him entrusted Architects of Federation Japanese the Instead, ith many others across the extended geography of Europe and Eurasia, and Europe of geography extended the across others many with 10 , (Tokyo: The SocietyforInternationalCulturalRelations,1937); But,  Kurt Junghanns argued that the East and particularly Japan attracted , 20. what Lotus Also see,LeCorbusier’s formalandstaticfivepoints: were these principles and in  9(1975):221.  For Taut, the Taut, For Journey totheEast ing a successful career as an expert and leader in leader and expert an as career successful a Following Akademisi. ������ Expressionist Architecture where he , UlrichConrads,ed.,(Cambridge:MIT Press, 200),99. 1938). Gropius and came when the Nazi regime declared him a cultural

ord, “international” certainly had social, had certainly “international” word, Mimari Bilgisi[Lectureson Architecture] , IvanZaknic,ed.andtrans.withNicolePertuiset, ere relocated or massacred as they did they as massacred or relocated were Germany in order to avoid imprisonment  did Why Tauttrouble such through go was not given substantial architectural what particular , (New York: PraegerPublishers,1973). 11 ard this end, on October on end, To this ward Houses andPeopleof Akademie derK����� Oppositions pilotis Istanbul, Odessa, ways Fundamentals of , roofgarden, were these 18(1979): , Trans. Pro ü���� nste -

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Burak Erdim Burak Turkey and Japan to Germany From 99 lunch : dialect 100 15 Ibid. 14 Ibid. 13 Ibid,5-6. International CulturalRelations,1937). 12 Forthefullreport,seeBruno Taut, which (Figure architecture various trans-national influences had always been a part of the making of Japanese art and qualities. regional at been always for Europe.” the West. He told his audience, “the exotic no longer exists in Europe for Japan or in Japan with West,the fascination to Japanese limited certain be a Taut not dispel could to sought concept a such how showing by and environment its and object the between relationship beauty as such concept universal a how proposing by the country: in short, of culture and environment the by it upon made demands the utmost, its to fulfilled the Temple,Doric in the or Cathedral, Gothic the in the West. He claimed, “Beauty may be called ‘eternal’ only when the form—whether in to show function in a place that architecture. and art these that felt he all, After lecture by pointing out interactions withotherregionsandcultures. present Japan’sand also past but analysis, self careful a only not from generated be could his own interaction experiences and interactions. From this empirical perspective, he freedom subjectivity,inevitable his of Taut limits the identifying By the East.Hedeclared, in working architect western twentieth-century a as position subjective his of significance Shinkokai). Bunka for Society Japanese the to presented he that Japanese of Architecture” “Fundamentals titled, lecture a in suggestions and observations Tauthis culture, summarized and history Japanese studying of years two only after 1935, ere believed to be the icons of traditional Japanese architecture, Japanese traditional of icons the be to believed were , what he considered, universal concepts did not just originate from and exist solely Taut Once Tauthis continued he interaction, this of importance central the established a trulyjustcriticism,independentoftimeandspace? historical data, but also stylistic questions and qualities of old which and speak must artists conception artistic the by conditioned necessarily is historic the toward attitude my architect, an As hich to him to which 15 een regions have regions bet ween communication and interaction how show to on went would be objective in the sense that it r i te eeomn of, development the in work when it is a successful realization of the entirety of things.” ed in a diagram how diagram a in Tautshowed point, this articulate further to order In 12 with Japan in order to suggest that a possible new Japanese architecture ). He explained that both the Katsura Palace and the Nikko Temple,Nikko the and Palace Katsura the both that explained He 2). at ea b rcgiig h lmt as limits the recognizing by began Taut what he found to be shared sensibilities between as simultaneously bound and set free by the limits of one’svery of limits the by free set and bound simultaneously was was less familiar to him. which Fundamentals ofJapanese Architecture rite subjectively about art. But is there any science of art of science any there is But art. about subjectively write s that follows it this From realize. to endeavor myself I a i a tms asl cniee t be, to considered falsely times at is what ed him to him allowed that qualities very the were nternational Cultural Relations (Kokusai Relations Cultural International In this part of his lecture, his purpose se Shrine and the Katsura Palace—has Katsura the and Shrine Ise would present authentically not only as a function of the quality of the of quality the of function a was as making a case for artistic for case a making was 13 , 1936,(Tokyo: The Societyfor l a te fundamental the as well was drawing attention to works—thus giving western and eastern ere the result the were 14

In this way, was 16 Taut, Taut reflected, both unity rare a and the site. building the between relationship harmonious a reflected system proportional responsive formulated that this logic of construction could become, “building art” and eastern both of examples positive the by shared was way, Taut pointed out that this traditions. responsiveness to site, culture, and climate vernacular and medieval, Gothic, European of Taut reminded houses produce to influence blended that tradition local positive the as Prefecture Gifu in that farmhouses ninth-century the provided Taut site. and the climatic conditions in and order to respond to materials, the peculiar requirements of available their specific culture traditions, craft rituals, social yet various and synthesized origins had trans-national they had buildings two these that explained He side. positive affected theproportionalqualitiesofitsarchitecture. sense in an earthquake-prone region since it required unnecessary bracing structural TempleNikko make the not of did roof heavy excessively the that example, for produced Katsura, did not respond to the had qualities of its that site and climate. He culture demonstrated, tea the to contributed had it though even Temple,Buddhist the that felt side, negative the Taut On development. its along line positive a and negative a identified architecture, TautJapanese of genealogy the through differenceTracingsites. this their of buildings were drastically different in the way that they responded to the specific conditions influences. Buddhist and Chinese strong of ofJapanese building traditions.BrunoTaut. development the on negative influences and positive the showing Diagram Figure 2

Mimari Bilgisi as spirituality and beauty of functions the in indeed, function; of realization perfect In the defined Taut side, positive the On world architecture this Palace is one of the soundest examples of complete and ell as that of utility. The extent to extent utility.The of that as well 16 Taut put forward the Katsura Palace as the perfect example that had achieved ithin and within , seeCh.2“Proporsiyon[Proportion],” 25. atsura. The rational and responsive construction of the of construction responsive and rational The Katsura. ithout despite its trans-national and trans-regional origins. trans-regional and trans-national its despite without t the same time, Taut observed that the two the that Tautobserved time, same the At hich every detail has been brought into brought been has detail every which se and the and Ise estern cultures. western ere preserved at Shirakawa at preserved were atsura as belonging to the to belonging as Katsura ith the Chinese Buddhist Chinese the with when a dynamic and which negatively was a value that n addition, he addition, In Shirakawa

this In

Burak Erdim Burak Turkey and Japan to Germany From 101 lunch : dialect 102 20 BasedonhisreadingsofaJapanese scientistDr. Tadasu Misawa, Taut proposed,“…thesmallsizeofthe trans-national program. essentially infavorofanationalarchitecture, Taut begantomodifytheirideas wards thedevelopmentofa 19th Century. What isdifferent about Taut howeveristhatwhile Greenough andRuskindevelopedtheir ideas the pioneersofmodernmovement suchasHoratioGreenoughorJohnRuskinduringthe first halfofthe the buildingtositeandculturespecific qualities, Taut wascontinuingamodeof criticismthatwasbegunby 19 Byfundamentallyopposingarbitraryuseofproportionandbylinking theorganization oftheelements of 18 Bruno Taut, 17 Taut, differences. proportional significant have bodies eastern man, Taut proposed a responsive humanism by recognizing that, for example, Vitruvianthe Vinci’sof da interpretation Leonardo of proportions ideal the by suggested architecture. in traditions classical the as or autonomous formal or proportional systems suggested by the landscape cultural the and architecture rooted initsculturalandphysicalsetting. through principle key the of the of coldness the and summers winters in Japan. He continued that the same temple would have been the “dead like a fish out of humidity the to connected directly are Shrine the of system proportioning specific the and beauty the that Tautwrote “Proportion,” 1938. and 1936 between Turkey in lectures his in used and book, his in construction of logic trans-national the and site, proportion, between relationship the articulated further Taut ater in the bright sun and transparent air of Greece.” of air transparent and sun bright the in water Fundamentals… Consequently, Tautrelationshipbetween responsive dynamic and reasonedthata one ofthempredominatestothedetrimenttheirunityasawhole. so proportion perfect n individuality,own their have details smallest the even although that done well Lectures… , 34. , 56. Also see,Bozdo hich the trans-national tectonic logic of a building could be could building a of logic tectonic trans-national the which ith every other is other every with etrs n Architecture on Lectures ğ an, “AgainstStyle…,”183. ould have to oppose the legitimacy of universal of legitimacy the oppose to have would 19

sed f rirr goercl relationships geometrical arbitrary of Instead orthy of great admiration. This has been has This admiration. great of worthy 20 18 He demonstrated this idea in a in idea this demonstrated He

n this In n the second chapter titled, chapter second the In ht e opld n Japan in compiled he that aitos n aaee and Japanese Western men,BrunoTaut, 1938. in variations Diagram showing the proportional Figure 3 International Style as way,became proportion 17 western and

well Ise 21 This diagramfirstappearedinhis, particular useofthisisinterestingand canbeanalyzedfurther. Japan Taut feltthatarchitecturalproportionshouldbe a functionofcultureaswell.See, Taut, Japanese isnopeculiarityofracebut aconsequenceoftheirstyleliving,foodandcustoms.”Similarly, Japanese housethroughconversationsthathehadwithhisfriendMr. Suzuki, the and Westernbody aging his between match uneasy this winter.Tautexpressed the in his head in Japanese houses and that the sketchbooks that, despite his admiration for Japanese building traditions, he kept bumping that theidentityofaregioncouldnolongerbelimitedtostaticdefinitionsandborders. that interactions everyday , as architecture, Japanese modern a for program the that Tautfelt Palace Katsura the as Taut’sjust in and square diagram, the and circle the of halves two the up made bodies the and Japanese the as just point, key a is this and However, inhabitants. its of needs physical and cultural specific the to respond now could square the and circle the of components the central, remained proportion of idea the while and, flexible be to halves 3). (Figure man one just than more contain diagram Kume andBrunoTaut, 1936. Gonkuro Tokyo, Azabu, Okura, House Figure 4 , 41. While suchpseudo-scientifictheoriesonraceandcultureare of coursehighlyquestionable, Taut’s here he split the Vitruvian circle and the square in half so that the that so half in square the and Vitruvianthe circle split he where you must admit that example, for roofs, projecting of Talkingall. at suitable not is building of style Mr. Suzuki houses tocross-ventilate)… which allows the and daily occupations… adapted itself to the special climate of Japan and is in harmony Taut his in note to hesitate not did Taut interactions, these of nature the Regarding : What : : Ah, as the result of a synthesis of both Chinese and Japanese traditions, Japanese and Chinese both of synthesis a of result the was would continuously develop through an open acknowledgement of the o en s h amrbe a i wih h Jpns hue has house Japanese the which in way admirable the is mean do I well, you may be right. But then, you see, for modern life the old wind to blow through it (commenting on the ability of Japanese een regions. between place taking already were we have no use any more for these dark old-fashioned rooms Houses andPeopleofJapan I must really rack my brains to remember a modern house tatami 21

floors were utterly cold and uncomfortable plitting the ideal figure allowed the two the allowed figure ideal the Splitting , 41;andlaterin, ell as the program for program the as well Lectures… Houses andPeopleof n this In with local customs , 65. hole could whole ay, he felt way,he

western

Burak Erdim Burak Turkey and Japan to Germany From 103 lunch : dialect 104 atr o te aut o Languages building. of Faculty the of pattern masonry stone and brick Alternating Figure 5 furniture suchaschairs,tables,armchairs andcouches,etc. 23 Villa Okura wasalsodesignedspecificallytoaccommodate Western kyo: SanseidoCo.Ltd.,1937,2nded,1958), 255-74. Taut, “Whatnow?(ChapterXI),”in Japan,” 22 This passageistakenfrom,Bruno Taut, “HousesandPeopleof that system proportional culture-specific and site- the provide such of adjustment careful conditions climatic and cultural to features the that felt Taut regions. other of requirements cultural the importantly most and levels humidity temperatures, angles, sun the to adapted and devices shading sun- the between relationship the that felt Taut summers, Japanese the of humidity oppressive the and techniques, building forms, traditional the to response specific a were air movement. awning the allowing months summer the during sunlight direct block to operable sun- clerestory and devices shading horizontal the of use extensive made building The of Villadesigned Okura 1936 in A forces. occurred global interaction the similar and local the between continuous the interaction to responsive be consistently process could that architectural an also but architecture, Japanese very new a only these not of through conception the ideas towards conversations develop to sought Taut that complex infinitely the resolve modernity,tradition, of identity.issues and to try they as subjects t wo ween bet or other the and self the betw een encounter dynamic a in present nuances be can that structures the power the and of accounts direct most the of one provide follow to eventually comes East the or student the that logic the provide West,the and Taut’she in teacher/master,case, the where remind one of the hierarchical dialectic in Plato’s conversations Taut’s hand, one the On Japanese architecture could be (Figure 4). (Figure be could architecture Japanese new a what een the between relationship harmonious a enable would Daidalos s, therefore creating both ventilation and ventilation both creating therefore windos, vn huh oiotl u-hdn devices sun-shading horizontal though Even slavish imitationofforeignstyles… completely! That Taut in theinterior… arm air to rise and escape through the high the through escape and rise to air warm : Nobody said you 54(1994):65-66.Forthefullconversation see,Bruno 23 . On the other hand, Taut’sconversations hand, other the On . ith Gonkuro Kume, as an example an as Kume, Gonkuro with cud e eragd and rearranged be could windos would be as terrible a mistake as Houses andPeopleofJapan were to imitate the old style e Buo Taut Bruno when s in order in windos t M. Suzuki Mr. with ould begin to begin would t is significant is It 22 Republic , (To while -

ishe Emigration1930bis1950 Republican Turkey,” (inEnglish) inBerndtNicolai,ed., 27 SibelBozdo Republic For example,see,SibelBozdo periodizations usedinthisreference have beencalledintoquestionbymorerecentanddetailedanalyses. Architecture 26 ForasurveyofModern Turkish Architecture see,RenataHolodand Ahmet Evin,eds., Verlag furBauwesen,1998). in der Turkei, 1925-1955[ModernistsandExile:Germanspeaking Architects in Turkey, 1925-1955] Virginia, 2004). the EncounterbetweenBruno Taut andthe Turkish Republicfrom1936-38,”(Master’s thesis,University of 25 Foranextensiveanalysisof Taut’s schoolbuildings in Turkey see,BurakErdim,“Lostin Translation: largely onMartin Wagner’s recommendations. Wagner wasalreadyin Turkey at thattime. process complicatedbythepreferencesofNazisympathizersin Turkey, Taut wasfinallyoffered thejobbased Academy ofFine Arts inIstanbul,diedunexpectedlybeforehis(Poelzig’s) arrival.Followingalongelimination 1936 whenHansPoelzig(anotherHouseofFriendshiparchitect),ho as totakeErnstEgli’s positionatthe [M.E.T.U. Facultyof Architecture Journal] Yarı Heuss Haus derFreundschaftinKonstantinopel,Ein Wettewerb Deutscher For furtherdetailsonthecompetitionsee,Deutschen Werkbund undderDeutsch-Türkischen Vereinigung, Taut’s originalintellectualandarchitecturalinterest intheEastwenthandithGermanImperialism. quently theirhopesofextendingGermany’s tradeblocallthewaytoIndiathroughPersianGulf. Therefore, House ofFriendshipwasneverbuiltsinceGermanyandtheOttomanEmpirelost World War I andconse also actedasthejudgesandGermanBestelmeyer’s proposalwaschosentheinningentry. However, the tects whowereinvitedtothecompetitionchosenby Werkbund aswell. The participatingarchitects German military). The competitionwasorganized bytheDeutscher Werkbund andthetwelveGermanarchi eleven participatingarchitects(Walter Gropiuswasalsoinvited,butcouldnotcomesinceheservinginthe develop aproposalfortheGerman-Turkish HouseofFriendshipCompetitioninIstanbul.Hewasonethe 24 This was Taut’s secondsignificantencounterwithIstanbul. Taut firstcametoIstanbulin1916order building ( pattern brick and stone architects. foreign for TurkishGovernment the of the popularity not only of the movement, architecture. Turkish modern of History the in Movement National Second the as place andrespondtothearchitecturalneedsofavarietysettingscultures. architect an as position Tauthis allowed legitimize also to program trans-regional and regional simultaneously This proportion. of use the through culture-specific and site- made and adjusted be could that components mobile contained Turkey.Trabzon,Ankara, and in designed he that buildings school of number a of classrooms the into devices not only in his own house in Ortaköy, but also in order to bring natural light deeper Works. Public and Education of Ministry the of architect chief the as serve Fine to of and Academy Arts place, the from invitation TurkishRepublic, Tautunfamiliar another yet in arrived and Japan left building and the cultural and the physical environment. On October 10, 1936, follo wing an ş ması, 1916[Turkish-German FriendshipHouseCompetition,1916],” , (München: Verlag vonF. Bruckman tnu, n re t tah s h ha o te eatet fAcietr a the at Architecture of Department the of head the as teach to order in Istanbul, , (Seattle:Universityof Washington Press,2001). On October 10, 1936 Taut arrived in as interpreted by architects and scholars as a as scholars and architects by interpreted was , (Philadelphia,PA: UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1984).Oneshould notethatsomeofthe which ğ ������������������������������������������� Also seerelevantessaysin,BerndNicolai, an, “NationalizingtheModernHouse: RegionalismDebatesandEmigré Architects inEarly 24 While in While was advocated largely by Turkish architects, came as a backlash against 25

n this In ğ , (Trier: Porta Alba Verlag, 2003),185-186. alma�� an, stanbul, Taut repeatedly made use of the similar sun-shading similar the of use made repeatedly Taut Istanbul, Modernism andNationBuilding: Turkish Architectural CultureintheEarly International Style, but also of the almost exclusive preference shık ay, Taut felt that the trans-national logic of construction of logic trans-national the that way,felt Taut )������������������������������������������������������ (Fall1975):177-210. Taut’s seconddestinywith Turkey came in that covered the exterior of the Faculty of Languages of Faculty the of exterior the covered that A.G.), 1918;andSühaÖzkan,“Türk-lmanDostluk Yurdu Öneri Istanbul at the height of Architecktur undExil:Kulturtransferarchitekton Moderne undExil:Deutschsprachige Architeckten 27 Within this context, Taut’scontext, Withinthis alternating Architekten, miteinführungvon Theodor elcomed attempt at regionalism at attempt welcomed ho could move from place to place from move could who O.D.T.Ü. MimarlıkFakültesiDergisi what Modern Turkish was later termed , (Berlin: 26 - Izmir, This -

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Burak Erdim Burak Turkey and Japan to Germany From 105 lunch : dialect 106 Faculty ofLanguagesbuilding. Stair detail, Figure 6 These dimensionsalsoseemlowerthantheones Taut hadused insimilar sions that Taut usedareonthelowerendofinternationalstandards. which arederivedlargely fromphotographs, showthattheriserdimen version ofthe Architectural GraphicStandards.Mycurrentestimates, dimensions aredifferent fromthestandards suggestedbytheGerman 30 Ihavenotyetbeenabletoverify whether, forexample,thestair riser have builtboththeChristianandMuslimbuildings. He argues thatattimesandinparticularcases,thesamemasonsmay demonstrates thetransnationaloriginsofthisparticularmasonrypattern. in EarlyOttoman Architecture.” ( 29 SeeRobertOusterhout’s “EthnicIdentityandCultural Appropriation 1994): 43. tory ofContemporary Architecture in Turkey,” ( ������������� opinion, highlysuccessful.”See,���� impart a Turkish charactertohisbrickandstonewallsas,inmy 28 Forexample,SedadHakk������������������������������������������� 6). (Figure pattern masonry the of logic tectonic the by up set system proportional the by heights ceiling and openings, windo of the building. Stair riser dimensions, height and component every of dimensioning the modulates masonry the of coursing horizontal the that finds one interior, the relationship location. its and specific building the between more established was a which through means the Taut that system established proportional through the use particular of this pattern the may have provided regional, the of geographically for Taut, betweenregionsandcultures. continuity rather than a discontinuity, both historically and a create to served have may detail this character, national to the all Germany from continuity tectonic and cultural him provided pattern particular this that found have may he houses, Shirakawa the and Gothic European the between parallels tectonic finding was Taut as just way, Greece, Turkey, of parts in only not Byzantine buildings and Turkish both of construction the in used particular this that noticed also have must he Palace, Katsura the of tectonics trans-national the and origins international the recognized had Taut as just However, State. Turkish new the of context nationalizing traditions building Rum-Seljuk and Ottoman and Turkish solely be to building the throughout used the that fact the to due largely 5). (Figure architect foreign a by tnu. hrfr, nta o clbaig n isolated an celebrating of instead Therefore, Istanbul. alma�� At the same time, even though the actual origins actual the though even time, same the At shık pattern tnu, u as truhu other throughout also but Istanbul, ı Eldemwrote,“Bruno Taut ...attemptedto s o ecuiey ainl or national exclusively not was ay ad h Balkans. the and Italy, “Towards aLocalIdiom: A BriefHis s soitd only associated was Muqarnas as conveniently considered conveniently was alma�� 28 30 This interpretation This hrfr, t becomes it Therefore, . 12(1995)):48-6,wherehe shık all pattern had been had pattern wall Zodiak ere all established all were pattern that Tautthat pattern ������������������� 10,(September ti the within t early with 29 width of

this In ith a with way was - - In to Istanbulin1916. Verlag, 200).Oneexplanationofthissimilarity is that Taut wasexposedtothe coursing patternsusedbothontheexterior andinteriorofbuildingsin, Taut, Taut had usedcoursingpatternssimilartothatoftheFacultyLanguagesbuilding. Seethevariousstone 34 Inaddition,duringthe1920s,hiso wn architecturalpracticeandcollaborationithhisbrotherMax ist Architecture,” (Diss.Columbia University, 1973),544. 33 RosemarieHaagBletter, “Bruno Taut andPaulScheerbart’s Vision: Utopian Aspects ofGermanExpression Culture” (Ph.D.diss.,ColumbiaUniversity, 2005),690-739. nity in Translation: Early T 32 ForamoreextensivediscussionoftheideatranslationinBruno Taut’s work,seeEsra Akcan, “Moder Languages building.SeeBozdo proportional principlesofOttomanarchitecturesoastoapplythemthe designofthefaçadeFaculty 31 Ithasbeensuggestedthat Taut waspreoccupiedithdiscoveringtheunderlyinggoldensectionin proportional systemthatordersthewholebuilding. structural frame.Nevertheless,itspatterndefinedbythealternatingcourses ofstoneandbrickmanifeststhe system in Turkey. The masonrysystemis notstructuralandservesasacladdingsystemthatcoverstheconcrete buildings inGermany. These findingscouldsupportthethesisthat Taut mayhaveusedadifferent dimensioning that system proportional a of use the through sources Katsura trans-national synthesize the Turkey,to in Tautsought of Similarly Palace. system proportional the and constructional the in synthesis a found had the trans-regional. and regional the between dialectic the regarding investigation ongoing an of components but also between the fragments of Taut’s career allowing him to reconstruct its parts as vital his responsive proportional system served to create a continuity not only between regions, who a as position unwelcomed times Taut’sat legitimize to served continuity a such of possibility The regions. these of traditions tectonic the and experience national Taut that argue could one examples, Japan. in Villathe Okura and Turkey in building the resemble pattern, the buildings entrance these canopy, of and the components stone The coursing University.pattern of both the Faculty at of Languages those TautFischer, Theodor mentor, firm. construction had Taut 1901, and 1897 between Königsberg in Building a at training While years. formative his Tautsince to importance considerable held had example, for patterns, coursing stone and life own his of fragments discontinuous the of out he but culture, and place each of conditions specific the of out grow could that Modernism responsive a invent to trying only not was between culturesandregionsasitreflectedthetrans-nationallogicofconstruction. tectonic system of a building program, an autonomous system such as proportion was made site-specific while the basic Taut’sarchitectural in Consequently, conditions. local particular been to have respond to may designed dimensions particular its trans-regional, Ankara. remained of logic conditions constructional climatic and cultural, physical, the to responsive be to adjusted been have may system proportional this that suggest to possible was to understand regional conditions better than his/her local colleagues. In Japan, Taut had shown how trans-national encounters between China and Japan One could suggest that, through the components of this architectural program, Taut 33

adto, er ltr wie okn udr i ms influential most his under working while later, years addition, In wentieth CenturyGerman-Turkish Exchanges inLandSettlementandResidential ğ an, “AgainstStyle…,”184. was seen as the trans-regional element, providing a continuity orked on the design of many stone buildings including buildings stone many of design the on worked as responsive to the Turkish culture and climate. One climate. and culture Turkishthe to responsive was een his trans- his between parallels establish to trying was as also attempting to construct a continuity a construct to attempting also was rt VocationalArt 34 By pointing to the similarities in these in similarities the to pointing By re a a ao’ apetc i a in apprentice mason’s a as worked : Bauten work. chool (Baugewerksschule) School 31 32 alma��

tn cntuto and construction Stone this In shık , (Berlin:Gebr. Mann patternwhenhecame way, estern expert western In this ie the while windo way, -

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Burak Erdim Burak Turkey and Japan to Germany From 107 lunch : dialect 108 guin, 1988),15. 38 MarshallBerman, 37 ManfredSpeidel,“Do Expressionist Architecture This ideawastolatersurfacein Walter Gropius’s multiplicity ofsenseshasalsomadeitswaytoandnecessitatedtheideateam work inarchitecturalpractice. the totalenvironmentthatcalleduponmorethanoneofman’s senses.” The essenceofthegoaltoappeala a doublemeaning. As normallyused,itmeanttheunionofallartsinarchitecture,butalsoreferredto 36 Wolfgang Pehntwrites,“Intheexpressionistcontextword Ankara] Bruno Taut’s Buildingsin Turkey],” 35 ManfredSpeidel,“Do read simply as Taut’s attempt at regionalism. this in Seen regions. and cultures other of lives the to responsive it make to and reign universal so-called its from As Taut a sustained his through dialogue hand, other the On identity. Taut’s modifying in success limited this In familiar or comprehensible to his he of When Taut was faced with the loss of the familiar and the discovery of the unfamiliar, both description oftheexperiencemodernity, Taut expressed from to explode.” No one is in their real home. However, in arrival his after and experiences, there group this orchestra.” symphony a in instruments different the playing are Education, of Workingatmosphere, this in Taut“Withwrote, Ministry the of office the at colleagues my Turkishnew Republic. the of doctrines modernizing the and nationalism the to or Empire out sort to trying themselves with other exiled Germans, Austrians, as Languages building, the Facultyof of the design that during add should Taut was way through which, as Berman suggests, was, for the most part, able to absorb only those qualities and concepts that . (Ankara: TMMOB, 1993),54. ay, one could argue that the interaction Taut had Taut interaction the that argue could one way, was removed from Germany, he resolved to remove the ancient idea of proportion renewal, ofstruggleandcontradiction,ambiguityanguish. and disintegration perpetual of maelstrom a into all us pours it disunity: of unity unity,paradoxical a is it a But mankind. all unite to said be can modernity sense, of boundaries all across cut geography and ethnicity, experiences of class and nationality, of religion and ideology: in this and environments Modern are. we time, that threatens to destroy everything the and ourselves of transformation growth, joy,power, adventure, us promises that environment an in ourselves find to is Tomodern be with the East, Taut began to come to terms as that, was 37 This simultaneous feeling of loss and discovery or exhaustion and rigor that e are we which he could begin to design and live responsively in an unfamiliar All thatisSolidMeltsinto Air: The ExperienceofModernity stanbul, TautIstanbul, ğ ğ ithin the group, in addition to each individual’sbackgrounds each varied to addition in group, the within Istanbul, perhaps not surprisingly, resembled Marshall Berman’s later , (New York: PraegerPublishers,1973),19. allık veÖzgürlük…,”58. allık veÖzgürlük:Bruno Taut’un Türkiye’deki Yapıları [NaturalnessandFreedom: orking on the details of the Faculty of Languages building as if as building Languages of Faculty the of details the on working was a shared and simultaneous feeling of loss and discovery. ay, the details of the Faculty of Languages building can not be not can building Languages of Faculty the way,of details the Bir Ba were inevitable components of the experience of modernity, hether they belonged to their memories of the Ottoman the of memories their to belonged they whether rote to his to wrote western background, identity, and architectural thinking. ş kentin Olu I am happily here and so busy that my head is about Architects’ Collaborative,forexample.See, Wolfgang Pehnt, well as Turkish colleagues and students ş umu: Ankara, 1923-1950[TheMakingofaCapital: Instead, they ife, “Today, living has become very hard. very become “Today,has wife, living we have, everything with such limitations and to formulate Gesamtkunstwerk were Taut’s direct response to a ith other cultures had only had cultures other with 35 , (New York: Viking Pen What Taut liked about liked TautWhat orld--and at the same the at world--and , or‘totalworkofart,’ had we know 38 were already , everything who working 36 world. Soon were - we (Berlin: Verlag furBauwesen,1998),92. 1925-1955 Nicolai, Bernd Source: Figure 6 1997), 185. 1936-1938,” in Bozdo Sibel Source: building. 5 Figure 2001), 185. Avantgarde und Tradition zwichen Architekt 1880-1938: Taut Bruno Source: Winfried Nerdinger, Figure 4 41. 1958), Press, Sanseido (Tokyo: 1937, Japan, of People and Houses Taut,Bruno Source: Bruno Taut, 1938. 3 Figure International CulturalRelations,1937),25. Taut, Bruno Source: Japanese buildingtraditions.Bruno Taut. Figure 1997), 176. 1936-1938,” in Bozdo Sibel Source: in Ankara, Bruno Taut, 1937-39. View ofthefrontfaçadeandmainentrancecanopy. Figure 1 List ofFigures result ofcontinuedinteractionsandexchangesbetweencultures. place particular each in paths different that process responsive a of product evolving the as architecture regions. and individuals between encounters through redefined inevitably and constantly was that experience trans-national and dynamic a as architecture modern of development the and modernity, exile, his saw Taut Bruno way, he hoped the shared experience of modernity could equally value and continue. that pressures global and conditions local between dialectic ever-present the represented privileged positionasawesternexpert. trans-national modernity the ubiquity of 2 : Faculty of Languages, History, and Geography building at the : Stairdetail,FacultyofLanguagesbuilding. : HouseOkura, Azabu, Tokyo, GonkuroKumeandBruno Taut, 1936. : Diagram showing the positive and negative influences on the development of development the on influences negative and positive the showing Diagram : Darm hwn te rprinl aitos n aaee n Wsen men, Western and Japanese in variations proportional the showing Diagram : n summary, the analysis of Taut’s journey reveals that the that Taut’sreveals of journey analysis summary,the In Atraig rc ad tn msny atr o te aut o Languages of Faculty the of pattern masonry stone and brick Alternating :

Mdrit ad xl: emnpaigAciet i Tre, 1925-1955], Turkey, in Architects Germanspeaking Exile: and [Modernists The Education of the Architect The Education of the Architect ğ ğ udmnas f aaee Architecture Japanese of Fundamentals an, “Against Style: Bruno Taut’s Pedagogical Program in Turkey,in Program Taut’sPedagogical Bruno Style: “Against an, Turkey,in Program Taut’sPedagogical Bruno Style: “Against an, Moderne und Exil: Deutschsprachige Architeckten in der Turkei, der in Architeckten Deutschsprachige Exil: und Moderne Kristiana Hartmann, Matthias hile maintaining a trans-national character as a as character trans-national a maintaining while which he recognized as he began to reconsider his , ed. Martha Pollak, (Cambridge: MIT Press, , ed. Martha Pollak, (Cambridge: MIT Press, this In Schirren, and Manfred (oy: h Scey for Society The (Tokyo: , d modern viewed Tautway, slightly follow would ord “international” word , (: Ansalt, (Stuttgart: , In a similar

Speidel,

Burak Erdim Burak Turkey and Japan to Germany From 109